ATR: The Optimum Choice for a Friendly Environment - Modern Transport and Environment
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Foreword The purpose of this brochure is to illustrate ways in which the regional air transport can contribute to Today’s regional airliner is minimize its a high technology, fuel environmental efficient and quiet impact. aircraft, purpose-built for the regional market and environmentally friendly either in terms of noise or gazeous emission levels, even when compared to other forms of transport. Modern regional turboprops and namely ATR aircraft meet both external noise and gazeous emission level regulatory requirements with ample margins. ATR’s short field capability, their optimum integration in air traffic flow, and their cumulative noise level margins to the latest regulations or airport restrictions, make them welcome visitors at the Modern air transport & environment smaller city airports and regional hubs with minimal Summary environmental impact. The regional aircraft: good neighbours ATR turboprop aircraft, recognized as the most fuel ATR for a quieter environment efficient aircraft in their category, maintain distinctive advantages with respect to other modes ATR for a cleaner environment of transport such as road and rail , also in terms of Time to change public, corporate and political pollutant emissions. perceptions To reconcile the increasing need for mobility Appendices and the demands of environmental protection, the - Appendix 1: Environmental ABCs key idea is to join the different modes of transport - Appendix 2: References & abbreviations into an integrated system, the intermodality. Each mode of transport has its specific strengths; the objective is to combine them to minimize fuel consumption and environmental impact, creating also decisive advantage for users. But, in order to develop a fair, integrated and competitive Europe-wide transport system, no single transport mode should have an advantage over another. Legislation which has an adverse impact on airline profitability could lead to postponements of further investment in more environmentally acceptable aircraft. Regional aircraft and turboprop in particular can justify their view that they are already respecters of the environment and good neighbours for Airlines and airport communities. CO/EM 467/00 - June 2001 Modern Air Transport & Environment 1
Summary The aviation industry has grown rapidly and has Infrastructure improvements become an integral and vital part of modern society. The accelerated introduction of communications, The air transport industry plays a major role in world navigation, surveillance and air traffic management economic activity. (CNS/ATM) systems and additional infrastructure - Over 1,600 million passengers per year rely on the could enable airlines to fly the shortest distances world’s airlines for business and vacation travel. and reduce fuel consumption. - Around 40% of the world’s manufactured exports, Improvements in air traffic management could by value, are transported by air. reduce fuel burn per trip by 6%-12% for today’s - More than 3.9 million people are directly employed global fleet (IPCC Report - 1999). by the industry throughout the world. Source: ATAG, ERA Future projections suggest that demand for air travel will continue to rise, in line with the growth in the Environmental emissions world economy. By 2010 the number of people travelling by air could exceed 2.3 billion each year. This has created concern that aviation’s rapid 3% expansion will outstrip improvements in industry environmental performance. 6% Aviation is by necessity an efficient industry. Efficiency is an essential first step on the road to sustainability and this is the key to minimising 25% aviation’s environmental impact. Compared to other means of transport, aviation 54% has an enviable environmental record, but this is still too much a well-kept secret! Energy consumption 12% Aviation consumes about 12% of the oil supplies Air used by the entire transport industry. Industry Aircraft being produced today are about 70% more Energy fuel efficient per pax/km than those of 40 years ago. Other transport Road Emissions Today, aviation is responsible for less than 3% of A recent Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute world annual additions to greenhouse gases and less study to measure emission levels, comparing than 3% of the production of nitrous oxide-type gas. different transport modes with industry and energy, revealed that only 3% was attributable to air transport. Climate change Aircraft emissions contribute an estimated 3.5% to the overall climate effects resulting from all man- Sources of pollutant emissions made activities. 70% Land use Land use is at a premium (specially in Europe) and 60% aviation is unique in transport modes in that, unlike 50% rail and car use, it only requires land use at the 40% point of departure and destination and not from point to point. 30% 20% 10% 0 Airlines Road Other Energy Industry transport Oxides of nitrogen Hydrocarbons Source: SAS Carbon monoxide Modern Air Transport & Environment 2
Summary Fuel efficiency Airline fuel consumption reductions Airlines have doubled their fuel efficiency over the indexed to 1976 last 30 years. Further improvements in efficiency are 100 expected to reduce emissions growth to 3% a year compared to a forecast growth of 5% in traffic. 80 Noise Fleet renewal based on the use of improved technology has significantly reduced total noise 60 exposure around airports despite the cumulative market growth. Aircraft entering the fleet today are typically 20 dB quieter than comparable aircraft of 30 years ago, 40 which in practice corresponds to a reduction in noise 76 78 annoyance of about 75% (Source: ATAG - Air Transport 80 82 84 Action Group). 86 88 90 Air transport contributes only 1% to the nuisances 92 94 superior to 65 dBA at which 80 million people of European Union are exposed (road transport In the past 30 years aircraft fuel efficiency per contributes 90%). passenger-km has improved by about 50% through enhancements in airframe design, engine technology and rising load factors. Source: ICAO, Boeing Noise Exposure to more than 65 dBA 2 Boeing 737-200 Airbus A319 1 Rail transport Air transport 1.7% 1% 2 Other sources (industries, working 1 parties) 7.3% 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 85 dB(A) noise footprint at take-off (in km) Road transport 90% Source: Airbus/Lufthansa Rail and Air Transport Noise Exposure People exposed to more than 65 dBA European Union 80 million people of European Union’s population are exposed to continuous day-time outdoor noise levels caused by transport above what are generally considered to be acceptable, more than 65 dB(A). Air transport An additional 170 million citizens are exposed to noise levels between 55-65 dB(A) which is the level at which 37% Rail transport people become seriously annoyed during the day time. 63% Road transport is the dominant source accounting for nine tenths of the proportion of the European Union’s population exposed to levels of noise over 65 dB(A). As for rail, 1.7% of the population and air transport a further 1% of the population are exposed to these high levels. Sources : European Commission "Green Paper” - 1995 Modern Air Transport & Environment 3
The regional aircraft: good neighbours Regional aircraft have low impact “upon Comparative noise footprints - 90 EPNdB neighbours” and meet all the statutory noise The benefits of the new technology (Chapter III) and emission level requirements enabling them to be accepted at the smaller city Area sq miles Modern regional turboprop airports and regional hubs with minimal (sq km) environmental impact. 1.2 (3.5) Both turboprop and turbofan aircraft use exactly Modern regional jet the same jet technology maximizing efficiency and reliability. 2.1 (5.4) 30-year old turboprop Turboprop/Jet: The same concept 5.2 (13.5) 30-year old jet 11.3 (29.3) 40,000 20,000 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 Gas turbine Distance from Distance from threshold (ft) start of roll (ft) Fleet renewal, based on the use of newer, quieter aircraft and noise abatement operating measures has significantly reduced the number of people affected by aircraft noise. Movement comes from The Movement mainly comes The turboprop turboprop is is more more fuel fuel efficient efficient the large quantity of air from the air forced for for aa given given thrust. thrust. forced backwards at low backwards at high speed speed by the propellers European Regional Airlines Fleet age breakdown The average age of the ERA (European Number of 100 Regional Airlines) members’ fleet is just aircraft 90 eight years and the airlines and the 80 manufacturers are continuously investing 70 in the latest technology in order to 60 minimise the impact of their equipment and their operations on the environment. 50 50% of 40 ERA fleet 30 is less than 7 20 years old 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 20 25 >25 Source: ERA Yearbook 2001 Aircraft age Aircraft age Source : OAG, October 1995 Total Total ERA ERA fleet fleet :: 1200+ 1200+ aircraft aircraft -- Percentage Percentage turboprop turboprop :: 55% 55% Number Number of of ATR ATR 4242 & & ATR ATR 72 72 in in service service inin ERA ERA fleet fleet :: 170 170 40/70 40/70 seater seater turboprop turboprop in in the the ERA ERA fleet fleet :: 480 480 -- ATR ATR percentage percentage in in this this segment segment :: 35% 35% Average Average age age ofof total total fleet fleet :: 88 years years Modern Air Transport & Environment 4
The regional aircraft: good neighbours Low fuel consumption Low exhaust Silence, please! 2000 ft emissions Approach noise levels EPNdB The only method of significantly reducing emissions of H2O and CO2 is by reducing fuel burn, mainly Compared with older, larger jets which may have 102 driven by the use of adapted aircraft size and 86-90 coloured people’s optimised load factors on a given route and by perception of aircraft 1000 ft 78-87 reductions in air traffic management delays. noise, regional aircraft are very 104 Emissions of NOx (Nitrogen oxides) by regional quiet. To some 92-96 extent noise is 87-92 aircraft are at low altitudes, well below the levels at which ozone depletion is a major concern. “seen” by the public. Congestion remains air transport’s biggest long term challenge. It causes delays and unreliability for passengers, reduced efficiency for airline Take-off noise levels and airport operators, EPNdB and a massive waste For example, one take-off by of energy and a B727 is equivalent to over 100 take-offs by a typical 2000 ft materials. regional aircraft in terms of decibels. Congestion means that aircraft are required to operate at lower and inefficient cruising levels. The In many cases, regional aircraft noise will be extra fuel required can mean an aircraft burns N/a contained within the 86 between 20% and 30% additional fuel on each trip. airfield boundary. 1000 ft 78 In the initial climb Advanced turboprop operate more efficiently than phase and on approach jet aircraft on short-haul routes. many regional 98 93 They emit about 20% less CO2 per passenger-Km aircraft generate 85 than newer jets and up to three times less CO2 than noise barely older ones. perceptible against 102 Source: ATAG (Air Transport Action Group). ambient 83 noise 81 levels. Noise measurement of electric passenger train Aircraft cause noise disturbance in the vicinity of airports and mainly during day time, thereby limiting noise disturbance. High speed trains, however, operating 24 hours per day, create noise disturbance over the entire length of their 7.5m journey and not just at the rail station. 95-100 EPNdB Large airliner Typical regional jet Typical modern turboprop Source: “E.C. Green Paper on future noise policy”. Measured at ICE train, 250 km/h, 7.5m from the railway, peak level. Modern Air Transport & Environment 5
ATR for a quieter environment General ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) has defined three main categories of permitted noise levels for commercial aircraft, Chapters I, II, and III. All Chapter I aircraft, the noisiest types, have already been withdrawn from service and Chapter II will be phased out in April 2002. In 1996 over 91% of aircraft in Europe were of Chapter 3 standard. The limits for Chapter III aircraft, which are the quietest available, are extremely stringent. Even so, the industry is working with the regulators to issue more restrictive limits. The Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP5) of the ICAO meeting in Montreal ATR: Quiet neighbours in mid-January 2001, issued a series of The latest propulsion technology combined with good recommendations aimed at reducing aircraft noise. aerodynamic design make ATR aircraft quiet neighbours, Specific CAEP5 recommendations include: meeting stage IV noise requirements with wide margins, hence reducing at minimum its environmental impact. A new noise standard (Chapter IV) which is The -500 series in particular are setting new standards in 10 decibels lower, on a cumulative basis, than the the industry for quietness. This allows day and night current Chapter III standards in Annex 16 to the operations on platforms with specific, stringent local noise ICAO, for new aircraft design, effective 1st January regulations such as city airports. 2006; Procedures for re-certification of existing a/c meeting the new standard; More stringent noise standards for helicopters; Publication of guidance material on land-use planning; A proposal for new take-off noise abatement procedures. ICAO ICAO Chapter Chapter IV IV Rules Rules ATR ATR family family compliance compliance ICAO ICAO “CAEP “CAEP 5” 5” held held in in Montreal Montreal from from the the 8th 8th to to 17th 17th of of January January 2001 2001 -- Chapter Chapter IV IV Applicable Applicable by by 1st 1st of of January January 2006 2006 for for certification certification of of new new types types (new (new oror derivative derivative aircraft); aircraft); Chapter Chapter IVIV = = Chapter Chapter IIIIII -- 10 10 cumulative cumulative EPNdB; EPNdB; whatever whatever two two or or three three measurement measurement points points must must have have not not less less than than 22 EPNdB EPNdB cumulative cumulative margin; margin; implementation implementation of of the the re-certification re-certification concept; concept; Not Not yet yet intended intended toto bebe used used forfor any any general general new new operational operational restrictions restrictions such such as as phase phase out; out; Possible Possible request request ofof local local authorities authorities toto quickly quickly achieve achieve the the Chapter Chapter IVIV ticket ticket for for current current Ch. Ch. III III aircraft. aircraft. All All ATR ATR models models comply comply with with Chapter Chapter IV IV requirements requirements with with large large margins. margins. Modern Air Transport & Environment 6
ATR for a quieter environment dBA 100 Noise from turboprop aircraft during take-off comes Different Noise Sources essentially from the propeller. dBA levels During approach other noise sources such as jet 95 thrust, noise coming from compressors and turbine and aerodynamics of the aircraft contribute to the nuisances. 90 ATR family has been designed to obtain the maximum exterior noise reduction and minimum 85 environmental impact, by: A high thrust to weight ratio in order to have the steepest take-off path, reducing noise footprint 80 High technology propeller system installed on - 500 series reducing dramatically noise emissions Decreasing the propeller rotational speed and 75 optimizing the blade profile Lorry Intercity ATR 42-500 ATR 72-500 High speed Well aerodynamically designed high-lift system. 50 km/h train take-off take-off train 7.5 m 200 km/h 100 m from 100 m from 300 km/h from road 7.5 m runway runway 100 m from from railway railway ATR for a quieter environment Sources : Economic Commission "Green Paper" - ATR - Aviation Noise relative to ICAO Chapter III (EPNdB) International News 0 The external noise standards applicable to the ATR42 -2 and ATR72 are laid down in : -4 FAR part 36 Chapter III for the Federal Aviation Administration -6 Chapter III of Annex 16 to the Convention of Chicago on International Civil Aviation for the ICAO -8 ATR -500 series: large -10 margins versus current and future noise -12 regulations or more stringent airport restrictions -14 Sideline Take-off Approach Max T.O. weight ATR 42-500 PW 127E ATR 72-500 PW 127F Source: ATR Take-off ine reference el e Sid renc e 0m ) ref 45 NM 4 2 (0. ) NM 51 Design (3. m 00 landing weight 65 3˚ Approach m reference 00 20 NM ) The ICAO and FAA regulations define (1. 0 8 flight procedures and noise measurement point locations. Modern Air Transport & Environment 7
ATR for a quieter environment ATR -500 Series Noise Levels - Certified Figures Point Point of of ICAO ICAO and and FAR FAR 36 36 ATR ATR 42-500 42-500 ATR ATR 72-500 72-500 measurement measurement Certified Certified levels levels Certified Certified levels levels EPNdB EPNdB EPNdB EPNdB EPNdB EPNdB Chapter Chapter III III limits limits MTOW MTOW 18,600 18,600 kg kg MTOW MTOW 22,000 22,000 kg kg Take-off Take-off 89 89 76.6 76.6 79 79 Sideline Sideline 94 94 80.7 80.7 83.2 83.2 Approach Approach 98 98 92.4 92.4 92.2 92.2 EPNd B NdB Global Global 281 281 249.7 -31.3 249.7 254.4 -26.6 EP 254.4 Chapter Chapter IV IV limits limits (future) (future) 271 271 -21.3 -21.3 -16.6 -16.6 Source: ATR New New generation generation ATR family, more and more ATR ATR ATR ATR ATR ATR ATR 42-300 42-320 42-400 42-500 72-200 72-210 72-500 environment friendly EPNdB Cumulative noise margin 0 (EPNdB) With 26.6 EPNdB (ATR 72-500) and 31.3 EPNdB (ATR 42-500) -5 cumulative margin to Chapter III, and comfortable margins to -10 future Chapter IV noise regulation, the ATR-500 series -15 has the greatest latitude for even more stringent regulations on -20 EIS airport restrictions. EIS 1989 1985 -25 Qu Qu iet ie er All All ATR ATR models models will will comply comply with with -30 te even even the the most most stringent stringent stage stage r EIS 1997 IV EIS 1995 IV noise noise recommendations. recommendations. -35 EIS: Entry into Service Source: ATR Total perceived noise on flyover, sideline and approach (EPNdB) 300 Regional Air Transport F28 Mk4000 The benefits of technology for 290 external noise 280 HS 748 F 27 Mk500 F 27 H RJ85 270 CRJ 700 F100 (prelim.) F50 DHC 8-300 ERJ 145 260 ATP Do 328 DHC 8Q-400 DHC 7 250 Saab 340 CRJ 200 ATR ATR 72-500 72-500 ATR ATR -500 -500 series: series: the the quietest quietest neighbours Saab 2000 ATR ATR 42-500 42-500 neighbours inin the the sky! sky! 240 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year of introduction Source : ERA (European Regional Airline Association) Modern Air Transport & Environment 8
ATR for a quieter environment Low external noise levels make the ATR 42/72 welcome visitors to several urban airports worldwide: travellers increasingly recognize the numerous advantages of flying through smaller, uncongested airports close to big city centers. All over the world, and especially in Europe, Noise Footprint: 90 EPNdB Contours airport and Airworthiness Authorities are ATR 72/Fokker 100 taking action against excessive aircraft noise and emissions. If not compliant with environmental regulations, airlines have to pay additional airport taxes (noise/emissions surcharges) or are submitted to operational restrictions. 6000 4000 2000 0 -2000 -4000 Thanks to the high technology 568F propeller system and efficient aerodynamics, the ATR- Distance from start of take-off roll (m) 500 series is one of the quietest in the industry. Source: ATR Take-off Take-off Approach Approach Total Total Fokker Fokker 100 100 4.33 4.33 km² km² 1.07 1.07 km² km² 5.40 5.40 km² km² ATR ATR 72 72 2.05 2.05 km² km² 1.45 1.45 km² km² 3.50 3.50 km² km² Modern Air Transport & Environment 9
ATR for a cleaner environment Average emissions per year by aircraft age Gaseous emissions: the Legal Frame Grams/pax A new focus of attention regarding aircraft emissions was introduced in 1992, with the 180 emergence of environmental problems of a global 160 nature to which aircraft emissions may be 140 contributing, such as climate change, depletion of 120 ozone layer, and long-range air pollution. 100 In June 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, a Convention 80 was signed by 170 countries at the U.N. Conference 60 on Environment and Climate Change, with the 40 objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at a safe level within an acceptable 20 time frame. 0 The Kyoto Protocol to this Convention was adopted in 1997 with the objective of reducing collective Hydrocarbons CO NOx emissions of greenhouse gases by approximately Old Medium New 5% by the period 2008-2012, with respect to 1990 Source: Rolls Royce levels. Compliance with Kyoto Target Kyoto’s key elements at a glance CO2 index (index = 100 in year 1990) Industrialised countries to cut net emissions of a 300 Traffic growth ‘basket’ of six greenhouses gases by an average of at least 5% below 1990 level by 2008-2012; 250 EU and most accession countries to cut emissions Fleet renewal by 8%; US by 7%; Japan and Canada by 6%; Russia to stabilise emissions; 200 Basket of gases covers carbon dioxide, methane, A/C size nitrous oxide and three fluorinated industrial gases - HFCs, PFCs and sulfur hexafluoride. ATM 150 By 2005, industrialised countries are required to Trading/charge show demonstrable progress towards achieving their Kyoto target emission targets; 100 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 Trading of emissions rights, and investments in foreign projects generating emission credits, are A combination of actions will be required to compensate air allowed between industrialised countries as a traffic growth and meet the Kyoto target for CO2 emissions. supplement to domestic action to limi emissions; Source: SNECMA Clean Development Fund to be set up to promote sustainable development in developping countries and help industrialised nations reduce compliance > > June June 1992 1992 Convention Convention on on environment environment and and climate climate costs through investment in emission-reduction change change signed signed by by 170 170 countries countries projects in the developping world: these investments in in Rio Rio de de Janeiro Janeiro generate certified emission reductions for the investing country; >> 1997 1997 Protocol Protocol ofof Kyoto Kyoto Greenhouse gas emission from, or absorbtion by, > Objective > Objective certain direct human-induced forestry and land-use -- at at least least 5% 5% reduction reduction of of six six Green Green House House Gas Gas (GHG) (GHG) activities since 1990 are to be counted when emission emission by by industrialised industrialised countries countries during during the the period period assessing whether countries comply with their 2008-2012 2008-2012 with with respect respect to to 1990 1990 levels, levels, with with the the target target emission targets. varying varying from from country country toto country. country. The aviation industry has made great strides Airlines Airlines taking taking action action over the years to improve the fuel efficiency of Responsible Responsible airlines airlines are are facing facing up up toto the the challenges, challenges, aircraft engines. Improvements in engines have implementing implementing environmentally-friendly environmentally-friendly measures, measures, resulted in much lower levels of emissions of ranging ranging from from taxiing taxiing onon one one engine, engine, collecting collecting rainwater rainwater to to wash wash aircraft aircraft and and recycling recycling inflight inflight food food trays, trays, to to Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Unburned Hydrocarbons renewing renewing fleets fleets with with more more energy-efficient energy-efficient aircraft aircraft and and (UHC). However, the higher combustion optimizing optimizing approach approach andand departure departure routings. routings. temperatures achieved tend to push up the levels Lufthansa, Lufthansa, for for example, example, has has adopted adopted longlong term term targets targets of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), as shown in the reflected reflected by by Kyoto Kyoto to to cut cut specific specific fuel fuel consumption consumption by by following figure. 30% 30% byby 2008, 2008, andand byby 35% 35% by by 2012. 2012. Modern Air Transport & Environment 10
ATR for a cleaner environment Main gaseous emissions Emissions and Energy Usage Typical emissions of a modern aeroengine Water Carbon Dioxide Aircraft affect the atmosphere by introducing gases (CO2) 71% and particles into it and by forming contrails. 28% The emissions include greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor, as well as chemically active gases that alter natural greenhouse gases, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO). Particles (Unburned Hydrocarbons, UHC), may interact with the earth’s radiation balance or influence the formation of clouds. Water emissions by aircraft engines lead directly to the formation of contrails that are characteristics of Carbon dioxide - Carbon Monoxide high-flying aircraft in cruise. Water - Nitrogen Oxide - Sulphur Dioxide There is a concern that contrails may have a - Unburnt Hydrocarbons disproportionate effect on global warming. Source: ATAG - Soot Each Each year year civil civil aviation aviation is is responsible responsible for for approximately approximately 2.4%2.4% ofof the the world’s world’s total total CO CO22 production. production. As is now well known, CO2, a natural by-product of combustion, contributes to climate change via the so-called greenhouse effect. To be true, other emissions are also involved, among them Nox, water vapour and smoke, the latter via contrails. 1 kg of kerosene contains... 3.15 kg carbon dioxide Reaction In low quantities, carbon with oxygen monoxide is a natural component of air; at higher concentrations it contributes to the green house effect and thus to global warming. 1.24 kg 1 kg water Source: CFM kerosene vapour Key environment impact issues associated with aircraft engine emissions Emission Category Impact Smoke Visibility nuisance around airports Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) Contribution to urban smog burdens Carbon monoxide (CO) Contribution to urban CO burdens Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Subsonic aircraft engines Possible contribution to global warming - Future supersonic aircraft engines Stratospheric ozone depletion Carbon dioxide (CO2) Contribution to global warming Modern Air Transport & Environment 11
ATR for a cleaner environment Gaseous emissions: Standards and Regulations The ICAO emissions regulations are based on a standard Landing and Take-off Cycle (LTO). In general there are very few regulations relating to turboprop emissions. Aircraft engines are regulated on the amount of LTO Cycle Emissions - ATR 72 with PW124B emissions they can produce. The main standards are included in : Gaseous Landing, take-off cycle ICAO, Annex 16, Vol. 2, the recommendations Emissions of which apply only to turbojets and turbofans; CO 2,748 g FAA (FAR 34), using much of what ICAO has NOx 1,472 g proposed, but only smoke standards have been UHC 1,132 g set for turboprop. The species that are regulated are NOx (Nitrogen Landing Take-Off cycle (LTO) oxides), CO (Carbon monoxide), UHC (Unburnt Hydrocarbons) and smoke. CO UHC NOx SMOKE CO2 H 2O ICAO Jets only Jets only Jets only Jets only None None FAA None Jets only None Jets/Tprops None None ICAO recommendation contained in Annex 16 is currently in force for jet engines only and concerns Operating mode Power setting Time in mode emissions of CO, UHC, NOx and smoke. 1. Taxi/idle 7% take-off thrust 26 min. The FAA legislation (FAR 34) is significantly less 2. Take-off 100% std day take-off thrust 0.7 min. demanding although it deals with both turbofan and 3. Climb 85% take-off thrust 2.2 min. turboprop aircraft. 4. Approach 30% take-off thrust 4.0 min. With respect to turboprop engines, it is expected that no stricter legislative measures will be taken Landing, take-off cycle for the following reasons: Regional turboprops vs large jets The small contribution of turboprop aircraft to the total emissions from aviation Gaseous Emissions 9,300 16,000 (g/LTO cycle) The already considerable progress made in the reductions of pollutants closely related to energy 5000 consumption, on these gas turbine engines ATR ATR42-500 42-500 The favourable operational aspects of these 4000 engine/aircraft combinations: ATR ATR72-500 72-500 1. Relatively low operating altitudes 2. Relatively short manoeuvring times at airports. 3000 BB737-300 737-300 Modern equipment in use with regional airlines 2000 (50% of the ERA fleet being less than 7 years old). Current regional air transport (up to 80 seats) 1000 contributes only 10% of the total fuel burn of European aviation). 0 Emissions take place at low altitudes leading to a UHC NOx CO very small contribution to pollution and nil to the depletion of the ozone layer. LTO cycle = ICAO reference Sources : P & W Canada - ICAO Modern Air Transport & Environment 12
ATR for a cleaner environment ATR: the green turboprop of tomorrow The ATR fuel efficiency: adapted It appears evident that low levels of engine powerplant emissions are essentially driven by low fuel consumption. The proven level of low fuel consumption is a On a 200 Nm sector, the ATR72-500 fuel primary concern for airlines eager to lower cash consumption per passenger is up to 11% lower than operating cost. a typical European car; the associated ATR gaseous ATR aircraft are recognized as the most fuel emissions per pax in terms of CO (Carbon Monoxide) efficient aircraft in their category, thanks also to are 15 times less than a car and comparable to the high-tech engines and propeller efficiency. train. ATR powered by PW100 family engines As far as the nitrous oxides are concerned, the ATR Main technical characteristics is 3 times less pollutant than a car and 40% less ' Two centrifugal compressors than a train. Moreover emissions of NOx (Nitrogen ' Free turbine, three concentric shafts oxides) by new generation turboprops are at low ' Electronic and hydromechanical regulators altitude, well below the levels at which ozone ' Power range from 2,000 to 2,750 shp depletion is a major concern. Gaseous Emission Spectrum 200 NM (370 km) typical sector 65% load factor Car Turboprop advantages Best trade-off between fuel burn and speed, 70 Seater perfectly adapted to commuter requirements, Jet Simple, economic, easy to maintain, Low specific fuel consumption, Compliance with today ’s and future noise level Train* regulations, Low gaseous emissions. Tprop Emissions (ATR 72) g/pax km Fuel Consumption per passenger 0 1 2 3 200 NM (370 km) stage length Hydrocarbons Carbon Nitrous Aircraft with 65% LF monoxide oxides 27 l (7.14US gal) * Electricity from heavy fuel power station 18 l 16 l (4.76US gal) (4.23US gal) Just for reference, an ATR 42 uses only as much fuel on a typical 200 Nm trip as a B747 uses in 10 minutes of taxiing! ATR 72 European car Jet aircraft 72 pax 2 pax 120 pax ATR 42-300 ATR 42-320 ATR 42-500 ATR 72-200 ATR 72-210 ATR 72-500 Take-off power 1,800 shp 1,900 shp 2,160 shp 2,160 shp 2,475 shp 2,475 shp Take-off power 2,000 sp 2,100 shp 2,400 shp 2,400 shp 2,750 shp 2,750 shp (one engine out) Propeller (Hamilton Std) 14SF-5 14SF-5 568F 14SF-11 247F 568F Modern Air Transport & Environment 13
ATR for a cleaner environment Reducing pollutant emissions by reducing ATR: optimum integration in air traffic flow airport congestion Congestion is a serious and increasing constraint on The ATR aircraft take advantage of their high 250 Kt the growth of air transport, and inadequate aviation CAS maximum operating speed, which is the max infrastructure costs the world economy billion of speed allowed by air traffic control below 10,000 feet dollars in inefficiency. for all aircraft: this facilitates the flow of aircraft approaching congested airports. It has been estimated that by 2005 appoximately 33,000 aircraft will be in commercial use, and The most part of ATR aircraft are operated around the approximately 10 percent of this total will be “hub & spoke” concept, used by Airlines to increase employed in long-range operations. operating efficiency and to improve passenger This leaves about 30,000 aircraft that would be in services. This concept helps reducing environmental service at various route lengths. impact significantly. Traffic continues to grow and it would appear that this will go on at a faster rate than the planned increase in Air Traffic Management. Unnecessary congestion is caused by the inefficient use of existing airport facilities, and is a serious obstruction to free competition. The cost to Europe’s economy caused by shortfall in capacity/congestion amounts to 5.4 Bn $ ( 5 Md Hub and spoke Direct Euro). In Europe, delays caused by Air Traffic Control Hub and spoke concept: Consolidating traffic flows, increased continue to mar on-time punctuality results, with operating efficiency, same number of markets served with fewer only 57% of flights departing on time. flights. In 1999 only, the British Airways fleet burned 27,000 tons of kerosene during the holdings above London-Heathrow airport. It has been estimated that 350,000 hours of flights by transport aircraft are wasted in Europe annually, due to airport and air traffic management (ATM) delays and non-optimal routings. The recent IPCC-report on the global impact of aviation estimates that ATM improvement can reduce fuel burn by 6% to 12% within the next 20 years. A strategy to address such matters includes: Reducing airport congestion and hence time spent taxiing and awaiting take-off clearance Optimised flight profile Achieving more direct routings than the current air traffic control environment permits Reducing ATC delays adopting flight levels to avoid the upper atmosphere where nitrogen oxide emissions deplete the earth’s ozone umbrella against damaging ultraviolet radiation. Modern Air Transport & Environment 14
ATR for a cleaner environment The emergence of regional jets Turboprops: Turboprops: unmatched unmatched airfield airfield These aircraft have a significant impact on Air performance performance 3,829 3,829 airports airports in in the the OAG OAG data data Traffic Management philosophy as they usually fly Turboprops Turboprops can can access access toto 744 744 airports airports with with aa runway runway relatively short distances at high altitudes. length length between between 1,000 1,000 and and 1,500 1,500 mm The end result will be a significant growth in aircraft -- 98 98 in in the the US US -- 93 93 in in Latin Latin America America -- 76 76 in in Canada Canada movements which will speed up the need to create -- 70 70 in in Europe Europe -- 110 110 inin Africa Africa and and in in Middle Middle East East additional airspace capacity. -- 116 116 inin Asia Asia -- 181 181 inin Australasia Australasia Regional Regional jetsjets typically typically need need runways runways of of 1,600m. 1,600m. Operationally regional jets are the source of big concerns for ATC system: Take-off distances regional With longer take-off and landing rolls than vs larger aircraft turboprops, RJs often are unable to use the shorter runways set aside for commuter operations at Regional aircraft many airport hubs. With RJs working, all pilots are departure routes Regional jet Turboprop thus less likely to accept Land and Hold Short (LAHSO) clearances, since the small jets cannot, in most cases, hold short. Since RJ operators are so closely linked to their mainline partners, it no longer makes sense for RJs B747 at 500’ B B747 take-off point to use “commuter terminals” positioned some distance from the mainline terminals. So RJs now compete with the big guys for gate space, and their 30- or 50-strong passenger loads have joined the milling throng inside, raising temperatures. Source: B&CA (May 2000) ATR: short field capability 12,000ft 14,000ft ATR is easily manoeuvrable and features short Turboprop superior performance capability gives them a unique take-off and landing capability to meet operational advantage in the market place, offering benefits to airports, operators and most of all the travelling public. requirements for unrestricted passenger loading. On a given standard mission, a 50 seater jet requires about 40% more take-off field length than the ATR on a typical mission with a full passenger payload. Short Field Capability 50-Seater jet vs ATR take-off field length ATR Regional Jet % +40 Thanks to their excellent landing and take-off performance, ATR aircraft are able to use the shorter runways set aside for commuter operations at many airport hubs. They contribute in this way to reduce air traffic congestion, decrease Airline fuel consumption and to reduce environmental impact. Turboprops aircraft join and leave runways at a variety of entry and exit points. They are allowed to take-off while large aircraft are still manoeuvring at the end of the runway, and to utilise separate, short runways. Modern Air Transport & Environment 15
ATR for a cleaner environment ATR: The optimum choice for a friendly environment Regional aircraft are good neighbours for the Some airports have a largely unused crosswind environment. runway, which many regional aircraft can use, thus They avoid environmental offence largely by taking them out of the main traffic flow (45 and 38 avoiding excess. They do not fly the largest, the Kts at take-off and landing respectively are the highest, the fastest, or the greatest numbers. cross-wind limits for ATR42). Flying empty seats around the sky is not an Since regional aircraft are only a limited environmentally friendly act. Here again the proportion of the total world fleet (about 30%), an regionals have some natural advantage. It is easier even smaller proportion in terms of tonnage on the for a regional to match capacity provided to actual wing, the regionals contribute a small fraction of passenger number by juggling with frequency and aircraft attributable emissions. numbers of generally smaller aircraft. Since regional aircraft operate at relatively low In summary, turboprop aircraft and ATR in altitude, they leave the ozone layer unaffected and particular can justify their view that they are contribute little to pollution of the upper already respecters of the environment and atmosphere. good neighbours for Airlines and airport communities. Turboprops are highly efficient and tend to operate at lower speeds. In recognition of their low pollutant emission levels, turboprop aircraft remain unregulated and are not covered by ICAO Annex ATR ATR stands stands out out as as aa modern, modern, comfortable comfortable 16. They also have low OPR (Overall Pressure and and cost cost saving saving regional regional turboprop turboprop with with Ratio), 10-20:1 as against 20-40:1 for the large the the particular particular ecological ecological advantage advantage of of turbofans, and hence produce much more lower safegarding safegarding the the environment. environment. NOx levels. Modern Air Transport & Environment 16
Time to change public, corporate and political perceptions At the intersection of multiples modes of ATR : the clean power of tomorrow transport The key word for environmentally compatible Today’s regional airline fleets are characterised by transport is “Intermodality”, the division of labor modern, technologically advanced turboprops which between aircraft, car, train and boat. are environment friendly. Increasingly, small jets are becoming part of the regional scene. Each mode of transport has its specific strengths; the objective is to combine the different modes in No longer are the regional fleets dominated by ways to minimize fuel consumption and unsuitable, noisy, old aircraft handed down by major environmental impact, creating also decisive carriers, but by new-generation aircraft, purpose- advantage for the users. built specifically for the regional market. However, this does nothing to change the basic The use of regional turboprop aircraft has minimal capacity problems here. Shifting domestic flights to environmental impact since they are the quietest rail can only create a brief respite for the airport’s available, with very low gaseous emissions level, urgently necessary expansion. even when compared with other forms of transport such as cars, buses or trains. Rail transport plays a major part in Europe’s transport infrastructure. An efficient rail transport Low drag airframe, efficient aerodynamics, low system is essential for Europe but il should operate aircraft weight per passenger (or freight) carried and within the same constraints as air transport. the resulting level of fuel saving have prompted The development of new high speed lines means many operators to select turboprop and specially ATR that it is competing more and more with regional air above all others. transport. More and more politicians and regulators perceive rail This notwithstanding, obvious bias towards rail transport as environmentally superior to all other transport as indicated in recent E.C. documents modes of transport, including air ! (E.C. Communication on Air Transport and Whilst electric trains have theoretically slightly lower Environment) are highly opinable: emission levels than regional aircraft, due to lower “ … for many short to medium distance flights, primary energy consumption, they require the rail in particular high speed rail, can offer a realistic provision of electricity in the first place, which, alternative.” depending upon its method of production, can itself “ … This will contribute to replacing shorter flights add serious pollutant to the environment. by truly competitive rail transport.” Both statements are part of the European Primary energy Commission recommendations to limit the growth of consumption civil air transport in order to reduce its (g/passenger km) environmental impact. 50 In order to develop a fair, integrated and competitive Europe-wide transport system, no single 40 transport mode should have an advantage over another. 30 35 As a matter of fact today in Europe rail transport 28 and particularly high speed train, are expanding 20 very rapidly, better supported by E.C. with respect 21.5 to other means of transport, specially for short regional connections, being emotionally and 10 erroneously considered not environment friendly. That is not the case. Constraints or preferential 0 treatment applied to one mode should also be TGV ATR 72-500 Std Typical car applied to the other. South-East France Cruise FL200 2 passengers 270 km/h 510 km/h 130 km/h Heavy fuel Jet-fuel Car petrol 65% LF 65% LF Sources : E.C. - EDF - SNCF - ATR Modern Air Transport & Environment 17
Time to change public, corporate and political perceptions Environmental impact Required New Ground Surface Airport and railway infrastructures Occupied ground NOx SO2 surface (ha) Kg/year Kg/year 2500 ? ? ? ? ? ? Infrastructures to be built 2000 1500 ? 1000 Thermic Nuclear 500 Infrastructures Station Station mostly existing 0 TGV Regional New high In fact, when comparing air transport to the rail South-East airports speed transport, two different technologies have to be France Paris-Lyon trains compared: train-thermic station-heavy fuel 410 km versus modern turboprop engine-thermo- Sources : SNCF - ATR dynamic-jet fuel, with a gap of at least 20 years in their technological development; the results in terms of pollutant emissions are largely positive for Ground based transportation is essential for local the air transport. access, but long-distance infrastructure impacts These facts explain why ICAO do not apply any rule communities, farmlands and wilderness areas. The to turboprops as far as engine emissions are growth of air transportation has greatly reduced the concerned. need for new highway and rail corridors. The graph on this page shows a comparison of land In addition, the expansion of high speed rail consumption for different modes of transportation, networks demands the construction of dedicated based on square meters of land per passenger- tracks, often parallel to existing rails, long kilometer traveled. implementation, significant financial and ground surface resources (6 hectares/km) : in clear a huge Regional airports already exist, no environmental impact of the railways supplementary surface is required. infrastructures. A new regional fleet is very shortly ready to fly… m2/pkm* Land-Use Comparison of Transport Modes 0.008 0.007 While the total land consumed by airports is 0.006 likely to increase in the future, the amount of land 0.005 covered by roads is growing even faster. 0.004 0.003 0.002 * Square meters of land per passenger-kilometer 0.001 traveled Source : Infras (1997) 0.000 Passenger Coach Intercity Short-haul Long-haul car train flight flight Modern Air Transport & Environment 18
Appendices APPENDIX 1 3. Carbon monoxide (CO) Chemical compound consisting of one carbon and Environmental ABC’s one oxygen atom. It forms in the combustion process, mainly as the result of incomplete Main definitions and key terms combustion. For aircraft engines, the level of CO emissions depends very much on the thrust level : 1. Atmosphere emissions are high per kilogram of fuel consumed at The whole mass of air surrounding the earth. It is the idle setting, while taxiing and during approach. divided into various layers, distinguished from one They are low during take-off and cruising. other by distinct differences in temperature. For air transport , the two lower layers are of importance: the troposphere, where weather - E.I. CO related events take place, and the stratosphere, (gms / kgm) lying above that. 120 In the stratosphere, we find the so-called ozone Fig. 2 layer at altitudes of about 25 to 30 kilometers. Today’s commercial aircraft have cruising altitudes 100 of between 10 and 12 Kilometers. As a result, according to the latest research, air traffic 80 emissions do not have an impact on ozone layer. 60 50km 40 Representative small engines 20 30km 0 Stratosphere 0 20 40 60 80 100 NOx emissions from supersonic aircraft Idle Approach Climb Take-off Ozone Layer Percent engine power 15km Fig. 1 15km Tropopause Subsonic jet flight envelope 4. db(A) Troposphere Ground level ozone up to 1km Boundary Unit which uses the A-weighting curve. This unit has layer become an international standard for noise measurement especially for road noise. A sound level meter on the A-weighting curve functions as a filter discriminating against the lower frequencies in a manner similar to human hearing. This weighting 2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) curve is widely used for measuring surface noise. Gas resulting in nature from the burning or decomposition of organic masses and from the 5. Decibel (dB) breathing process of humans and animals. Basic unit of noise measurement. In the atmosphere, CO2 is an important greenhouse To take into account the variation of the sensitivity gas. of the ear to different frequencies, each of the Per 1 ton of fuel, 3.15 tons of CO2 result from the frequencies which make up a specific sound is combustion process. weighted according to international standardised Currently, 2.4 percent of man made CO2 emissions weighting curves. are due to air traffic. Climatologists fear that further There are four different weighting curves, named A, increases in CO2 emissions could lead to a warming B, C, D. of the atmosphere. CO2 remains in the atmosphere Transportation noise is usually measured according for about 100 years. to A-curve. 6. Effective Perceived Noise decibel (EPNdB) Conceived to measure annoyance by jet aircraft noise. It introduces the duration of the event and a correction for frequency irregularities. The EPNdB is the unit of EPNL (effective perceived noise level) used by FAA and ICAO as the standard measurement for aircraft certification. Modern Air Transport & Environment 19
Appendices 7. Emission Index (E.I.) 9. Landing & Take-Off cycle (LTO) The amount of pollutant emitted during each phase The LTO cycle is a theoretical reflection of aircraft of the LTO (landing, take-off) cycle is calculated by movements at an airport. It only applies in the means of Emission Indices : the number of pollutant vicinity of airports, is based on engine performance grams per Kg of fuel burned. and does not take account of airframe factors. The Emission Indices are measured on an engine in a The LTO cycle was devised to regulate airport air test bed. quality not cruise emissions, it therefore takes no account of emissions beyond an altitude of 3,000 ft. 8. Emissions Concern about the global effects of emissions The combustion of kerosene in an aircraft engine (including cruise) may in time lead to a complete results above all in carbon dioxide and water vapor. flight cycle definition. All other emissions together (carbon monoxide, The extraordinarily long taxiing time shown in the sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, unburned table, is recommended as a consequence of hydrocarbons) amount to 1-2 percent, depending on congestion at some airports forcing aircraft to wait in the type of engine and flight phase. a queue for take-off. Since the idle is the least Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor emissions efficient operating mode of an engine, the LTO cycle depend on fuel consumption alone; sulphur dioxide emphasizes the production of UHC and CO. emissions depend on fuel’s sulphur content. All other components of the exhaust gases can be reduced by optimizing the combustion process in the engine. Factors affecting aircraft emissions CO and UHC are the result of incomplete combustion Ap pr oa of fossil fuel, which especially takes place at low ch power setting during airport operations (taxi and 3,000 ft Cli mb idle). Taxi ou t On most modern gas turbine engines, CO and UHC 3,000 ft production is very small at an approach power of Take-o Tax i in 30% or above. ff - CO and UHC increase at low power - NOx increases at high power ICAO landing/take-off cycle - Emissions of UHC are at their highest and of NOx at their lowest when an aircraft is at idle. During take- off the reverse is true. ICAO LTO Cycle NOx rate of formation is function of the prevailing Operating Thrust Duration conditions in the combustion chamber, in particular, conditions level (min) the temperature of the air coming from the (rated thrust) compressor. Taxi out 7% 19 Take-off 100% 0.7 E.I. Climb 85% 2.2 (UHC, CO, NOx) Fig. 3 Approach 30% 4.0 Taxi-in 7% 7.0 10. Market based options for emission under study by ICAO Smoke Emission-related levies UHC NOx - A fuel tax, with revenue used by government to CO offset other taxes. - A revenue neutral charge based on aircraft Idle Approach Climb Take-off efficiency, with higher charges on less fuel-efficient 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent engine power aircraft offset by lower charges on more fuel efficient ones. Percent engine power - An en route emissions charge, with revenues recycled to the aviation sector (for environment- enhancing purposes, such as support for early retirement of aircraft). - An en-route emissions tax, with revenues being used to offset other taxes. Modern Air Transport & Environment 20
Appendices Emissions trading 12. Ozone (O3) - An open system, in which emissions from all Molecul consisting of three oxygen atoms. aviation sectors (domestic and international) are Close to the ground it is a component of “summer treated indentically to other emissions, and trading smog” and irritates the mucous membranes. Fig.In 5 the may take place between the aviation sectors and stratosphere, ozone absorbs ultraviolet light (ozone other sectors. layer). - A closed system, in which international aviation At current levels, nitrogen oxides emissions from emissions may only be traded within the aviation air traffic at cruising altitudes causes an increase in sector, with a fixed cap. This would leave domestic atmospheric ozone. emissions subject to national emissions trading rules. International emissions would be ring fenced and treated separately. - An en-route emissions tax, with revenues being used to offset other taxes. Voluntary agreements - Agreement between industry (airlines and aircraft manufacturers) and authorities (individual governments, groups or governements or international organisations). They would aim for a specific target for reducing emissions, measured in grams of CO2 per unit of traffic). - Hybrid option drawing from elements from each of the three elements under consideration (levies, trading and voluntary agreements). 11. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Chemical compound consisting of one nitrogen and several oxygen atoms. Changes in ozone concentration in the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides are also generated in combustion Source: Has-Planck Institut für Chemie processes under high pressures and temperatures. But both of these parameters have been increased in modern aircraft engines to significantly reduce fuel consumption, and emissions of carbon monoxide 13. Stratosphere (fig. 1) and unburned hydrocarbon. Layer of air above the troposphere, at altitudes of Combustion chambers of an advanced design could about 12 to 50 Kilometers. help reduce NOx emissions by 85 percent in the future. 14. Tropopause (fig. 1) Air traffic has a share of 2-3 percent of man-made Transition layer between the troposphere and the NOx emissions. stratosphere. Climate models show that nitrogen oxidesFig. 4 have increased the concentration of ozone at cruising 15. Troposphere (fig. 1) altitudes by a few percentage points. Lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphere and location of Currently, the effect cannot be measured. weather events. Depending on the season, the upper boundaries of the troposphere reach altitudes of 6-8 EI NOx kilometers above the poles and 16-18 kilometers in tropical areas. 100 80 FIRST GENERATION MODERN 60 TURBOFANS 40 FUTURE LOW 20 NOx REGIONAL BIG 0 TURBOPROPS FANS 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 OPR EI: Emission Index Many regional aircraft engines have lower NOx EI that can be anticipated for even the future third generation of large turbofan engines. Modern Air Transport & Environment 21
Appendices 16. Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) Mixture of hydrocarbons that results from incomplete combustion processes. Near the ground UHCs contribute to the formation of “summer smog”. E.I. UHC (gms / kgm) Fig. 6 120 100 80 60 40 Representative 20 small engines 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Idle Approach Climb Take-off Percent engine power 17. Water vapor Even ahead of carbon dioxide, water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas. Concerns that air traffic might increase the concentration of water vapor in the stratosphere and thus change the climate have been refuted by scientific research. Under certain meteorological conditions, the water vapor from aircraft engines can lead to the formation of vapor trails. These may occasionally persist for several hours. Theoretically, vapor trails influence the earth’s radiation household by hindering the reflection of warmth into space. Modern Air Transport & Environment 22
Appendices PW127F engine gaseous emissions Mode Power Fuel Emission Index Emission index Emission index % power Setting Flow CO UHC NOx SHP kg/min g/kg fuel g/kg fuel g/kg fuel Min. flight idle (3%) 27 1.58 26.3 3.8 4.5 Min. ground idle 45 1.32 36.6 16.5 4.1 Nominal idle (7%) 192 3.06 9.2 0 6.9 Approach (30%) 825 5.15 3.7 0 9.8 Max cruise (78%) 2,132 8.28 2.2 0 15.6 Max climb (80%) 2,192 8.38 2.0 0 16.2 Max contin. (90%) 2,475 9.22 2.0 0 16.5 Take-off (100%) 2,750 9.9 2.0 0 17.7 Source: PWC Exhaust Emissions Data - March 1997 ATR 72-500 trip pattern 22,000ft 380 km mission 170 KCAS Max cruise 250 KCAS ISA -5°C Phase Taxi out Take-off Climb Cruise Descent Approach Taxi in Total & climb from 3,000ft to 3,000ft & landing Fuel (kg) 18 35 218 228 81 19 6 605 Time (min) 6 2.1 16.3 21.2 9.6 2.5 2 59.7 Dist (km) 0 4 105 178 89 4 0 380 TOW=18,500kg - OEW=13,300kg - ZFW= 17,195kg - FAA reserves LTO Cycle Emissions ATR 72-500 with PW127F Gaseous Landing, take-off cycle Emissions CO 2,740 g NOx 1,558 g UHC 1,128 g Modern Air Transport & Environment 23
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