Aquatic Invasive Species (AIS) Control Plan
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Aquatic Invasive Species Control Plan Golden Alga
Division of Environmental Services Updated June 2021
Aquatic Invasive Species
(AIS) Control Plan:
Golden Alga
This control plan is a living document that
will be updated, as needed, to reflect the
status of the species within Pennsylvania.
Natural History Figure 1. Micrograph of Golden Alga
Description: Golden Alga is a single-celled, morphology. Source: University of Nevada.
flagellated, photosynthetic microorganism
that is capable of releasing toxins which can Origin: Golden Alga is spreading globally
cause extensive kills of gill-breathing through multiple introductions from discrete
aquatic animals. locales; the strain occurring in the United
States likely originated in Europe (Lutz-
Carrillo et al. 2010). In the United States,
Taxonomy
Golden Alga was first reported in water
samples from a 1985 fish kill on the Pecos
Common name: Golden Alga
River, Texas (Southard et al. 2010). Since
Family: Prymnesiaceae
then, it has been reported in scattered
Species: Prymnesium parvum
locations mainly in the southern and western
Integrated Taxonomic Information System
United States (Sallenave 2018). In
(ITIS) Serial Number: 2170
Pennsylvania, Golden Alga may have been
introduced from the south-central part of the
Morphology: Each cell has two hair-like
United States.
flagella used to swim through the water
(Figure 1). There is also a shorter stiff hair-
Food Preferences: Golden alga can
like structure called a haptonema, which can
manufacture its own food when abundant
be used to attach the cell to other cells or
nitrogen and phosphorus are available or,
objects (Sallenave 2018; Figure 1). Each cell
when these nutrients are limited, it releases
has a C-shaped or “saddle shaped”
chemical substances called prymnesins that
chloroplast which contributes to the yellow-
allow it to envelop and digest bacteria and
green color of the organism (Sallenave
other algae (Barkoh and Fries 2010). These
2018; Figure 1).
prymnesins also inhibit growth of other alga,
giving it a competitive edge over other
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Aquatic Invasive Species Control Plan Golden Alga
Division of Environmental Services Updated June 2021
species and leading to the potential for large temperature range of about 5°C to 35°C
blooms (Barkoh and Fries 2010). (41°F to 95°F). Besides salinity and
temperature, many factors influence the
Reproduction: This organism typically growth of this species including phosphorus
reproduces asexually through simple cell (P) and nitrogen (N) levels, cationic
division. Fish kills generally occur at cell substance levels, and pH. Toxic blooms of
counts > 50 -100 million cells per liter. the Golden Alga typically occur during
Golden Alga can form dormant cysts when cooler water temperatures and periods of
stressed or conditions become unfavorable. limited nutrients (Sallenave 2018).
Sexual reproduction exists but is not well
documented outside of the laboratory Distribution and Status
(Edvardsen and Paasche 1998).
Notable Behavioral Characteristics: Golden Distribution: Golden Alga has been reported
Alga exhibits a characteristic swimming from at least 14 countries among every
motion of moving forward while spinning continent but Antarctica (Southard et al.
on its longitudinal axis. 2010). In the US, at least 23 States,
including Pennsylvania and West Virginia,
Historic Vectors: Numerous and non- have reported Golden Alga. In
specific. Both natural (birds, mammals) and Pennsylvania, Golden Alga has been
anthropogenic (bilge water, industrial documented in Greene County within the
equipment, fishing gear) vectors have been Dunkard Creek and Whiteley Creek
proposed (Sallenave 2018). watersheds (Figure 2).
Current Pathways/Vectors: Because of the
distances involved (North Carolina being the
previously closest state with infestations),
circumstantial evidence points toward
possible introduction of Golden Alga to
Pennsylvania/West Virginia waters by
means of cells (possibly encysted) carried on
industrial equipment, which later spread by
unknown means. Figure 2. County-level distrbution of
Golden Alga in Pennsylvania (December
Preferred Habitat: In general, Golden Alga 2020).
is found in brackish waters but tolerates a
wide range of conditions (Salenave 2018).
The species has a salinity range of ~1- 40
PSU (Practical Salinity Unit) and a
Page |2Aquatic Invasive Species Control Plan Golden Alga
Division of Environmental Services Updated June 2021
organisms; therefore, it is not known to be a
human health concern (Texas Parks and
Pennsylvania Legal Status: As of April Wildlife 2009; Sallenave 2018).
2021, Golden Alga is not regulated in 58 Pa.
Code §71.6 and §73.1.
Threats
Toxicity: Blooms of Golden Alga release
toxins under stressed conditions, such as
when nutrients become limited (Sallenave
2018). Golden Alga can release several
chemical compounds called prymnesins that
combine with cations (such as magnesium
[Mg++] and calcium [Ca++]) in the water to Figure 3. Fish kill resulting from Golden
make toxins. The type of toxin created is Alga bloom. Source: Michael Hooper
dependent on the water chemistry and (USGS).
usually there is a combination of toxins in
the water. The toxins cause cells without Environmental and Economic: Severe
protective layers, such as on the surface of economic losses can occur from fish kills
gills and fins, to fail. Exposed cells either caused by Golden Alga (Figure 3). Recent
die due to chemical damage or lyse due to economic losses to communities and
excessive osmotic pressure (Sallenave hatcheries in Norway and Texas, for
2018). In fish, the gills become so badly example, are estimated in millions of U.S.
damaged that they are unable to function, dollars (Barkoh and Fries 2010; Sallenave
and blood vessels in the gills hemorrhage. 2018). Despite years of research on Golden
Affected fish behave as if there is not Alga, no proven strategies have been
enough oxygen in the water. They travel at developed to prevent or mitigate bloom
the top of the water surface or rest on the formation or toxicity effects in large water
bottom in edges and shallow areas, and bodies (Barkoh and Fries 2010).
ultimately succumb to asphyxiation
(Sallinave 2018; Figure 3). These toxic In Pennsylvania, fisheries in colonized
effects extend to other aquatic organisms, waters having the potential to reach the
including amphibians, invertebrates, optimal conditions necessary for a Golden
plankton, and bacteria (Barkoh and Fries Alga bloom are at risk of producing large
2010). fish kills. This occurred in 2009 within
Dunkard Creek in Greene County, which
Human Health: Golden Alga toxins have no decimated populations of many fish species,
apparent lethal effect on non-gill breathing freshwater mussels, and Mudpuppy
Page |3Aquatic Invasive Species Control Plan Golden Alga
Division of Environmental Services Updated June 2021
Salamanders (C. Urban, personal during routine water quality sampling.
communication). This can be accomplished by examining
water samples for Golden Alga via
Management microscopy or by Environmental DNA
(eDNA) sampling (Sallinave 2018).
Management Goals: Golden Alga already
resides in Pennsylvania. Therefore, • Consider the inclusion of Golden Alga
management of the species must focus on on the invasive species lists in 58 Pa.
containing or eliminating existing Code §71.6 and §73.1.
populations, on preventing their spread, and
on preventing new incursions of the species • Encourage the incident reporting of
from out of state. aquatic invasive species within
Pennsylvania. Although Golden Alga
Containment and Prevention Actions: may be difficult to identify outside of a
Efforts to stop the spread of Golden Alga in laboratory setting, the reporting of
Pennsylvania need to focus on containing suspected observations is encouraged.
the existing Dunkard Creek and Whiteley Online reporting can now be conducted
Creek populations (both in Greene County), at the following PFBC web site:
on identifying potential habitat for new https://pfbc.pa.gov/forms/reportAIS.htm
incursions, and on preventing the alga from as well as PA iMapInvasives at:
infesting those areas: https://www.paimapinvasives.org/ and at
the national level, USGS Nonindigenous
• Initiate a public education effort to Aquatic Species website:
acquaint the populace with the threat of https://nas.er.usgs.gov/SightingReport.as
and measures to prevent the spread of px
Golden Alga. Because Golden Alga can
potentially spread on recreational • Discuss the water hauler disinfection
equipment such as boating gear, waders, procedures and regulations within
and fishing tackle, education efforts Pennsylvania with appropriate state
should include best practices to disinfect partners and initiate guidance or
gear. These include completely draining regulatory oversight to prevent the
water from watercraft bilges, live wells, spread of AIS such as Golden Alga.
and other areas; allowing all materials or
equipment to fully dry for at least three • Initiate and support research to elucidate
days; or disinfection with 10% bleach the ecological requirements of Golden
solution (Sanninave 2018). Alga in Pennsylvania waters and
develop strategies to prevent or mitigate
• Request Federal and Pennsylvania State bloom formation. This includes
agencies to monitor for Golden Alga engaging with appropriate state and
Page |4Aquatic Invasive Species Control Plan Golden Alga
Division of Environmental Services Updated June 2021
federal partners to monitor Golden Alga Alga (Prymnesium parvum). Journal of
in Pennsylvania watersheds, particularly the American Water Resources
in the southwestern region of the Association. 46: 24-32.
Commonwealth.
Sallinave, R. 2018. Toxic Golden Algae
Rapid Response Options: (Prymnesium parvum). New Mexico
• Implement public outreach efforts in the State University ACES Circular Number
vicinity of a Golden Alga bloom. 647.
• Consider application of algaecides such Southard, G.M., Fries, L.T., and Barkoh, A.
as ammonium sulfate or copper-based 2010. Prymnesium parvum: the Texas
algicides to control small blooms in experience. Journal of the American
ponds or lakes, following cost-benefit Water Resources Association. 46: 14-23.
analysis considering possible impacts to
non-target species (e.g., fish, Texas Parks and Wildlife. 2009. Golden
amphibians). Treatment is often Alga. Management Data Series 236:
unachievable in flowing water or large Management of Prymnesium parvum at
water bodies (Sallinave 2018). Texas State Fish Hatcheries.
References
Barkoh, A. and Fries, L.T. 2010. Aspects of
Larsen3
the Origins, Ecology, and Control of
Golden Alga (Prymnesium parvum):
Introduction to the Featured Collection.
Journal of the American Water
Resources Association. 46: 1-5.
Edvardsen, B. and Paasche, E. 1998. Bloom
dynamics and physiology of
Prymnesium and Chrysochromulia. Pp
193-208 In: Anderson, D.M., Cembella,
A.D., and Hallegraeff, G.M. (eds).
Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal
Blooms. NATO ASI Series Vol. G 41.
Lutz-Carrillo, D.J., Southard, G.M. and
Fries, L.T. 2010. Global Genetic
Relationships Among Isolates of Golden
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