CITIZENS' VIEWS AND EXPERIENCES OF CORRUPTION - GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER EUROPEAN UNION 2021
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GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER EUROPEAN UNION 2021 CITIZENS’ VIEWS AND EXPERIENCES OF CORRUPTION
Transparency International is a global movement with one vision: a world in which government, business, civil society and the daily lives of people are free of corruption. With more than 100 chapters worldwide and an international secretariat in Berlin, we are leading the fight against corruption to turn this vision into reality. www.transparency.org Author: Roberto Martinez B. Kukutschka Survey management and research: Roberto Martinez B. Kukuktschka, Jonathan Rougier and Adriana Fraiha Granjo Contributors: Caryn Peiffer and Julius Hinks Designer: Sophie Everett / sophieeverett.com.au Cover image: Ellice Weaver / ellice-weaver.com Every effort has been made to verify the accuracy of the information contained in this report. All information was believed to be correct as of June 2021. Nevertheless, Transparency International cannot accept responsibility for the consequences of its use for other purposes or in other contexts. ISBN: 978-3-96076-179-2 2021 Transparency International. Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under CC BY-ND 4.0 DE. Quotation permitted. Please contact Transparency International – copyright@transparency.org – regarding derivatives requests. This publication was produced with the financial support of the European Union. Its contents are the sole responsibility of Transparency International and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union.
GLOBAL
CORRUPTION
BAROMETER
EUROPEAN UNION 2021
2-7 18-23 31-34
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive summary How are people Taking action
About the survey affected by People see themselves
corruption? as part of the solution
Key findings
Bribery is restricted to Fear of retaliation and
Recommendations
a handful of countries lack of prosecution
8-17 Looking beyond bribery:
the use of personal
remain hurdles
35
What do people think connections
about corruption?
Little progress against 24 Conclusion
corruption
Sextortion
Government corruption 36-38
26
is a problem
Methodology
Governments not
Close links between Sample sizes
doing enough
business and politics Weighting
Corruption in both
the public and People in the EU Margin of error
private sectors do not feel heard by
39-66
their governments
Varying levels of trust
in institutions Companies not playing
by the rules? Country cards
Undue influence
on governments 67-71
Endnotes
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
European Union (EU) countries are known for being
wealthy, stable and democratic. However, their
clean image is undermined by issues ranging from
socioeconomic disparities and instances of rising
authoritarianism to corruption problems.
2
GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
Corruption affects every nation either stagnating or being on
in the political bloc. Scandals the rise in their country, and
reveal elected officials enriching there is a widespread belief
themselves through backdoor that governments are tackling
deals, accepting bribes to cover it poorly.
up human rights abuses in a
neighbouring country and giving Many also encounter corruption
criminals passports in exchange directly, either through paying
for investment. Meanwhile, banks, bribes or, more commonly, using
accountants and real estate personal connections to access
agents do not do enough to stop essential services, such as health
the corrupt and criminals from care and education.
laundering or parking their dirty
money in the European Union. Business executives and
bankers almost tie with national
The COVID-19 pandemic is politicians as the most corrupt
worsening matters. In countries institutions, and EU residents
like Hungary and Poland, are concerned about the cosy
politicians use the crisis as an relationships between business
excuse to undermine democracy. and government.
Others see it as a chance to
make a profit, as shown by This can all change, however. A
Germany’s lobbying and mask large majority of people know
procurement affair. that they can make a difference
in the movement against
People from the 27 countries corruption. If they are supported
surveyed in this Global Corruption by their governments and by
Barometer – European Union are EU bodies, which can now cut
well aware of these issues and funding to countries breaching
want their leaders to act with rule of law, the region could
more integrity. An overwhelming really earn its clean reputation.
majority see corruption as
photo: Elisabeth Aardema / Shutterstock.com
3
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
The survey national level, but also at the This is equivalent to more than
sub-national level, as per the 106 million people across the 27
The Global Corruption Barometer EU’s official Nomenclature of countries surveyed.
(GCB) – European Union 2021 territorial units for statistics
provides an in-depth look at (NUTS1 or NUTS2 level).1 There is also widespread concern
people’s views on corruption, about the cosy relationship
as well as their experiences of The results show that between business and politics,
bribery and favouritism across almost a third of people think with over half of people thinking
the bloc. corruption is getting worse in that their government is run by a
their country and almost half few private interests.
Based on fieldwork conducted say their government is doing a
between October and December bad job at tackling corruption. Despite this, the GCB gives cause
2020, the GCB surveyed more for optimism. Almost two thirds
than 40,000 people in 27 The GCB found that around of people in the EU think that
countries across Europe. three in 10 people pay a bribe ordinary people can help stop
For the first time since its debut or use a personal connection to corruption.
in 2003, the GCB results are access public services, such as
representative not only at the health care or education.
ABOUT THE SURVEY
CONDUCTED
FROM
OCT 2020 -
27
COUNTRIES
40,600
PEOPLE AGED
DEC 2020 SURVEYED 18+ TOOK PART
REPRESENTATIVE PHONE
KANTAR RESULTS AT THE INTERVIEWS
FIELDED NATIONAL & SUB- IN ALL
THE SURVEY NATIONAL LEVELS 27 COUNTRIES
4
GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
KEY FINDINGS
01 02 03
Corruption levels Integrity issues Three in 10 EU residents
are not improving in both public and experience corruption
private sectors
Around a third of people think While bribery and sexual extortion
corruption increased in their In almost half the countries, – or sextortion – are common in
country in the previous 12 prime ministers and members of only a few countries, 28 per cent of
months, while 44 per cent think parliament are seen as the most people use personal connections
it stayed the same. corrupt. In the other half, it is to receive a public service.2
business executives and bankers.
04 05 06
Health care is a Close ties between Widespread perceptions
corruption hotspot business and politics of impunity
Although just six per cent of Over half of people see Only 21 per cent of people think
people paid a bribe for health governments as being run that corrupt officials regularly
care, 29 per cent of EU residents by a few private interests and face appropriate penalties.
relied on personal connections to awarding contracts to cronies
get medical care. and bribe payers.
07 08
Many fear retaliation People see themselves
as part of the solution
People are divided about it being
safe to report wrongdoing, with 45 Sixty-four per cent of EU residents
per cent fearing reprisals and 47 think they can make a difference
per cent not having this concern. in the fight against corruption.
5
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Recommendations
Governments across the region and EU institutions need to make an
immediate and concerted effort to ensure the lives of ordinary people are
free of corruption. Key measures include:
+ Ensure that policymaking + Promote social
1. BUILD PEOPLE’S
is fully transparent and accountability mechanisms,
TRUST AND consultative, considering such as Integrity Pacts.
PARTICIPATION the interests of all affected
groups equally.
2. PROTECT + Ensure that the EU + Defend civil society and
THOSE REPORTING Whistleblower Directive is journalists who expose
fully transposed by December corruption, including through
CORRUPTION 2021 in all Member States. adopting a dedicated EU
The resulting protection directive to protect them
should meet the highest from strategic lawsuits
possible standards – for against public participation
example, by ensuring (SLAPPs), vexatious legal
gender-sensitive reporting action aimed at silencing
mechanisms – and have a corruption reporting.
material scope that extends
past EU legislation to cover
national law.
3. SAFEGUARD AGAINST + Improve transparency of + Improve transparency in
UNDUE INFLUENCE all lobbying activities and political campaign financing
legislative processes. by disclosing contributions
IN POLITICS from corporations and
+ Strengthen regulations foreign actors as close to real
to monitor and tackle time as possible.
potential or real conflicts
of interest among elected + Improve public institutions’
and public officials. ethics regimes at the
subnational, national and
+ Ensure adequate regulation EU levels.
on revolving doors and
cooling-off periods for all
individuals leaving public
office or the civil service to
work in the private sector,
and vice versa.
6
GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
4. BUILD INTEGRITY + Strengthen corporate + Include a requirement for
anti-corruption standards companies to address risks
STANDARDS IN THE
by reforming the EU Non- and prevent corruption in the
PRIVATE SECTOR Financial Reporting Directive upcoming EU legislation on
for large companies, and corporate human rights and
require companies to environmental due diligence
prevent, detect and act on in supply chains.
corruption risks.
5. IMPROVE CORPORATE + Further harmonise EU + Ensure that companies
TAX TRANSPARENCY corporate taxation rules. receiving public funds or
AND PREVENT TAX tax relief meet clear criteria
+ Swiftly adopt EU legislation and fulfil the necessary
AVOIDANCE on public country-by-country conditions, including
reporting for all multinational declaring their profits where
companies. economic activities take place
and not making aggressive
use of tax havens.
6. PREVENT + Invest in user-centred digital + Provide accessible, up-to-date
FAVOURITISM IN platforms that ease and and accurate registers of
SERVICE DELIVERY AND simplify citizens’ access to companies’ beneficial owners,
PUBLIC CONTRACTING government services. to ensure fair competition
and help identify conflicts of
+ Improve the availability and interest and collusion.
quality of public contracting
data in line with global
standards, and secure its
timely publication to reduce
the risk of corruption in
contract allocation.
7. ENSURE
+ Increase cooperation and and creating an independent
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR information exchange EU anti-money laundering
ABUSES OF POWER between law enforcement supervisory body. This should
agencies – particularly with have the power to investigate
the new European Public and sanction banks, as
Prosecutor’s Office – across well as oversee national
the bloc and globally. supervisory authorities.
+ Guarantee effective + Governments must uphold
monitoring and enforcement the rule of law, and the EU
against corruption and should not hesitate to take
other financial crimes, punitive measures with any
including through dissuasive countries that fail to do so,
sanctions for wrongdoing including by suspending
EU funds.
7
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
WHAT DO PEOPLE
THINK ABOUT
CORRUPTION?
We asked people what they thought about the state of corruption
in their country: how prevalent it is, whether it is rising or
declining and whether their government is doing enough to
control it. Here’s what we found.
months, while thirty-two in Slovenia (51 per cent) and
Little progress per cent think corruption Bulgaria (48 per cent) also see
against corruption increased. Only 16 per cent an increase.
Over three quarters of EU of people thought that While there is no country in
residents see stagnating or corruption decreased. which a majority of citizens
worsening corruption. think that corruption is
In Cyprus, an overwhelming
decreasing, the most positive
Forty-four per cent of citizens number of citizens (65 per
results come from Slovakia,
think that corruption levels cent) think that corruption
where 39 per cent of citizens
in their country have not increased over the past year
see corruption declining.
changed over the past 12 and around half of people
32% 16% 44%
OF PEOPLE THINK THINK CORRUPTION THINK CORRUPTION
CORRUPTION DECREASED STAYED THE SAME
INCREASED IN THE
PREVIOUS 12 MONTHS
80
70
CYP
RU
SLO S 65%
VEN
IA 51%
BU
LGA
RIA
RO 48%
MA
NIA
45%
BY COUNTRY
CRO
ATI
PO A 41%
RTU
GA
HU L 41%
NG
ARY
40%
PO
NE LA
THE ND 37%
increased in the previous 12 months.3
RLA
CORRUPTION ON THE RISE,
ND
S 36%
Percentage of people who think corruption
ITA
LY 34%
SPA
IN 34%
SW
EDE
N 31%
CZE AUSTR
CH I 29%
REP A
UB
LIC 29%
FRA
NC
E 29%
GR
EEC
E 29%
MA
LTA
BEL 28%
GIU
DEN M 27%
MA
GE RK 26%
RM
AN
Y 26%
IRE
LAN
LIT D 23%
HU
AN
IA 22%
LAT
LUX V 20%
EM IA
BO
UR
SLO G 19%
VAK
IA 19%
EST
ON
I 18%
FIN A
LAN
D 16%
photo: GStamenov / Shutterstock.com
9
GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
photo: AlexiaD / Shutterstock.com
Country in focus: Cyprus
In Cyprus, an overwhelming number of people (65 per cent) think that corruption increased over the
past year. These perceptions have been fuelled by the scandals related to Cyprus’s “golden passports”
scheme, among other causes. In 2020, investigative journalists revealed that dozens of convicted
criminals, fugitives and politically exposed individuals had bought citizenship from Cyprus.4 A covertly
filmed documentary implicated high-level politicians in corruption related to the scheme.5
Following protests, the government cancelled the programme. The European Commission took
legal action against Cyprus6 and is seeking an EU-wide ban of citizenship-for-sale schemes.
This scandal is part of wider backsliding on corruption. Almost three quarters of Cypriots feel there
is impunity for corrupt politicians and over two thirds say that the government is controlled by
business. Other key issues are political interference with public institutions and vulnerability to
money laundering.7
The government announced significant anti-corruption measures in January 2021, including to
establish an anti-corruption agency, a beneficial ownership register and whistleblower protection
legislation.8 Many Cypriots were not convinced, as evidenced by further anti-corruption protests
in February.
Cyprus should capitalise on the EU Whistleblower Protection Directive to ensure that anyone
reporting corruption can do so safely. The government should also guarantee public access to the
newly created register of companies’ beneficial owners without any further delay.
The government needs to ensure accountability for past abuses related to the citizenship-by-
investment programme and prevent similar abuses in the remaining residency scheme. It should
also revoke any passports found to have been illegally awarded.9
The European Commission should conclude its infringement procedures against Cyprus10, as
well as Malta. It must heed the European Parliament’s call to phase out “golden visa” schemes
completely. Until such time, the Commission should seek to harmonise standards at EU level to
avoid Member States racing to the bottom in terms of security and due diligence, and prevent
risky individuals from shopping for EU passports and visas between jurisdictions.
10GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
Government corruption The results vary greatly across Our analysis also shows that
is a problem the region. Less than 20 per cent gender largely influences
of people living in Denmark and perception of corruption. Across
When asked whether government Finland think that corruption in the region, women hold more
corruption is a problem in their government is a big problem, negative beliefs about it and are
country, 62 per cent of people while over 85 per cent of those on average five percentage points
said they think it’s a big problem. in Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Italy, more likely than men to believe
Portugal and Spain believe it is. that corruption is a big problem
62
in the national government.11
THINK GOVERNMENT CORRUPTION
IS A BIG PROBLEM
%
33 %
THINK GOVERNMENT CORRUPTION IS
NO PROBLEM OR A SMALL PROBLEM
GOVERNMENT CORRUPTION, BY COUNTRY
Percentage of people who think corruption in government is a big problem.12
92%
90%
88%
88%
86%
85%
85%
84%
81%
81%
80%
77%
72%
72%
69%
65%
62%
46%
45%
40%
35%
34%
33%
26%
21%
16%
12%
62%
100
0
A
RIA
PO US
L
IN
LIC
SLO LY
IA
SLO IA
RO IA
NIA
E
IA
HU D
ARY
LTA
E
BEL A
M
IA
D
THE NY
S
G
N
DEN D
RK
E
GA
EEC
NC
RAG
LUX LAND
ATI
TRI
LAN
LAN
LAN
UR
EDE
VEN
V
VAK
AN
ON
ITA
GIU
SPA
MA
A
R
UB
LAT
LGA
MA
MA
NG
RM
RTU
CYP
FRA
CRO
AUS
BO
HU
GR
EST
AVE
PO
IRE
FIN
SW
REP
R
BU
GE
EM
LIT
EU
CH
NE
CZE
11TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Governments not However, 49 per cent think that By contrast, 80 per cent of
doing enough their governments are doing a citizens in Cyprus think their
poor job. government is not doing well in
We also asked people how they the fight against corruption. Two
rate their government’s efforts at Over 60 per cent of people in thirds or more people in Bulgaria,
tackling corruption. Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg Croatia and the Czech Republic
and the Netherlands think their think the same.
People are divided on this issue, governments are doing well in
with half being unconvinced the fight against corruption. More
about leaders’ efforts. Forty-three than half of people in Austria,
per cent of people in the EU think Ireland, Malta, Slovakia and
that their governments are doing Sweden agree.
a good job at tackling corruption.
49 %
THINK THEIR GOVERNMENT IS DOING
A BAD JOB AT TACKLING CORRUPTION
43 %
THINK THEIR GOVERNMENT IS DOING WELL
photo: Ju1978 / Shutterstock.com
12GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
GOVERNMENT PERFORMANCE
AGAINST CORRUPTION, BY COUNTRY Badly Well Don’t know
Percentage of people who think their government
is doing badly vs. well in tackling corruption.13
22% 63% 15%
DENMARK
23% 70% 7%
FINLAND
28% 62% 11%
LUXEMBOURG
28% 52% 20%
SWEDEN
31% 63% 7%
NETHERLANDS
32% 61% 7%
SLOVAKIA
37% 46% 17%
ESTONIA
39% 49% 13%
GERMANY
39% 56% 5%
IRELAND
39% 56% 5%
MALTA
42% 53% 5%
AUSTRIA
45% 45% 11%
BELGIUM
48% 42% 10%
LITHUANIA
51% 39% 10%
ITALY
53% 43% 4%
GREECE
53% 34% 13%
HUNGARY
56% 38% 6%
FRANCE
60% 35% 5%
POLAND
60% 36% 4%
PORTUGAL
62% 33% 5%
SPAIN
66% 30% 4%
LATVIA
66% 27% 7%
ROMANIA
66% 31% 3%
SLOVENIA
67% 29% 4%
BULGARIA
69% 26% 5%
CZECH REPUBLIC
72% 26% 2%
CROATIA
80% 17% 3%
CYPRUS
49% 43% 8%
EU AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
13TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Corruption in both business executives (25 per cent) and 51 per cent of Romanians
the public and and bankers (23 per cent). These and Cypriots think that most or
last two groups are also seen as all MPs are corrupt. The prime
private sectors
the most corrupt in almost half minister is seen as the most
We asked people how corrupt EU countries. corrupt institution by more than a
they consider various institutions third of people in Slovenia (39 per
in their country to be. In Spain, for example, 42 per cent cent) and the Czech Republic (34
of citizens think that most or all per cent).
Members of parliament (MPs) are bankers are corrupt and 33 per
perceived as the most corrupt cent of people in Portugal agree. At the other end of the scale,
institution in Europe. Twenty- In Germany, 35 per cent of people in most EU country the police
eight per cent of people in the think that most or all business is seen as the least corrupt
region say that most or all MPs executives are corrupt. institution by most people. On
are involved in corruption. They average, 83 per cent of people in
are closely followed by prime In 13 EU countries, government the region think that corruption
ministers (23 per cent) and institutions top the corruption list. in the police is limited to some
private-sector actors, such as Sixty-seven per cent of Bulgarians officers at most.
CORRUPTION, BY INSTITUTION
Percentage of people who think that most or all people in these groups or
institutions are involved in corruption.14
MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT 28%
BUSINESS EXECUTIVES 25%
BANKERS 23%
PRESIDENT / PRIME MINISTER’S OFFICE15 23%
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS 22%
LOCAL GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVES
19%
(INCLUDING MAYORS)
NGOs 16%
JUDGES AND MAGISTRATES 14%
POLICE 11%
0 30
14GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
photo: Martin Kimla / Shutterstock.com
Czech prime minister’s conflict of interest
In 2020, the European Commission published audit findings confirming that Czech Prime Minister
Andrej Babiš had a conflict of interest by controlling a holding that was set to receive millions of
euros in EU subsidies.16 As his government position enables him to influence the allocation of EU
funds within his country, it was a breach of both national and union rules that his own company
was awarded these subsidies.17
The European Commission’s decision came after Transparency International Czech Republic
found the prime minister was the company’s beneficial owner in the records of neighbouring
Slovakia’s public register of company owners and submitted a complaint to the commission.18
15TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Varying levels of trust Trust in the police, local In contrast, public opinion
in institutions governments and the courts is high appears more polarised when it
across the region.19 More than 60 comes to national governments.
Corruption can contribute to per cent of EU residents reported Fifty per cent of people across the
the erosion of people’s trust having a fair amount or a great region have little or no trust in
in government and other deal of trust in these institutions. their national governments.
public institutions. Fifty-six per cent also reported
trusting the European Union.
photo: Tobias Arhelger / Shutterstock.com
16GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
48
HAVE A FAIR AMOUNT OR A GREAT DEAL OF
TRUST IN THEIR NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS
%
61
HAVE A FAIR AMOUNT OR A GREAT
DEAL OF TRUST IN THE COURTS
%
77
HAVE A FAIR AMOUNT OR A GREAT
DEAL OF TRUST IN THE POLICE
%
56
HAVE A FAIR AMOUNT OR A GREAT DEAL
OF TRUST IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
%
However, there are big In 18 countries, trust in EU Finland and Sweden), Austria,
differences in terms of trust institutions is higher than trust Germany, Luxembourg and the
across Member States. People in national governments. There Netherlands, people tend to
in Austria, Denmark, Finland, are particularly large differences trust their national governments
Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, in the levels of trust between more than the European
the Netherlands and Sweden national governments and the institutions. The largest gap is
have high levels of trust across all EU in countries such as Romania in the Netherlands, where the
institutions. In contrast, Bulgaria, (33 per cent), Slovenia (31 per proportion of people trusting
Cyprus, Poland and Romania cent), Poland (30 per cent), their national government is 21
consistently show the lowest Spain (29 per cent) and Croatia percentage points higher than
levels of trust in institutions. (28 per cent). However, in the those who trust the EU.20
Nordic countries (Denmark,
17TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
HOW ARE PEOPLE
AFFECTED BY
CORRUPTION?
We asked EU residents about their experiences with corruption
in accessing basic services, such as health care and education,
to better understand what happens in people’s daily lives.21 We
found that bribery is only common in a few EU countries, but that
the use of personal connections is widespread.
Bribery is restricted to Of the people who had contact While bribery is significantly
a handful of countries with at least one public service, more widespread in Eastern
only seven per cent paid a bribe Europe, countries such as
We asked people whether they to receive the service. However, Belgium (10 per cent), Austria
had contact with six key public there are important differences (9 per cent) and Greece (9 per
services in their country in the between countries: Denmark, cent) show above-average
previous 12 months: schools, Finland, and Sweden register bribery rates, particularly when
public health care, identity the lowest bribery rates in the compared to most Western
documents, welfare benefits, the region (less than one per cent). European countries.
police and the courts.22 The highest rates are in Romania
(20 per cent) and Bulgaria (19 per
We then asked whether they cent), followed by Hungary (17
paid a bribe, gave a gift or did per cent), Lithuania (17 per cent)
a favour in order to receive the and Croatia (14 per cent).
services they needed.
18 MILLION PEOPLE WHO USED
A PUBLIC SERVICE IN THE PAST
18,000,000 12 MONTHS PAID A BRIBE.23
18GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
photo: gabriel12 / Shutterstock.com
BRIBERY RATES, BY COUNTRY*
Percentage of public service users who paid a bribe to get a
service in the previous 12 months.24
20%
19%
17%
17%
14%
11%
11%
10%
10%
9%
9%
9%
5%
5%
4%
4%
4%
3%
3%
3%
2%
2%
2%
2%
1%
1%
1%
7%
25
0
D
E
A
VIA
Y
Y
L
A
G
S
DEN N
FIN K
D
REP IA
SLO C
BEL IA
M
NIA
HU IA
LIT RY
IA
E
D
S
LTA
GE IA
N
E
AN
L
GA
EEC
NC
RAG
ND
TRI
RU
LUX TONI
R
LI
LAN
LAN
LAN
UR
I
EDE
R
AN
T
VAK
VEN
GIU
ITA
SPA
A
MA
OA
UB
LAT
LGA
MA
MA
NG
RM
RTU
CYP
FRA
AUS
RLA
BO
HU
GR
AVE
PO
IRE
SW
R
SLO
ES
RO
C
BU
EM
PO
THE
EU
CH
NE
CZE
*The estimated error for bribery rates of 5 per cent or less range from 0.65
to 1.35 per cent in countries with samples of 900-1000 respondents.
19TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
BRIBERY RATES, BY SERVICE
Percentage of people who used public services
and paid a bribe in the previous 12 months.25
PUBLIC CLINICS
6%
AND HOSPITALS
OFFICIAL
3%
DOCUMENTS
POLICE 3%
PUBLIC SCHOOLS 3%
WELFARE BENEFITS 2%
0 10
Country in focus: Estonia
With low rates of bribery (2 per cent) and use of personal connections (12 per cent), people
in Estonia experience corruption less than in any other EU country. This is largely due to the
digitalisation of 99 per cent of public services,26 meaning that people apply for official documents,
declare taxes and register with schools online.
In very few areas does someone need to interact with a public official directly, which reduces
opportunity for corruption. When such contact is necessary, communications are traced with a
digital paper trail, which largely prevents officials misusing their power, as wrongdoing is more
easily detected.
As well as protecting funds and ensuring equal access to services, this is building trust in
institutions. For example, 91 per cent of Estonians trust the police.
Estonian institutions are also independent from political interference. Most officials act with
integrity and there’s a high level of media freedom. These factors support efficient anti-corruption
strategies, rule of law and effective detection and prosecution of corruption.
However, almost half (46 per cent) of Estonians feel that the government is run by a few private
interests, and better legislation is needed to ensure clean business that does not unduly
influence politics.
To further reduce corruption, Estonia needs political leadership to drive integrity – especially
inside political parties – as well as stronger lobbying regulation, better whistleblower protection
and continued innovation in its public sector and services.
20GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
photo: Zigres / Shutterstock.com
Looking beyond bribery: the resulting preferential is equivalent to more than 106
the use of personal treatment can prevent entire million people across Europe.
groups from accessing
connections
public services and skew the The highest use of personal
Bribery is not the only form of distribution of government connections was documented in
corruption that some citizens services in favour of groups the Czech Republic (57 per cent),
experience directly. Rules and or individuals that are better France (48 per cent), Portugal (48
regulations can also be bypassed connected in society and often per cent), Hungary (43 per cent),
by calling in a favour or relying on more privileged in other ways. Austria (40 per cent) and Belgium
a friend or family member to help (40 per cent). The lowest use
arrange services or benefits. Of those who had contact with at was reported in Estonia (12 per
least one of the six public services cent), Slovenia (18 per cent) and
This practice might help people listed above, 33 per cent reported Sweden (19 per cent).
with contacts to access or receive having used connections to get
a better public service. However, the service they needed. This
MORE THAN 3 IN 10 PEOPLE WHO USED A PUBLIC
SERVICE IN THE PREVIOUS 12 MONTHS USED PERSONAL
CONNECTIONS TO ACCESS IT.
THIS IS EQUIVALENT TO MORE THAN 106 MILLION PEOPLE
106,000,000 ACROSS THE REGION.27
21TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Our analysis shows that more likely to rely on their men are significantly more likely
someone’s gender is likely to personal connections to get a to rely on connections in dealing
affect which public services they service from a state school, a with the police and bodies issuing
use personal connections to public health facility or from an official documents.28
access. Women are significantly office issuing benefits. In contrast,
PERSONAL CONNECTION RATES, BY SERVICE
Percentage of people who used public services and used personal
connections in the previous 12 months.29
PUBLIC CLINICS
29%
AND HOSPITALS
WELFARE BENEFITS 23%
PUBLIC SCHOOLS 22%
OFFICIAL
21%
DOCUMENTS
POLICE 20%
0 35
photo: Ladanifer / Shutterstock.com
22GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
PERSONAL CONNECTION
RATES, BY COUNTRY
Percentage of public service users who used personal
connections to get a service in the previous 12 months.30
0%-19% 20%-39% 40%-59% 60%-79% 80%+
Finland (25%)
Czech Republic (57%) Sweden (19%)
Germany (21%)
Denmark (23%) Estonia (12%)
Luxembourg (39%) Latvia (33%)
Lithuania (27%)
Ireland (28%)
Netherlands (23%)
Poland (37%)
Belgium (40%)
Slovakia (26%)
Austria (40%)
Hungary (43%)
Slovenia (18%)
Romania (36%)
France (48%)
Croatia (36%)
Bulgaria (32%)
Portugal (48%)
Greece (32%)
Spain (40%)
Italy (30%) Malta (33%) Cyprus (34%)
23TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
SEXTORTION
The GCB EU also compiled data essential services, including or knowing someone who has.
on sextortion, one of the most health care and education. The highest numbers of people
significant forms of gendered reporting having experienced
corruption. In this type of While 74 per cent of EU residents sextortion or knowing someone
corruption, sex becomes the think that sextortion occurs at who has were in Bulgaria (17 per
currency of the bribe and people least occasionally, only seven cent), Romania (13 per cent) and
are coerced into engaging in per cent of people report either Croatia (13 per cent).
sexual acts in exchange for having experienced it directly
SEXTORTION RATES, BY COUNTRY
Percentage of people who experienced sextortion
or know someone who has.31
17%
13%
13%
11%
10%
10%
9%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
6%
6%
6%
5%
4%
4%
4%
4%
3%
3%
2%
7%
40
0
RIA
A
NIA
E
LIC
D
A
S
BEL E
GE M
LIT NY
EM IA
SLO G
IA
SLO N
IA
LY
LTA
L
DEN IA
RK
THE ND
SW S
N
HU IA
FIN Y
D
E
AR
GA
EEC
NC
RAG
RU
ND
ATI
TRI
LAN
LAN
UR
I
EDE
AN
VAK
VEN
V
ON
GIU
ITA
SPA
MA
A
UB
LAT
A
LGA
MA
MA
NG
RM
RTU
CYP
FRA
CRO
AUS
RLA
L
BO
HU
GR
EST
AVE
PO
IRE
REP
RO
BU
PO
EU
CH
LUX
NE
CZE
24GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
Topic in focus: COVID-19 and corruption
The COVID-19 pandemic is putting EU governments through extraordinary challenges. Their
institutions are straining to act quickly against the virus and to mobilise large sums of money
to deal with its consequences. Without strong transparency, accountability and oversight
mechanisms, emergency situations such as this can provide fertile ground for corruption. This, in
turn, can undermine responses to the crisis and cost lives.
Despite such risks, only around four in 10 people across the EU think that their governments
have handled the pandemic in a transparent manner. In France, Poland and Spain, 60 per cent
of respondents or more think that their government’s management of the pandemic lacks in
transparency.
Citizens’ experience of corruption was also highest when dealing with public clinics or hospitals,
services which may never have been more important than now. On average, 6 per cent of people
across the region paid a bribe to obtain or access health services and 29 per cent relied on
personal connections. Bribery rates in the health sector were highest in Romania (22 per cent) and
Bulgaria (19 per cent), and more than four in 10 health care users relied on personal connections
in the Czech Republic (54 per cent), Portugal (46 per cent) and Hungary (41 per cent).
These findings are particularly worrying in the current context. Not only are COVID-19 sufferers
in need of medical support, but governments across the EU are rolling out vaccinations to protect
those most vulnerable to the virus and are creating plans to allocate billions of euros for post-
pandemic recovery. Corruption threatens all these activities with the most severe consequences.
Integrity Pacts
An Integrity Pact is a mechanism for government agencies to collaborate with civil society in
a public contracting project. All parties sign an agreement where they commit to refraining
from corruption and to enhancing transparency and accountability throughout the process.
Independent experts and local communities then closely monitor the agreements to ensure that
everybody delivers on their promises.
Currently piloted by Transparency International and the European Commission in 11 EU
countries,32 Integrity Pacts have shown that collaboration with civil society improves transparency,
accountability and, ultimately, trust in public contracting. Governments should promote civic
monitoring to help protect the EU’s new budget from fraud, mismanagement and corruption.33
25TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
CLOSE LINKS BETWEEN BUSINESS AND POLITICS
Since the 2008 global financial When there is lack of clarity on politicians and the deterioration
crisis, citizens have increasingly the ties that policymakers have of democratic institutions.
scrutinised the cosy relationship to the business community,
between business and there is a risk that policies and The GCB results show that around
government. Widening inequality regulations are made in favour half of people in the EU have
within most EU Member States of narrow business interests, concerns about undue influence
and the concentration of rather than the common good. by business on politics.
wealth at the top34 have further The resulting loss of trust in
increased concerns about governments has in some cases
whether ordinary people’s led to the rise of populist
interests are being prioritised.35
48% 52% 53%
THINK GOVERNMENTS DO THINK THAT BRIBES THINK THEIR
NOT TAKE THEIR VIEWS OR CONNECTIONS GOVERNMENT IS RUN
INTO ACCOUNT WHEN ARE COMMONLY USED BY PRIVATE INTERESTS.
MAKING DECISIONS. BY BUSINESSES TO
SECURE CONTRACTS.
26 photo: ThomasAFink / Shutterstock.comGLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
People in the EU do ordinary citizens into account. In contrast, around two thirds of
not feel heard by Around half the people in the people in Croatia (71 per cent),
region (48 per cent) do not think Poland (68 per cent), Bulgaria
their governments
that this is the case. Finland is (66 per cent) and France (65 per
To assess how transparent and the only country in the EU where cent) feel their governments
inclusive government decision- most people (62 per cent) feel ignore their views. Across the
making processes are in the EU, that their views are considered EU, women in particular are less
we asked people to tell us if they by the government when likely to believe that the views
feel that government decisions making decisions. of ordinary people are heard by
take the needs and views of the government.36
INCLUSIVE DECISION-MAKING, BY COUNTRY
Percentage of citizens who think governments take their views
into account when making decisions.37
62%
49%
48%
46%
44%
44%
40%
39%
38%
33%
31%
30%
28%
27%
27%
25%
23%
22%
21%
20%
19%
17%
17%
17%
16%
14%
13%
30%
100
0
D
D
A
S
G
DEN N
RK
E
ARY
S
Y
A
BEL L
M
RO IA
NIA
IA
IA
REP E
LIC
BU LY
RIA
SLO D
IA
IN
A
AVE A
E
AN
GA
EEC
C
RAG
LUX LAND
RU
NE MALT
TRI
ATI
VI
LAN
LAN
LAN
UR
EDE
VAK
AN
ON
VEN
GIU
ITA
SPA
CZE FRAN
MA
UB
LAT
LGA
MA
NG
RM
RTU
CYP
CRO
AUS
BO
HU
GR
EST
FIN
IRE
PO
SW
SLO
R
HU
GE
EM
LIT
PO
THE
EU
CH
27TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
photo: Remy Chanteloup / Shutterstock.com
Companies not of the biggest economies in The GCB shows that more than
playing by the rules? the region, such as France (50 five in 10 people believe that big
per cent) and Germany (57 per companies often avoid paying
Most people in the EU (52 cent), reaching its highest rates their taxes.
per cent) also doubt that in Bulgaria (76 per cent), Cyprus
government contracts are (75 per cent) and Greece (74 The countries where people
allocated in a competitive per cent).38 The Nordic states, most commonly think that
manner. Instead, they think that Estonia and Ireland are the corporate tax avoidance and
the procurement of goods and only Member States where a evasion are routine are Greece
services in their countries often majority thinks that government (78 per cent), Cyprus (76 per
gets decided through the use of contracts are mostly allocated in cent), Portugal (74 per cent),
bribes or personal connections. a competitive manner. Italy (69 per cent), Spain (68
per cent) and Germany (66 per
This view is shared by at least Across the EU, big companies cent).39 In contrast, this view is
half of people in 16 of the 27 are also seen as failing to meet least widely held in the Baltic
EU countries, including some their fiscal responsibilities. and Nordic countries.
28GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
Undue influence taxes, it is not surprising that In Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech
on governments they also think governments Republic and Slovenia, two thirds
are controlled by a few of people or more think that
Given that around half EU business groups looking out for businesses are controlling their
residents think politicians do themselves. More than half of governments. In contrast, fewer
not take their views into account people in 19 EU Member States than 3 in every 10 people in
when making decisions, and hold this view. Finland (28 per cent), Denmark
that companies cosy up to (25 per cent) and Sweden (20 per
governments to win profitable cent) share this view.
contracts and avoid paying
GOVERNMENT CONTROLLED BY PRIVATE
INTERESTS, BY COUNTRY
Percentage of citizens who agree that the government is run
by a few big interests looking out for themselves.40
70%
68%
68%
67%
66%
64%
63%
63%
62%
61%
61%
57%
56%
55%
55%
54%
54%
54%
51%
49%
46%
43%
42%
40%
28%
25%
20%
53%
100
0
SLO E
IA
RIA
S
LIC
A
IN
VIA
GE AL
LIT NY
IA
D
IA
RO IA
BEL IA
M
E
ARY
LY
LTA
EM IA
THE RG
S
D
DEN D
SW K
AVE N
E
EEC
NC
RAG
RU
ND
ATI
R
LAN
LAN
LAN
EDE
VEN
AN
VAK
TR
N
ON
GIU
ITA
SPA
G
MA
A
U
UB
LAT
LGA
MA
MA
NG
RM
RTU
CYP
FRA
CRO
AUS
RLA
BO
HU
GR
EST
PO
IRE
FIN
SLO
REP
HU
BU
PO
EU
CH
LUX
NE
CZE
29TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Country in focus: Germany
Sixty-two per cent of Germans think that the government is run by a few private interests. Over
half think that companies commonly rely on money or connections to win government contracts.
This may be due to opaque processes and several scandals.
These range from MPs taking big commissions41 for securing government purchases of COVID-19
masks, to a €1.9 billion accounting scandal,42 which authorities could have prevented with better
regulation and oversight. In 2017, Germans discovered that a corporate tax fraud scheme had
taken €31.8 billion from their treasury.43 The fraudsters used legal loopholes that seem to have
been created by lobbying.44
It is legal for German MPs to act as paid lobbyists – although this will soon stop – and there’s no
central register of MPs’ additional incomes. The country’s incoming first lobbying law only calls
for transparency by lobbyists, not the politicians they deal with, and will not require legislative
footprints.45, 46
Resistance to change can also be seen in the lack of whistleblower protection legislation,
professional enablers of corruption – like accountants and lawyers – not having to report
suspicious activity by their clients, and Germany reportedly being the key blocker of EU efforts to
improve corporate transparency standards.47
Most politicians in Germany act with integrity and manage their conflicts of interest well. However,
if the country is to address its corruption issues, it must strengthen transparency, regulations and
law enforcement, while driving cultural change.
Beneficial ownership registers
For decades, anonymous shell companies have enabled tax avoidance, cross-border corruption and
money laundering. In recent years, scandals and public calls to end corporate secrecy have made
beneficial ownership transparency a key reform area with the potential to counter this trend.
In the EU, an anti-money laundering directive has committed countries to establish beneficial
ownership registers and to make them publicly available. But with Member States taking steps to
establish registers, issues around accuracy and up-to-dateness of data as well as the organisation
and functioning of the registers continue to pose a challenge.
A recent assessment by Transparency International shows that more than a year after the
transposition deadline of the EU directive, nine countries still do not have public beneficial
ownership registers. Among those that do, at least four have created significant barriers to the
general public accessing the information.48
30GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
TAKING ACTION
People see themselves in the fight against corruption.49 for governments to rely on
as part of the solution This is especially true in Italy, corruption when trying to get
Portugal and Ireland, where things done.50 This includes most
Citizen engagement is crucial more 80 per cent of people or residents in 25 out of the 27
to keep corruption in check. more believe so. In contrast, less EU Member States. Particularly
Engaged and informed people than half of people in Austria low levels of tolerance towards
can demand more from their (48 per cent), Germany (47 per corruption are found in
governments and hold them cent) and Poland (23 per cent) Germany, Denmark and Sweden.
to account, particularly in think that they can help stop Romania is the only EU member
democratic settings. corruption. state where a slim majority (53
per cent) would accept some
Almost two thirds of people in Almost three quarters (73 per government corruption.
the EU (64 per cent) think that cent) of people in the region
citizens can make a difference think that it is unacceptable
64%
THINK ORDINARY PEOPLE CAN
MAKE A DIFFERENCE IN THE FIGHT
AGAINST CORRUPTION
73%
DON’T THINK GOVERNMENT
CORRUPTION CAN BE JUSTIFIED
31TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Topic in focus: Democratic backsliding in Hungary and Poland
Governments in Poland and Hungary continue to pursue policies that are fundamentally at
odds with democratic principles and the rule of law. These result in growing inequalities and
marginalise some of their most vulnerable communities.
In Hungary, changes to the electoral law and deteriorating economic and political institutions put
the country in a precarious position. In Poland’s case, recent reforms weakened the independence
of the judiciary and are a potential violation of the principles of EU membership.51 Over the past
five years, the ruling coalition has established tight control over the Constitutional Tribunal, the
Supreme Court and the public broadcaster.52
Throughout 2020, the governments in both countries used the COVID-19 pandemic as a pretext
to adopt measures that further weakened democratic institutions. The Hungarian government
introduced controversial legislation that targeted the political opposition, the media and the
courts.53 The Polish government enacted regulations that hampered access to public information,
made public contracting less transparent and made it harder to prosecute abuses of power.54
Both countries have also witnessed the abuse of public resources. The Law and Justice
party’s government in Poland relied on public funds to create clientelistic networks with local
governments, which have contributed to social inequalities.55 In Hungary, COVID-19 relief funds
were used to enrich cronies in several sectors.56 These developments are concerning and could
be seen as a cautionary indicator of what might happen to the funds promised to these countries
under the umbrella of the EU’s post-COVID recovery programme.
The capture of public institutions by governing elites and the attacks on the media and on civil
and political rights could also weaken civic engagement and social accountability. In the current
context, almost half of people in Poland and Hungary fear reprisals for reporting corruption.
Furthermore, people in both countries are also among the least likely across the EU to think that
they can make a difference in the fight against corruption.
photo: SARATSTOCK / Shutterstock.com
32GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
45
FEAR RETALIATION
IF THEY REPORT CORRUPTION.
%
47
THINK THEY CAN REPORT
CORRUPTION WITHOUT FEAR.
%
Fear of retaliation and does have some weaknesses, fear of facing consequences for
lack of prosecution such as not protecting people reporting corruption is highest
reporting breaches of national in Cyprus (76 per cent), Croatia
remain hurdles
law, just EU law in some areas. (72 per cent), Slovenia (66 per
Having appropriate channels EU Member States have until cent) and Bulgaria (65 per cent).
for people to report corruption December 2021 to transpose In contrast, over two thirds of
is an important way of helping the directive into their national people feel that it is safe to
uncover wrongdoing. However, legislation and should use report corruption in Austria,
many whistleblowers face this opportunity to ensure Denmark, Finland and Germany.
retaliation in forms such as comprehensive protection in
dismissal, prosecution and even line with best practice. As of In the EU, a person’s gender
physical harm. February 2021, however, most regularly affects whether they
EU Member States had made believe corruption can be
In 2019, the European Union only minimal or no progress.57 reported without fear. It also
adopted the Whistleblower affects whether they think citizens
Protection Directive, which The GCB results show can make a difference against
contains many ground-breaking how crucial high quality corruption. Our analysis shows
provisions. The directive whistleblower protection that women are less likely than
prohibits retaliation against legislation is. Only 47 per cent men to hold these two opinions
whistleblowers, safeguards their of people in the EU feel they can about being able to safely call out
identities and offers several safely report corruption and and stop corruption.58
reporting avenues. However, it 45 per cent fear reprisals. The
33TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
FEAR OF RETALIATION FOR REPORTING CORRUPTION
Percentage of people who fear reprisals for reporting corruption.59
76%
72%
66%
65%
58%
58%
58%
56%
55%
54%
50%
50%
49%
49%
48%
48%
45%
44%
34%
34%
33%
26%
24%
24%
21%
18%
12%
45%
100
0
S
A
E
IA
RIA
LY
L
LTA
LIC
E
IA
IN
VIA
NIA
ARY
D
M
EM IA
THE RG
S
D
N
A
GE IA
DEN Y
FIN K
D
E
AN
GA
EEC
NC
RAG
RU
ND
ATI
TRI
R
LAN
LAN
LAN
EDE
VEN
VAK
AN
ON
ITA
GIU
SPA
MA
U
UB
LAT
LGA
MA
MA
NG
RM
RTU
CYP
FRA
CRO
AUS
RLA
BO
HU
GR
EST
AVE
PO
IRE
SW
SLO
BEL
SLO
REP
RO
HU
BU
LIT
PO
EU
CH
LUX
NE
CZE
However, providing appropriate Across the region, only around a against corruption is taken
channels and protection for fifth of people (21 per cent) think regularly. At the other end of the
people to report corruption that governments systematically spectrum are Bulgaria, Latvia
and wrongdoing is not take appropriate action when and Slovenia, where less than 10
enough. Governments must corruption is exposed.60 per cent of people think public
also act to ensure that there officials face consequences.
are consequences for public Finland, Sweden and Greece
officials and politicians who are the three countries where
engage in corruption. officials are believed to face
consequences more often, with
Most people in the EU think that around three in every 10 people
corruption is rarely punished. thinking that appropriate action
34GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
CONCLUSION
Despite widely held beliefs to the contrary, corruption is a problem
in the EU. Bribery rates may be low, but many people rely on
personal connections to obtain services, while governments seem
to make little progress against various forms of corruption.
With more than 106 million and throughout the region
people across the EU people think that governments
experiencing petty corruption are controlled by these actors.
– through bribes or personal
connections – governments Leaders who are serious about
must do more to address the breaking the grip of big business
issue. This involves following must safeguard against undue
the lead of countries that are influence in politics, while
digitalising their public services. increasing transparency in the
private sector and preventing
Corruption levels seem to be corporate tax avoidance.
largely stagnating or increasing,
while trust in government is low. Most people across the region
Furthermore, almost half of EU think that they can make a
residents say their government difference in the fight against
is doing a bad job at tackling corruption. However, they
corruption. Concerted efforts by can be empowered further if
both national governments and barriers to their participation
the EU are needed to address are removed. The notion
this, including through better that corruption goes mostly
law enforcement and preventing unpunished, and the fear of
favouritism in public life. suffering retaliation for reporting
acts of corruption, need to be
People in most countries are addressed. Capitalising on the
wary of the relationship between EU whistleblowing directive is
the private sector and their a key step toward providing
governments. Particularly in the appropriate reporting channels
older Member States, banks and and protection to people who
business executives are viewed want to challenge corruption.
as the most corrupt institutions,
35TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
METHODOLOGY
The survey targeted the general population aged 18 and
older in all European regions. All the interviews were
conducted via computer assistant telephone interviews
(CATI) using random digit dialling (RDD) sample generation.
The samples were drawn from an Sample sizes
overlapping dual frame design of
fixed lines and mobile numbers, In all but four countries, the
with a fully probabilistic approach regional level of the survey
in the largest regions and a was set at NUTS1 level,
combination of probabilistic with a minimum of 300
and targeted in smaller, less respondents by level. Bulgaria,
populated regions. Lithuania, Romania and
Slovakia were surveyed at
The targeted sample used the NUTS2 level. Extra targets
in smaller regions was based were also set to achieve at least
on geo-tagged mobile RDD, 300 completed interviews in
which allows for a minimum each of the two NUTS2 regions of
percentage of responses from Croatia and Ireland.
mobile phones within these
regions. This design provided For feasibility purposes, some
net samples that best represent of the smaller regions of France
the population parameters by (Corsica and the overseas
gender, age, working status and territories of Guadeloupe,
educational attainment. Martinique, Guyana, La Réunion
and Mayotte), Spain (Ceuta and
For the mobile sample, Melilla) and Finland (Åland) were
the person answering the not covered in the study. The
phone – if the primary user design relied on Eurostat’s 2016
and eligible – was selected as NUTS classification.
the survey respondent. For
the landline sample, one
individual was sampled at
random from the pool of eligible
adults per household. This
selection was made following the
last birthday rule.
36GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETER – EUROPEAN UNION 2021
Weighting In the second step, the design Margin of error
weighted sample is calibrated
Weights are calculated to to known population targets on The efficiency of the result
mitigate for some of the gender, age, employment and is subject to the sample size
observable issues with the educational attainment. The and the observed percentage.
representation of the net population targets are collected According to these, we can
sample of respondents due at the regional level, to align with estimate the confidence interval
to our design choices and the design used in each country, of our results. The following
differential response rates. In and the calibration weights table summarises information
the first step, a design weight calculated at this level. related to the fieldwork
is calculated for the landline execution, sample size, coverage
sample. The weight is equivalent Unless otherwise stated, for and accuracy of the samples.
to the number of adults (aged reported multi-country averages,
18+) in the household. This an additional weighting factor is
is to compensate for the fact applied so that the sample sizes
that only one person in each for each country are equal. The
household is selected to take overall results for the European
part, so individuals in larger Union are equivalent to an
households have a lower average of the 27 countries
probability of selection. For surveyed.
the mobile sample, the design
weight is 1, as the person
answering the phone is selected
and we have assumed people
tend to own and use only one
mobile phone.
37TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
Country Local partner Fieldwork dates Sample Margin
size of error
Austria Kantar TNS Info Research Austria 13/10/2020 - 30/11/2020 900 3.27%
Belgium Kantar Belgium 13/10/2020 - 19/11/2020 900 3.27%
Bulgaria Kantar TNS BBSS 13/10/2020 - 06/12/2020 3,000 1.79%
Croatia Hendal 13/10/2020 - 05/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Cyprus CYMAR Market Research Ltd 13/10/2020 - 18/11/2020 500 4.39%
Czech Republic Kantar CZ 13/10/2020 - 05/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Denmark Kantar Gallup 17/10/2020 - 30/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Estonia Kantar Emor 13/10/2020 - 10/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Finland Kantar TNS Oy 13/10/2020 - 10/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
France Leaderfield 13/10/2020 - 01/12/2020 3,600 1.63%
Germany Kantar Deutschland 13/10/2020 - 23/11/2020 4,800 1.41%
Greece Kantar Greece S.A. 13/10/2020 - 25/11/2020 1,200 2.83%
Hungary Kantar Hoffmann 13/10/2020 - 05/11/2020 900 3.27%
Ireland Kantar UK Limited 14/10/2020 - 30/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Italy Kantar Italia Srl 13/10/2020 - 20/11/2020 1,500 2.53%
Latvia Kantar TNS Latvia 16/10/2020 - 08/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Lithuania Kantar Lithuania 26/10/2020 - 19/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Luxembourg TNS Ilres 12/10/2020 - 05/11/2020 500 4.38%
Malta MISCO International Limited 13/10/2020 - 18/11/2020 500 4.38%
Netherlands Kantar TNS NIPO 13/10/2020 - 30/10/2020 1,200 2.83%
Poland Kantar Polska 13/10/2020 - 15/11/2020 2,100 2.14%
Portugal Marktest 13/10/2020 - 24/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Romania Centrul Pentru Studierea Opiniei si Pietei 13/10/2020 - 04/12/2020 4,000 1.55%
Slovakia Kantar Slovakia 13/10/2020 - 23/11/2020 2,000 2.19%
Slovenia Mediana DOO 13/10/2020 - 19/11/2020 1,000 3.10%
Spain TNS Investigación de Mercados y Opinión 13/10/2020 - 27/11/2020 2,100 2.14%
Sweden Kantar Sifo 13/10/2020 - 24/11/2020 900 3.27%
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