Anatomical Characteristics of the Bones of the Thoracic Limb of White-Eared Opossum (Didelphis albiventris)
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Int. J. Morphol.,
39(2):416-422, 2021.
Anatomical Characteristics of the Bones of the Thoracic
Limb of White-Eared Opossum (Didelphis albiventris)
Características Anatómicas de los Huesos del Miembro Torácico
de la Zarigüeya Oreja Blanca (Didelphis albiventris)
Guilherme Pereira Chiarello; Silvio Pires Gomes; Tais Harumi De Castro Sasahara & Maria Angélica Miglino
CHIARELLO, G. P.; PIRES GOMES, S.; HARUMI DE CASTRO SASAHARA, T. & MIGLINO, M. A. Anatomical characteristics
of the bones of the thoracic limb of white-eared opossum (Didelphis albiventris). Int. J. Morphol., 39(2):416-422, 2021.
SUMMARY: The skeleton of the thoracic limb is one of the key aspects for the understanding of the habits and movement of
different mammalian species. Considering the gap about studies related to marsupial osteology, this work proposes to study the aspects
inherent to the skeleton of opossums, with emphasis on the detailed anatomical description of the bones that form the thoracic limb. For
this purpose, the bones of six specimens of possums of the species Didelphis albiventris were used. These small to medium sized
marsupials inhabit a wide range of South America, living in several types of habitats, being commonly described as arboreal omnivores
and have anthropic habits. For the execution of this study, the bone accidents perceptible in the specimens were identified by superficial
palpation, which were then radiographed. The thoracic limb bones were prepared by boiling and drying in the sun. Finally, from the
radiographic images and the prepared bones, a detailed description of the anatomy of the bone components of the thoracic limb of
Didelphis albiventris was made, joining the previously obtained data of surface anatomy. These data were compared with data from the
literature, discussing the functional significance of the osteological findings of the thoracic limb of Didelphis albiventris.
KEY WORDS: Animal Anatomy; Marsupial; Osteology; Wild Animals.
INTRODUCTION
The morphological aspects related to the skeleton are They are small to medium sized animals, with black-gray
very well known in euterium animals, especially in domestic coat on the body, black on the tail and white on the ears and
animals (Dyceet al. 2019) and in humans (Drake et al., 2010). face, and have a black stripe on the head and black spots
In contrast, there are few details about the skeletal around the eyes (Cáceres, 2001).
morphology of marsupials, with works such as those of Maier
(1987, 1989) and Abdala et al. (2001) being some examples. The white-eared opossum is a versatile animal with
Other published researches in the area focus on an estimated respect to its habitats and can live in meadows, mountains,
study of the age of animals from morphometric or dental woods and forests, and is also found in urban environments.
parameters (Lowrance, 1949; Bergallo & Cerqueira, 1994; The variation of habitats depends on humidity, water
Gardner et al., 2005), or morphometric relations associated availability and temperature conditions (Lemos & Cerqueira,
with sexual dimorphism (Astúa, 2010). However, there is a 2002; Mitchell, 2014). It is commonly found in tropical and
gap about research that better elucidates the complete subtropical regions of South America, being part of the lo-
descriptive characteristics of the macroscopic anatomy of cal fauna of Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia and
the skeleton of these mammals, in particular the limbs and Brazil (Tocchio et al., 2015). In general, they have solitary
their characteristics. and nomadic habits, being a digger animal (Mitchell). Thus,
they can live in groups inside holes, but also next to garbage
One of the most common marsupials in the Brazilian and in empty human structures, having typically anthropic
territory is the white-eared opossum, Didelphis albiventris. habits (Cáceres, 2000).
Department of Surgery, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo (FMVZ-USP), Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de
Paiva, 87, Cidade Universitária, CEP: 05508 270, São Paulo-SP, Brazil.
416
CHIARELLO, G. P.; PIRES GOMES, S.; HARUMI DE CASTRO SASAHARA, T. & MIGLINO, M. A. Anatomical characteristics of the bones of the thoracic limb of white-eared opossum
(Didelphis albiventris). Int. J. Morphol., 39(2):416-422, 2021.
There are different types of works in the bibliography The radiographs aim to show the organization of
involving analysis of aspects related to Didelphis albiventris. the skeleton "in situ", showing the relationship of the bones
However, most of these studies involve clinical, therapeutic between them, allowing a more applied analysis about the
and/or anesthetic aspects, such as the studies by da Silva et anatomical aspects of D. albiventris, approaching the
al. (2017) on parasite infection in D. albiventris and by veterinary clinical practice by bringing a description of
Waxman et al. (2018) on immobilization of this species. how the bones of the thoracic limb of this species of mar-
The few papers more focused on morphology of this species supial through one of the main tests for diagnosis of bone
are dedicated to the study of non-fossil structures, such as changes.
the work of Schäfer et al. (2017) on the structure of the
tongue of this animal. In this way, a scientific importance Macerations and Preparation of Skeletons: For the
of the study of this species is realized, but with a reduced detailed analysis of the anatomical characters, the
volume of data about the morphology of the appendicular preparation of the bones of the Didelphis albiventris
skeleton of this animal. specimens was started so that the bone details could be
appreciated. The same protocol was recommended for all
prepared specimens: the thoracic limb was separated from
MATERIAL AND METHOD the trunk by the section of the thoracic cincture muscle
and sternum-clavicular disarticulation. The musculature
was removed, and the bones were separated from each
The methodology consists of two distinct parts: the other, the scapula and clavicle bones and the radius and
collection and preparation of opossum bones, and the ulna were kept together with the hand. Subsequently, the
anatomical analysis (which encompasses the study of process of cleaning and whitening of the bones was initiated
surface anatomy, radiographic images and macerated bones). through subsequent boiling sessions in 10 % aqueous
For both stages of the study, cadavers of opossums of the solution with 200v hydrogen peroxide. The bones
genus Didelphis albiventris will be used, which will come underwent boiling periods of about five to ten minutes and
from run over and/or accidents registered in the streets and were removed from the boil for removal of soft tissue
highways of the central region of the state of Rio Grande residue, tendons, and muscles through dissection. After
do Sul, being duly collected with the SISBio authorization the last boiling session, the bones were exposed to sunlight
obtained from the Brazilian Institute of Environment and for complete drying and completion of the whitening
Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), number: 64495. process, and a period of 48 hours was sufficient for com-
plete drying of the material.
Six adult specimens were collected, three male and
three females, from D. albiventris. After collection, these
animals were stored in a freezer for conservation until RESULTS
analysis began. All specimens were collected on highways
and surroundings during 2019, in the vicinity of the UFSM
campus - Santa Maria, RS. The skeleton of the thoracic limb of Didelphis
albiventris is composed of two bones that form the thoracic
Surface Anatomy: Initially, right after the collection of the cincture (clavicle and scapula), the humerus bone in the
adult specimens, bone aspects perceived through palpation brachial region, the radius and ulna bones in the forearm
on the skin in regions with no alterations due to cause mortis region, and the constituent bones of the skeleton of the hand
were analyzed and can be considered as reference points. - carpal bones, metacarpal bones, phalanges and sesamoids.
These aspects were noted for later description of the palpa-
ble bone aspects on the skin. Clavicle. The clavicle of D. albiventris is an elongated,
curved, slightly flattened bone. It articulates medially with
Specimen Radiographs: After superficial analysis of the the manubrium of the sternum, and laterally with the
bone elements in the specimens, radiographic images were acromion of the scapula. The sternal end of the clavicle is
taken on the latero-lateral axes in order to better evidence subtly wider than the acromial end and holds a cartilage
the bone structures of the thoracic limb before the for articulation with the clavicular incisura of the sternal
mechanical preparation of the bones was performed. To be manubrium. The body of the clavicle is slightly bumpy.
radiographed, the two specimens that had a lower degree The acromial end articulates with the hamate process of
of injury derived from the cause mortis were chosen, aiming the acromion through a small cartilage. The portion of the
at a higher content of adequate information about the clavicle's body can be perceived by skin palpation (Figs. 1
skeleton. and 4).
417
CHIARELLO, G. P.; PIRES GOMES, S.; HARUMI DE CASTRO SASAHARA, T. & MIGLINO, M. A. Anatomical characteristics of the bones of the thoracic limb of white-eared opossum
(Didelphis albiventris). Int. J. Morphol., 39(2):416-422, 2021.
Scapula. This flat bone forms the main bone base of the thoracic
cingulate in D. albiventris. The scapula is fixed against the chest
wall of the trunk by means of the muscles of the cingulate and
articulates distally with the clavicle and humerus bones. It has
two faces, three edges and three angles. The lateral face has a
developed spine and divides this face into two shallow pits of
equivalent areas: the supraspinatus fossa (craniodorsal to the spine)
and the infraspinatus fossa (caudoventral to the spine). The spine
presents a thickening ventrally called acromion. The acromion
has a hamate process ventrally, with an articular area for
articulation with the clavicle, and dorsally a wide supra-hamate
process, which extends caudally over the scapular neck. The
medial face of the scapula presents an area dorsally for the insertion
of the serratus ventral muscle, which is barely distinguishable from
the subscapular fossa located below it. Next to the scapular neck
there is a large nutritional foramen, located in the area for the
origin of the greater teres muscle, which is subtly delimited.
The tail edge is straight and not hilly. It joins the dorsal
edge continuously, forming the caudal angle. The dorsal edge is
curved and has a thin cartilage of complementation. This edge
continues as the cranial edge after forming the cranial angle.
The proximal two thirds of the cranial edge are subtly convex,
but its distal third forms an abrupt concavity, called scapular
incisura, in the region of the neck. The scapular neck is defined
Fig 1. Lateral view of Didelphis albiventris scapula and mainly by the scapular notch and separates the ventral angle
clavicle. 1. dorsal margin and its complementary cartilage. 2. from the scapula.
infraspinatus. 3. supraspinatus. 4. spine. 5. hamate process. 6.
supra-hamate process. 7. scapular incisura. 8. acromial end of
clavicle. 9. clavicle body. 10. sternal end of clavicle. Bar = 1 The ventral angle is marked by the articular cavity, a
cm. D. Dorsal. Cr. Cranial.
shallow glenoid cavity for articulation with
the humerus head. This cavity is surrounded
by a cartilaginous joint lip. Cranially to the
articular cavity lies the supraglenoid
tubercle, and caudally the infraglenoid
tubercle. The medial side of the supraglenoid
tubercle supports a prominent coracoid
process, which is curved medially.
The three scapular edges and the
scapular spine can be easily recognized by
skin palpation (Figs. 1 and 4).
Fig. 2. A. Cranial view of the right humerus of
Didelphis albiventris. 1. largest tubercle. 2.
intertubercular groove. 3. smaller tubercle. 4.
humeral ridge. 5. supraepicondylar crest. 6. ra-
dial cleft. 7. condyles. 8. lateral epicondyle. 9.
medial epicondyle. 10. supracondylar foramen.
B. Detail of the distal epiphysis of the humerus
showing the supracondylar foramen. Bar = 1 cm.
P. Proximal. M. Medial.
418CHIARELLO, G. P.; PIRES GOMES, S.; HARUMI DE CASTRO SASAHARA, T. & MIGLINO, M. A. Anatomical characteristics of the bones of the thoracic limb of white-eared opossum
(Didelphis albiventris). Int. J. Morphol., 39(2):416-422, 2021.
Humerus. The humerus forms the skeleton of the brachial ventrally facets are observed for articulation with the radial
region, and is a typical example of long bone, presenting a and intermediate bones of the proximal row of the carpus. By
proximal epiphysis, a diaphysis and a distal epiphysis. It superficial palpation the flat body of the radius can be
articulates proximally with the scapula and distally with the recognized (Figs. 3 and 4).
radius and ulna bones.
Ulna. The ulna articulates proximally with the humerus,
In its proximal epiphysis there is a large head, which medially with the radius, and distally with the bones of the
articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Ventrally to proximal carpal row. It forms the lateral part of the skeleton
the head is the neck. Laterally and medially to the head are of the forearm and next to the radius, forms an interosseous
the larger and smaller tubercles respectively. The tubers are antebrachial space that separates the diaphysis of both bones
separated from each other cranially by a wide intertubercular and allows the pronation and supination movements of the
groove. hand to be possible. Its proximal epiphysis is called olecranon.
The olecranon has a dorsal tuberosity. Cranially it presents an
The body of the humerus has a twisted appearance due anchoid process, with a concave shape, which continues
to the groove to the brachial muscle which is located laterally. distally as a semilunar incision. When the humerus and ulna
In the proximal third of this face there is a small round bones are articulated, the anconeal process is located in the
tuberosity, which is ventral to the larger tuber. The lateral side olecranon fossa while the semilunar notch articulates with the
of the humerus body is separated from the cranial side by the humerus condyles. Lateral and medial to the semilunar notch
marked and prominent humeral ridge, a distal continuation of are the lateral (which supports the lateral condyle of the
the larger tubercle. Approximately in the middle third of the humerus) and medial (which articulates with the head of the
diaphysis the humeral ridge ends in a deltoid tuberosity. The radius) coronoid processes. Ventrally to the lateral coronoid
distal portion of the lateral face supports a large process there is a reduced ulnar tuberosity. The diaphysis of
supraepicondylar crest. The medial side is less bumpy and the ulna is smooth, but slightly more robust than the diaphysis
has a small ridge that continues from the smaller tuber and of the radius. The distal epiphysis is wedge-shaped and
ends in a larger round tuberosity. Distally, it has an oval-shaped articulates with the ulnar and accessory bones of the proximal
supracondylar foramen, placed over the medial epicondyle. carpal row. It medially presents an area for articulation with
the distal epiphysis of the radius, and laterally the styloid
The distal epiphysis of the humerus supports ventrally process (Figs. 3 and 4).
two condyles for articulation with the radius and ulna, the la-
teral condyle for articulation with the ulna, and the medial Hand Bones. The hand of D. albiventris is composed of the
condyle for articulation with the radius. Dorsally to the associated carpal bones, metacarpal bones, phalanges and
condyles there are two pits, the radial fossa being situated sesamoids. The carpus forms the wrist skeleton and is
cranially, and the olecranon fossa being situated caudally. Next composed of eight small short bones arranged in two
to the condyles are the epicondyles, the medial epicondyle overlapping rows, the proximal and distal rows. The proximal
being better delimited, and the lateral epicondyle located row is composed of the radial, intermediate, ulnar, and
ventrally at the supraepicondylar ridge. accessory bones, the accessory carpal bone being the most
lateral component. The bones of this row together articulate
The humerus crest and the deltoid tuberosity are easily with the distal epiphysis of the radius and ulna. The distal row
perceptible on palpation. Parts of the supraepicondylar crest is composed of I carpal bone, II carpal bone, III carpal bone
can also be palpated (Figs. 2 and 4). and IV carpal bone, the IV carpal bone being the largest and
Radius. The radiusforms the medial part of the skeleton of D. most lateral component. The bones of the distal row articulate
albiventris' forearest arm. It has a proximal epiphysis, a with the proximal epiphysis of the metacarpal bones.
diaphysis and a distal epiphysis. It is proximally articulated
with the humerus bone, laterally with the ulna, and distally The metacarpal bones form the skeleton of the back of
with the bones of the proximal carpal row. At its proximal end the hand and are a set of five small long bones that articulate
is the head, provided with a humeral joint circumference for proximally with the elements of the distal carpal row, and
the joint with the medial condyle of the humerus. distally with the proximal phalanges. Similar to the distal carpal
Ventrolaterally is the joint face for joint with the proximal bones, the metacarpal bones are numbered, the I metacarpal
end of the ulna. A subtle radial tuberosity is located bone being the most medial, and the V metacarpal bone the
immediately ventral to this joint face. The diaphysis of the most lateral element. Metacarpal bones II, III, and IV are the
radius is slightly bumpy. Its distal epiphysis presents a trian- largest and have similar lengths; the V metacarpal bone is
gular, ventrally oriented styloid process. Laterally a joint face similar to these but has a relatively shorter length. The I
is located for articulation with the distal end of the ulna, and metacarpal bone is also shorter, but it is the widest metacarpal
419CHIARELLO, G. P.; PIRES GOMES, S.; HARUMI DE CASTRO SASAHARA, T. & MIGLINO, M. A. Anatomical characteristics of the bones of the thoracic limb of white-eared opossum
(Didelphis albiventris). Int. J. Morphol., 39(2):416-422, 2021.
bone. All metacarpal bones have a proximal epiphysis, called
the base, and a distal epiphysis, called the head. The head
has a trochlea for joint with the proximal phalanges and pal-
mar sesamoids.
The skeleton of the digits is formed by the phalanges.
The hand of D. albiventris presents five digits and, except
for the first one, all of them present three phalanges
denominated proximal, middle and distal phalanx. The first
digit, being shorter, presents only the proximal and distal
phalanges. The proximal and middle phalanges are
anatomically very similar, the main difference being the
length: the proximal phalanges are longer. Both the proximal
and the middle phalanx appear base and head with trochlea,
similar to the metacarpal bones. In general, there are no
differences in the length of the proximal or middle phalanges
with respect to the different digits. The base of the proximal
phalanges articulates with the trochlea of the corresponding
metacarpal bone, and the head of the proximal phalanx
articulate with the base of the middle phalanx. The head of
the middle phalanx articulates with the articular face of the
distal phalanx. Fig. 3. Dorsal view of the distal half of the radius and ulna bones
and the skeleton of Didelphis albiventris hand. 1. body of ulna. 2.
The distal phalanges are more complex than the body of radius. 3. styloid process of the ulna. 4. styloid process of
proximal or middle phalanges and have unique anatomical the radius. 5. proximal carpal bones. 6. distal carpal bones. 7.
structures. Cranially, the distal phalanges support a developed metacarpal bone 8. proximal phalanx. 9. middle phalanx. 10. distal
ungual process, which serves as the bone base for the fixation phalanx. I-V. I-V digits. Bar = 1 cm. P. Proximal. M. Medial.
of the claws. The extensor process is located
dorsally on the joint face with the middle
phalanx. Medially, the solar foramen is located
at the root of the nail process. Ventrally, a small
flexor tuber may be perceptible, situated
caudally to the nail process.
Five pairs of palmar sesamoids, one pair
for each digit, can be observed on the palmar
side of the joint between the metacarpal bone
and the proximal phalanx. These sesamoids
articulate proximally with the trochlea of the
metacarpal bone, and distally with the base of
the proximal phalanx. A small carpal sesamoid,
located dorsally to the radial bone of the carpus,
can still be observed in the hand of D.
albiventris.
By superficial palpation the set of carpal
bones can be felt as a whole, the accessory
carpal bone being more diagnostic. The
Fig. 4. Radiographic image of Didelphis albiventris in lateromedial projection,
diaphysis of the metacarpal bones and the
showing aspects of the thoracic limb skeleton. 1. scapular spine. 2. clavicle body.
proximal and middle phalanges can also be 3. humerus head articulating in the glenoid cavity of the scapula. 4. deltoid
palpated. The distal phalanx is embedded inside tuberosity of the humerus. 5. ulna olecranon. 6. antebrachial interosseous space.
the corneal claw, making palpation impossible 7. carpal attachment bone. Bar = 2 cm. P. Proximal. C. Flow rate. Note: The
(Figs. 3 and 4). clavicle is disarticulated from the scapular acromion.
420CHIARELLO, G. P.; PIRES GOMES, S.; HARUMI DE CASTRO SASAHARA, T. & MIGLINO, M. A. Anatomical characteristics of the bones of the thoracic limb of white-eared opossum
(Didelphis albiventris). Int. J. Morphol., 39(2):416-422, 2021.
DISCUSSION to the differentiated path of the median nerve and brachial
artery in these species (Kardong, 2017; Dyce et al.).
Didelphis albiventris scapula is a typically flat bone, The radius and ulna bones in D. albiventris are long
presenting the basic configuration of the mammalian scapula, bones and not fused together, as in wombats (Saber), dogs
with two sides, three edges and three angles, and a prominent (Konig et al. 2016; Evans & Delahunta) And Cats (Dyce et
scapular spine. It presents a developed hamate process, al.); and differing from rats that have these fused bones (Olude
according to what was presented by Olude et al. (2010) for et al.). The non-fusion between radius and ulna allows the
the African giant mouse, and in other rodent species (Hebel opossums to move one bone over the other, allowing the
& Stromberg, 1976; Özkan, 2002), and carnivores (König pronation and supination movements of the hand. Considering
& Liebich, 2016; Evans & Delahunta, 2017). The supra- the excavating habits of D. albiventris, these movements are
hamate process was reported in cats and rabbits (Popesko, particularly useful for the movement of the animal. Similarly,
2012; Dyce et al. 2019). Both the hamate process and the the presence of a protruding olecranon in D. albiventris allows
supra-hamate process in the scapula of D. albiventris indicate the insertion of a more powerful triceps brachial muscle, which
the need for a larger area for attachment of the deltoid increases the extension force of the elbow (Lien), assisting in
musculature, relating to muscles proportionally more the digging and climbing habits of these animals.
developed than those found in species whose scapulas do
not have such processes. Olude et al. highlight the The hand of possums D. albiventris is well developed,
supraspinatus and infraspinatus pits of the same size in presenting five functional digits. The anatomy related to the
rodents, a fact shared by wombats (Saber, 2013) and D. skeleton of the hand of these animals is directly related to
albiventris in this study, indicating a probable similarity in the grasping and digging capabilities, allowing the opossums
the infraspinatus and supraspinatus muscle area, without a to climb trees, hold branches firmly and dig burrows. The
greater functional role of one muscle to the detriment of the carpal region presents itself as a set of eight small bones
other. that, together, allow a biaxial movement of the wrist, ensuring
good mobility by hand of these animals. The pattern of carpal
The clavicle presented itself as an elongated and well- bones organization in two rows is also observed in dogs
developed bone, articulating with the sternum manubrium, (Evans & Delahunta), horses and ruminants (Dyce et al.),
and with the scapular acromion. This joint fixation of the rodents (Olude et al.) and wombats (Saber). The five
thoracic limb to the trunk, through the sternum-clavicular- metacarpal bones are well developed, the I metacarpal being
scapular union is typical of excavator animals, described in the shortest in length, according to the dogs (Evans &
rodents and lagomorphs (Olude et al.; Popesko), which, like Delahunta). The anatomy of the phalanges is similar to that
opossums, use the movement of the thoracic limb to dig, described for dogs and cats (Dyce et al.). The presence of two
and need a greater stabilization of the shoulder to perform phalanges in the I digit and three phalanges in the digits II, III,
such movements. Due to its presence, the clavicle also allows IV and V was also described for rabbits (Popesko) and
the fixation of more muscle groups that act on the shoulder domestic carnivores (König & Liebich; Evans & Delahunta).
(Lien, 2013), allowing a more vigorous movement, The wedge shape of the distal phalanx ungual process indicates
facilitating the act of digging these animals. an adaptation to the fossil habit (Olude et al.; Saber), and its
presence in D. albiventris demonstrates an adaptation of these
The anatomy related to the humerus bone of D. animals to burrow and shelter excavation.
albiventris reflects a bone with a robust design, adapted to
fossological habits. It is marked by a prominent humeral In conclusion, the opossums of the species Didelphis
crest, such as wombats (Saber) and the mouse (Olude et al.). albiventris can be recognized as animals of arboreal and
The presence of a developed humeral ridge reflects a greater fossorial mobility, thanks to several characteristics found in
insertion of pectoral muscle fibers, indicating a greater the constituent bones of the thoracic limb of these animals.
potential for thoracic limb adduction. A protruding lateral The analysis of the bones of the thoracic limb exposes the
supraepicondylar ridge is noticeable, in accordance with presence of crystals, processes, names, among other
other fossil species (Saber), and indicates a greater volume accidents, which together characterize the white earrings as
of extensor and flexor musculature of the hand and digits, in unique, differentiating them from other mammals with
accordance with the pattern of excavator movement and its strange habits. Consider differentiation and configuration
need for muscle strength (Lien). A supracondylar foramen of these bone accidents, perceive the presence of diagnostic
present at the distal end of the humerus is also found in cats data that can be useful for evolutionary research and clinical
(Dyce et al., 2019) and other cats, in addition to lagomorphs surgical approach. es, expanding the anatomical knowledge
(Popesko) and in wombats (Saber). This foramen is related in relation to wild species.
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(Didelphis albiventris). Int. J. Morphol., 39(2):416-422, 2021.
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