AN UNBALANCED EQUATION: INCREASING PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN STEM IN LAC - Alessandro Bello María Elina Estébanez
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AN UNBALANCED EQUATION:
INCREASING PARTICIPATION
OF WOMEN IN STEM IN LAC
Alessandro Bello
María Elina Estébanez
Published in 2022 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France, and UNESCO’s Regional Office for Sciences in Latin America and the Caribbean in Montevideo, Luis Piera 1992, piso 2, 11200, Montevideo, Uruguay. MTD/SC/2022/PI/01 © UNESCO 2022 This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http://www. unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boun- daries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Cover graphic: Freepik This publication had the support of the British Council Women/woman – we intend this term to be inclusive of trans women, whilst recognising that the discrimination faced because of their gender identity is likely to be significantly higher than cis-gendered women. Non-binary people are also very likely to face significant challenges due to their gender identity, however insufficient research exists for us to be able to comment fully on this in the report
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & INNOVATION AS CROSSCUTTING
AXES OF THE GLOBAL SUSTAINABLE AND INCLUSIVE
DEVELOPMENT AGENDA TOWARDS 2030
The Open Science Forum in Latin America and the Caribbean -CILAC- is conceived as a space that con-
tributes to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda endorsed by the General Assembly of the United
Nations. It is aimed at becoming a platform for reflection and interaction in relation to the issues of
science, technology and innovation management. Therefore, for the consortium of CILAC organizing
institutions, it is important that the debates and reflections are not limited to the organization of the
Forums every two years, but kept alive over time.
UNESCO, as a specialized agency of the United Nations System, dedicates its efforts to the advancement 3
of knowledge in five major fields that are vital for sustainable human development: education, natural
sciences, social sciences and human rights, culture, and communication and information.
To fulfil this mission, UNESCO operates along five strategic axes: a) the definition of international stan-
dards (b) capacity building; (c) organization and dissemination of knowledge; (d) international coo-
peration; and (e) laboratory of ideas. Thus, the CILAC Forum constitutes a platform to enhance these
strategies, strengthening science, technology and innovation policies in the countries of Latin America
and the Caribbean.
These documents, which are prepared by renowned experts in their respective fields of knowledge,
identify challenges and propose key ideas for moving forward. In their contributions, the authors des-
cribe innovative areas of knowledge and action, assess their potential for the future of the region - whe-
ther as an opportunity or a threat - and offer possible decision-making scenarios.
These contributions are not intended to be conclusive, but are mainly offered as an invitation from
UNESCO to all stakeholders so that, together and without ignoring diversities or divergences, we can
advance the public debate on the role to be played by science, technology and innovation in the pre-
sent and future of Latin America and the Caribbean.
Building sustainable, democratic, and inclusive knowledge societies with broad human rights protec-
tion is an urgent and necessary task. The spirit of the texts we publish today is to enrich these debates,
promoting their continuity in the time to come. We do so with the conviction that these efforts are es-
sential in order to advance the regional agenda, with a view to the implementation of the Sustainable
Development Goals. Because connecting to a desirable future, requires connecting to science.
Good reading! Good debates!
Lidia Brito,
Director
Regional Bureau for Sciences in
Latin America and the Caribbean - UNESCO
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITY
AN UNBALANCED EQUATION:
INCREASING PARTICIPATION
OF WOMEN IN STEM IN LAC
Alessandro Bello
María Elina Estébanez
Authors and acknowledgements
We are deeply grateful to the British Council for making possible the original study, commissioned to Technopolis Group, that
provided the main contents of this policy brief that we are sharing here. In particular, the enriching comments of Diana Daste, Jessica
Swann, and Camila Morsch, that improved our reflections, and the communicability of ideas were appreciated. We also want to
thank Gloria Bonder from the UNESCO Regional Chair on Women, Science and Technology in Latin America and to the World Bank
for their contributions to this report. In particular, for the initiative to produce this policy brief and the regional dissemination of its
recommendations, we give a special acknowledgment to Guillermo Anllo Program Specialist at UNESCO.
Alessandro Bello – Principal Consultant, Technopolis Group alessandro.bello@technopolis-group.com
María Elina Estébanez – Centro REDES and Universidad de Buenos Aires / Argentina marilina@centroredes.org.ar
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTHORS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
TABLE OF FIGURES 6
ACRONYMS 6
FOREWORD 8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9
1. INTRODUCTION - SETTING THE GLOBAL CONTEXT 11
2. GENDER AND SCIENCE IN LATIN AMERICAAND THE
CARIBBEAN THROUGHOUT THE LIFE CYCLE 14
2.1. Early childhood and primary education 15
2.2. Secondary education 15
2.3. Higher education 16
2.4. Research positions 17
2.5. Scientific and technological production 22
3. BARRIERS TO THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN STEM 24
3.1 Stereotypes 24
3.2 Obstacles in professional advance 25
3.3 Partnering and care / workload inside families 26
3.4 Sexual harassment and other gender-based violence (GBV) 26
3.5 Obstacles in professional leadership and decision-making roles 27
4. MAIN ACTORS AND INITIATIVES IN LAC 27
4.1 Government 28
4.2 Higher education institutions 29
4.3 International organizations 29
4.4 Private Sector 31
4.5 National and international cooperation agencies and embassies and civil society organisations 32
4.6 Overview of actions in LAC 32
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 34
5.1 Challenges ahead: a regional outlook 34
5.2 Recommendations 35
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 38
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Lifecycle stages 11
Figure 2. Evolution of female participation in total researchers 2000-2016 14
Figure 3. Share of male and female pupils with the minimum math skills, 2018 (or latest available year) 16
Figure 4. Share of female students in tertiary education by field of study, 2018 (or latest available data) 17
Figure 5. Female researchers in LAC 2009-2018 18
Figure 6. Share of female researchers in LAC countries, 2019 (or latest available data) 18
Figure 7 Share of female and male in tertiary education
6 by program level and in research in LAC, 2019 (or latest available data) 19
Figure 8. Share of female and male researchers in Argentina in CONICET by seniority levels, 2018 19
Figure 9. Share of female and male in the Science and Technology ecosystem in Brazil by position 20
Figure 10. Share of female researchers by field of study, 2018 (or latest available year) 21
Figure 11. Situation of women researchers (FTE) in Latin America as %
of total researchers according to the sector of work 2019, (or latest available year) 21
Figure 12. Share of female authors in LAC countries, 2014-2017 23
ACRONYMS
AI - Artificial Intelligence
ECLAC - United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
EIGE - European Institute for Gender Equality
EU - European Union
FTE Full-Time Equivalent
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GBV – Gender-based violence
HC - Headcount
HDI - Human Development Index
HE - Higher Education
IDB - Inter-American Development Bank
IANAS- Inter-American Network of Academies of Science
ICT - Information and Communication Technologies
IDRC - International Development Research Centre
INDICES - Red Iberoamericana de Indicadores de Educación Superior
IP - Intellectual Property
ISCED - International Standard Classification of Education
LAC - Latin America and the Caribbean
NGO - Non-governmental organisation
OAS - Organization of American States
7
OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OEI -Organization of Ibero-American States
PISA - Programme for International Student Assessment
R&D - Research and Development
RICYT - Red de Indicadores de Ciencia y Tecnología - Iberoamericana e Interamericana
S&T - Science and Technology
SAGA - STEM and Gender Advancement
STEM - Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
STEAM- Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics
STI - Science, Technology and Innovation
SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals
UN - United Nations
UNDP - United Nations Development Program
UNESCO - United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
UN Women - United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women
UIS - UNESCO Institute for Statistics
WEF - World Economic Forum
WISE - Women in STEM and Entrepreneurship
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITYFOREWORD
The need for gender equality is globally recognized. Indeed, the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
which specifically focuses on gender, SDG 5, remains directly applicable to every country in the world:
not one single country has achieved gender parity.
The British Council has put an increasing emphasis on gender equality through our work, and we are
well placed to participate in and contribute to progressing gender equality. We build partnerships and
networks, support learning and collaboration, convene policy dialogue and support innovation throu-
gh cultural engagement.
8
In the area of Women and Girls in STEM, the British Council has established programmes which take
a lifecycle approach, from inspiring young girls to stay in STEM to supporting women working in
STEM fields reach positions of leadership and network with their peers in their region and the UK –
an approach that you’ll find reflected in this Policy Brief. To date we’ve engaged with more than
14,000 women researchers, academic staff and students, and reached over 20 million through our
campaign for the Women in STEM Scholarships, through which 48 women were awarded a full bursary
to study for a Master’s degree from one of 8 UK universities in England, Scotland or Wales.
In 2020, we commissioned our partner Technopolis, a Belgian consultancy firm specialising in the analy-
sis of environmental and societal issues, through science, technology and innovation, to conduct an
in-depth study on the context of Women and Girls in STEM from across Latin America and the Caribbean
(LAC) by reviewing and pulling together existing research and data into one single report. This Policy
Brief summarises the key findings of that research, and our intention is for it to highlight both the achie-
vements and ongoing challenges faced by governments, education institutions and organisations in
LAC in terms of achieving gender parity in STEM.
We hope it serves as an invitation for knowledge exchange and debate and facilitates mutual learning,
both within LAC and with the UK, and that together we can explore how values of equality can be re-
flected in policy and put into practice to improve outcomes for women and girls across our region, and
indeed the world.
Helen Silvester
Regional Director - Americas
British CouncilEXECUTIVE SUMMARY In our changing technological world, Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) are often referred to as the jobs of the future, driving innovation, social wellbeing, inclusive growth, and sustainable development. But it is estimated that only one woman secures a job in STEM fields for every four men, contributing towards greater economic inequality in society. Despite efforts to bridge gender gaps in STEM areas, voids still exist at different levels of education and career progression in almost every country around the world. These gaps can be observed at all life cycle stages, from primary school to workplaces and leadership positions. As a result of various policies and activities implemented at different levels over the last 20 years, Latin America, and the Caribbean (LAC) region have experienced some improvements regarding the inclu- 9 sion of women in science. Now, the region is one of the two global ones that achieved parity in the share of female and male researchers overall. However, even though female participation has been increasing, inequalities remain in several countries and in certain disciplinary sectors, which affect the access to STEM for girls, and the recognition of women’s work in science and their ability to rise to positions of leadership. There are several and complex factors that lead to the unequal outcomes for men and women in STEM, not easy to address. At education level, there is a substantial lack of awareness among young genera- tions of the potentials of STEM studies, reinforced by a lack of gender-responsive STEM pedagogies, tools and infrastructures that affect most schools and impacts on teachers’ capabilities to turn STEM studies more interesting. Gender prejudices vesiculated in families, schools and media generate an ste- reotyped representation of masculine and feminine best educational options and tend to discourage girls to specialize in STEM. Prejudices persist across professional cycles and affect career development of female researchers and professionals working at R&D systems and enterprises. Moreover, economic, cultural, social, and religious contexts intersect on these processes, generating gaps that can become chronic and reinforce economic and social differences. Over the last decade, different actors in the region, ranging from Governmental institutions and univer- sities and research centres to civil society and international agencies as well as private companies have launched different types of initiatives aimed at reducing the gender gap in STEM. Some actors of this complex ecosystem have also started acting together to increase the inter-institutional linkages and coordinated efforts needed to address a topic that requires a holistic approach. In many LAC countries, actions initially targeted the retention of women in STEM studies and jobs. Recently, efforts have been directed also at raising the visibility of women’s scientific achievements and connecting them through regional and national networks. There are significant divergences among countries in terms of the pre- sence of those action and their efficacy. Gender mainstreaming in STEM is strongly related to the overall linkage of factors like: the maturity of the STI system in a country, the size of its S&T workforce, its history, the political and cultural background, and the institutional framework. Among the contextual factors at play, beyond societal misconceptions and persistent, harmful ste- reotypes, some may point at the lack of specific policies for gender equality in STEM. Sporadic and time-limited, activities, limited budgets and weak STEM focus are some of the negative features of this interventions. Moreover, these initiatives are also failing at including rural women, parents, teachers, and men. One of the main problems with the existing initiatives is the lack of information (evaluation) about their results and outcome, as well as information about their success in achieving their objecti- ves. Many initiatives were ambitious in the initial phase of implementation, but not necessary succeed in reaching their results and in having any impact. It is therefore important to learn from good practices CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITY
and successful elements, must also learn from what has not worked. In this way, it will be possible to
avoid repeating the same mistakes. This requires, nevertheless, transparency from actors implementing
these initiatives.
101. INTRODUCTION - SETTING But there are several barriers which lead to a lack
of willingness or opportunity for girls to choose
THE GLOBAL CONTEXT a career in STEM areas. For this reason, it is esti-
mated (WEF 2016) that only one woman secures
In the past two years, the world has gone throu- a job in STEM fields for every four men, contri-
gh a fundamental transformation which has buting towards greater economic inequality in
changed the way we live, work, and think, and society. In the advanced digital technologies, the
which shows no signs of abating. This has had re- proportions of women are low. For example, in
sounding implications for women’s participation the worldwide Artificial Intelligence (AI) sector,
at all levels of education, scientific research, and only 22% of total professionals are women. This
practice (Bello, Blowers y Schneegans 2021). gap is visible in all the top 20 countries with the
highest concentration of AI employees. Accor-
There are unprecedented global challenges such 11
ding to WEF (WEF 2018) for the three LAC present
as the COVID-19 pandemic, and the tangible
in this group, the gap is still worse. It is also esti-
effects of climate change ever more extreme,
mated that among machine learning researchers,
along with their consequent impact on food se-
the share of women is only 12% (Bello, Blowers
curity, shelter, sanitation, and health. Yet we have
and Schneegans 2021).
also seen an abundance of opportunities offered
by what has been termed the ‘fourth industrial As AI and advanced digital technologies are
revolution’, including technological advances, changing the way people produce and work and
machine learning and artificial intelligence, not are key factors in future jobs, women cannot be
to mention the response by the scientific com- left out of this process that hold the promise of
munity to COVID-19. breaking down gender barriers. Women have a
stake in participating in the digital economy to
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathe-
ensure that Industry 4.0 does not perpetuate
matics (STEM) are responding to the changing
gender bias.
technological world and are often referred to as
the jobs of the future, driving innovation, social Despite efforts to bridge gender gaps in STEM
wellbeing, inclusive growth, and sustainable de- areas, voids still exist at different levels of edu-
velopment. Predictions emphasise that future cation and career progression in almost every
jobs will require STEM and ICT skills, with seve- country around the world (Bello, Blowers and
ral sources anticipating that these skills will be Schneegans 2021). These gaps can be observed
required for approximately 75% of jobs (EQUALS at all life cycle stages, from primary school to wo-
and UNESCO 2019). men in high positions in STEM careers (A. Bello
Figure 1. Lifecycle stages
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITY2020). According to data from the last UNESCO and many of these new jobs will be ba-
Science Report (USR) and from UNESCO Institute sed on STEM. It is vital that girls and wo-
for Statistics (UIS), in 2020 the global average per- men get equal access to the emerging
centage of women researchers was 33%, while at workplace of the future.
the national level, just under a third of countries
achieved what is classed as “gender parity” (with • Promoting STEM education in girls and
women making up 45%-55% of researchers). This young woman will help to close the gap
gap is even wider in STEM and within some STEM in the existing STEM workforce, which
fields. will bring about wider societal bene-
fits. Closing the gender gaps in STEM
There are several and complex factors that lead education would lead to an increase in
to the unequal outcomes for men and women European Union (EU) GDP per capita by
12 in STEM and are present at different levels of the 2.2% - 3.0%, and the creation of between
lifecycle (see Figure 1). Consequently, they are 850,000 and 1,200,000 jobs by 2050 (Eu-
not easy to address. Moreover, gender prejudices ropean Institute for Gender Equality-EI-
that are vesiculated in families, educational com- GE 2017). We must also consider that a
munities, and workplaces, are one of the most typical STEM worker earns two-thirds
present factors along all lifecycle stages. Econo- more than non-STEM workers (Funk y
mic, cultural, social, and religious contexts inter- Parker 2018) thus, achieving gender
sect on these processes, generating gaps that equality in STEM becomes a strategy to
can become chronic and reinforce economic and support lifting entire families out of po-
social differences (UN Women 2020). verty.
There are many positive reasons for promoting • Women as a diverse group bring a rich
gender equality in STEM along all lifecycle stages. variety of experiences and perspectives
that are invaluable and contribute to
• First and foremost, there is the rights-ba- better quality in science and innovation.
sed, or social justice argument. Gender A study of 2.5 million scientific publica-
equality and access to science are recog- tions suggests that those authored by
nised as human rights by the Universal teams of researchers with greater eth-
Declaration of Human Rights (art. 2 and nic diversity receive more citations than
art. 27). papers co-authored by individuals with
similar backgrounds (Freeman 2014).
• Through STEM education, students are
Moreover, scientific output can be more
prepared for the job market of the future
valuable to society if the teams of resear-
as well as to make a workforce Industry
chers reflect the diversity within our so-
4.0-ready. Therefore, there is a need to
cieties. Diversity in science contributes
develop STEM capabilities for the future
to new and expanded learner cohorts,
needs by aligning educational curricula
alternative voices, narratives, teaching
with industry relevant skills. According
strategies, curricula and methodologies
to a recent collaborative study across 29
which influence not only the scientist
United Nations programmes, it was en-
but enhance the outputs and outco-
visaged that more than 7.1 million jobs
mes of science, benefitting all of socie-
will be displaced by 2020, and that half
ty. Achieving gender equality in STEM is
of currently existing jobs will disappear
not just about numbers, nor is gender
by 2050 (World Economic Forum 2018).
equality only relevant to women: gen-
More than 60% of children entering pri-
der concerns the cultural practices and
mary school today could eventually end
expectations (often though not always
up working in jobs that do not yet exist
reflected in policies) that govern menand women expected, endorsed and ac- re gender equality in STEM is also key for
tual behaviour. achieving each one of the 17 Sustaina-
ble Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN
• Reaching gender equality in STEM would 2030 Agenda (UNESCO 2018).
also benefit scientific productivity. A re-
cent study from the Inter-American De- Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) is one
velopment Bank (IDB 2017) shows that of the two regions, along with Central Asia, that
by eliminating gender inequality in the achieved parity in the share of female and male
promotion to high academic degrees in researchers overall. (UN Women 2020) However,
Mexico, the national academic system numbers can be deceiving, and this paper will
would benefit from an increase in scien- explore the many challenges women face across
tific productivity (number of articles LAC when pursuing a career in STEM as well as
published in peer-reviewed journals) of in reaching higher and leadership positions (ho- 13
between 17% and 20%. rizontal and vertical segregations).
• Sustainable development requires more
science and more scientists, and therefo-
Box 1. General factors hampering girls and women taking up careers
• Lack of awareness among young generations, • Intersectionality factors - interplay of gender
particularly girls, of the potentials of STEM with race, LGBTIQ+ identity, and class affects
studies. girls and women in different ways, increasing
levels of discrimination starting in the class-
• Overall misunderstanding across society of
room and continuing throughout academic
the STEM careers themselves, which tend to
careers.
be considered more difficult and harder than
other studies and professions, such as those • Sexism in society, and particularly in the aca-
related to social sciences. demia, is a serious issue hampering the pro-
gression of women students and academics
• Lack of gender-STEM pedagogy and tools,
in STEM disciplines and affecting the access to
as well as infrastructure, which affect most
senior and leadership positions.
public and private schools, especially those
localized far from urban and cultural centers. • Low level of digitalization across students and
the society, which contributes to the gap in
• Persistent poverty and high socio-economic
uptake of STEM careers between boys and
inequality among intra-national regions affect
girls and change stereotypes about STEM
social access to TICs resources (digital com-
careers themselves.
petences, communication infrastructures and
computational appliances). Girls and woman • Lack of women role models to change stereo-
tend to be more affected by poverty than types and increase interest in STEM, particu-
overall population. larly among the youngest.
Source: own elaboration based on bibliographic review
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITY2. GENDER AND SCIENCE some improvements regarding the inclusion of
women in science, at different stages of the lifecy-
IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE cle. Early studies in LAC (Estébanez 2004) showed
CARIBBEAN THROUGHOUT by 2000 an average of 40 % of female researchers
THE LIFE CYCLE in five countries for regional R&D capabilities. By
2016 the average for the same group was 49%
As a result of various policies and activities imple- (RICYT 2021); (CNPQ 2016). Currently, LAC is one
mented at different levels over the last 20 years, of the two regions in the world that achieved pa-
countries in the LAC region have experienced rity among researchers (UN Women 2020).
14 Figure 2. Evolution of female participation in total researchers 2000-2016
(Source: Estébanez 2004; CNPQ 2016; RICYT 2021)
In recent years greater attention was paid to map th recognition of women’s work in science and
the empirical situation of gender equality throu- their ability to rise to positions of leadership (see
gh the production of specific studies about the section 2.4). The region also presents an hetero-
absence and invisibility of women in science, and genous setting. In some counties more than in
the application of gender perspective to STI indi- others, the path to gender equality in academic
cators, such as the UNESCO SAGA project or the and research careers, particularly in STEM, sti-
studies conducted by IDB (IDB 2017) and UN Wo- ll need to be fully walked. As a general feature,
men (UN Women 2020), among others. within the same country, there are several diffe-
rences among intra national regions, and huge
However, even though female participation has discrepancies between rural and urban areas.
been increasing, inequalities remain in seve-
ral countries and in certain disciplinary sectors, The sections below describe the gender gap
which affect the access to STEM for girls, and throughout the lifecycle across LAC.2.1. Early childhood and primary education rest in girls that grow up in social environments
where those practices are considered masculine
Girls’ exclusion from education begins early and (González García y Pérez Sedeño 2002).
increases throughout their lives. All over the
world in developing countries, around 125 mi- These stereotypes will induce a segregated bias
llion girls of primary and secondary age are out that in turn will shape their relationship with
of school (UNICEF 2020). school and educational choices. Moreover, girls
are generally not encouraged or trained to per-
In LAC region a high proportion of girls and boys form in STEM-related fields in the same way as
attend elementary education, but differences in boys (UN Women 2020). However, recent studies
terms of disciplinary performance appear early are showing that cultural changes are already ta-
throughout primary education. In stark contrast king place in the society, which could be reflec-
to the performance of girls in many other parts ted in the career choices of the next generation 15
of the world, fewer girls than boys are achieving (Catedra Regional UNESCO Mujeres, Ciencia y
minimum proficiency levels in math at the upper Tecnología en LAC 2017).
primary level in most countries in Latin America
(10 out of 12) (UNICEF 2020). The transition from primary to secondary school
seems to be crucial to consolidate the students’
Several studies have pointed out the scope of the mentality regarding field-specific ability belie-
problem. The Tercer Estudio Regional Comparativo fs (EU European Union 2020). It is indeed in at
y Explicativo - TERCE (UNESCO 2016) has shown secondary level where the main barriers for girl
that regionally girls do better on reading tests STEM enrolment consolidate.
while boys do better in maths; a phenomenon
that increases as children progress through pri- 2.2. Secondary education
mary education and onto secondary (UN Women
2020). For instance, in Brazil, in the fourth grade, Both boys and girls show good levels of atten-
boys score 195.6 points in maths and girls 194.1, dance in secondary education across LAC coun-
with only 1.5 points difference, but in eighth gra- tries. According to UIS figures, there is a gender
de, boys outperform girls in maths tests by 9.1 balance or a slightly high female participation
points (INEP 2009). In Argentina, the results of than male at secondary studies. For example, by
the 2016-17 Aprender test (maths and language) 2019 data, four countries reach parity (Bolivia,
suggested that while at primary education girls Brazil, Chile, Colombia) while other 9 reach slight-
and boy perform similar, at secondary education ly high female participation (UIS 2021).
10% more girls tan boys have difficulties rea-
However, the performance gender gap only dee-
ching maths and language basic level (Lotitto y
pens. There is a difference in the mathematics
Szenkman 2020).
skills of boys and girls, as illustrated by the share
These performance features should be linked to of pupils having reached at least the minimum
stereotyped socialization. During early primary threshold of competence in this discipline (UIS,
socialisation at family places, children internali- 2018) (see Figure 3).
se gender social representations and norms that
Also, the PISA Test 2018 reported a difference in
build their first cultural background about femi-
Mathematics and Science favouring boys over
nine and masculine roles in the social world. For
girls, above the OECD average, and typical across
example, the kind of toys, readings, movies they
LAC countries. By the end of the lower level of se-
will choose; how to be dressed or other cultural
condary education, female pupils had reached a
practices are related to socially established gen-
lower proficiency in mathematics than the male
der roles. One frequent phenomenon is the weak
fellows. (OECD 2019.)
emotional linkages and the lack of interest in te-
chnological games and elementary science inte-
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITYFigure 3. Share of male and female pupils with the minimum math skills, 2018 (or latest
available year)
16
Source: UIS (data consulted in September 2021)
The data also shows that one out of three stu- terns are key influencers in career decisions and
dents is interested in a science-related career, maintenance.
but that the expectations of future occupation
are gender-biased, already as teenagers: boys are In LAC, academic engagement of women is
on average twice as likely than girls to consider oriented to the care industry and disciplines rela-
an engineering career. In some LAC countries ted with humanities. This trend is seen as a phe-
(Colombia, Dominican Republic, and Mexico) this nomena of horizontal segregation in tertiary stu-
gap is particularly pronounced. An ICT-related dies by which women are concentrated in social
career was considered by only 1% of girls, against sciences, humanities and life sciences (represen-
8% of boys (OECD 2019). ting 70% of total students in Education and Heal-
th & welfare disciplines) while specific fields such
Social and academic environments may repre- as mathematics and statistics only have around
sent crucial barriers for girls to maintain their 32% of female participation (except for Uruguay
interest in STEM. Among the factors influencing where women are overrepresented) (RICYT 2021)
girls’ and women’s participation, progression, (Red Indices 2021).
and achievement in STEM education the most
common explanations for inequalities include This pattern is also evident among graduates and
four main dimensions (UNESCO 2017) : the stu- specially at the Ph.D. level. Globally, only 35% of
dent; family and peers; the school; and society. all students enrolled in STEM-related fields are
women (UNESCO 2018). In most LAC countries
2.3. Higher education (with some few exceptions), women are also
a minority and rarely exceed 40% among gra-
In higher and further education, the underrepre- duates in broad fields of engineering, industry,
sentation of women in STEM and related appears construction, information and communication
as a strong feature. Stereotypes and social pat- technologies (where Chile notably only has 12%Figure 4. Share of female students in tertiary education by field of study, 2018 (or latest
available data )
17
Source: RICYT (data consulted in September 2021)
women graduates), and in agriculture and vete- Trinidad Tobago, Uruguay y Venezuela) have rea-
rinary science (with the exception of Argentina ched gender parity (share comprised between
with 62 %) (UIS 2021). 45% and 55%). (RICYT 2021).
2.4. Research positions Additionally, despite an increased presence
among researchers, women still experience a
In LAC, 46% of all researchers are women, a num- strong glass-ceiling1 effect that prevents them
ber far exceeding the global rate of 33%. (RICYT from reaching high seniority levels (vertical se-
2021). During the last ten years, this participation gregation) – a phenomena also known as the
has showed an increasing trend, despite a relati- “leaky pipeline” (WIPO 2018).
ve stagnation at the end of the period.
First steps in gender segregation begin in the
However, these achievements hide a more nuan- transit from university education to research po-
ced reality. Figure 6 illustrates the significant dis- sitions. As showed in Figure 7, this pattern pro-
parity among LAC countries in terms of female duces the “scissor effect”: beginning with a high
representation at R&D activities, ranging from participation of women in postgraduate studies,
less than a third in Peru and Mexico to more than female presence decreases over the course of
parity in Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela. the scientific career, and gender share is reversed
Nine out of the 17 countries in focus (Argentina, when getting a research position.
Brazil, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Panama, Paraguay,
1 Glass-ceiling phenomena refers to invisible barriers that affect the advance of women in their careers, particularly their
access to upper-level management.
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITYFigure 5 Female researchers in LAC 2009-2018
18
Source: RICYT (data consulted in September 2021)
Figure 6. Share of female researchers in LAC countries 2019 (or latest available data )
Source: RICYT (data consulted in September 2021); CNPq Diretório dos Grupos de Pesquisa, 2016Figure 7 Share of female and male in tertiary education by program level and in
research in LAC, 2019 (or latest available data )
19
Source: own computations based on UIS (data consulted in September 2021)
Figure 8. Share of female and male researchers in Argentina in CONICET by seniority
levels, 2018
Source: own computations based on (SICYTAR 2018)
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITYFigure 9. Share of female and male in the Science and Technology ecosystem in Brazil by
position
20
Source: (Areas, y otros 2020)
Due to numerous factors (explored in Section is much lower than that of men. In 2018, the sha-
3), this gender segregation persists throughout re of female researchers working on engineering
a woman’s progress in their research career. LAC and technology topics was between 19% in Bo-
women are under-represented in upper aca- livia and Peru and 37% in Ecuador. Women are
demic and leadership positions and, in general also still underrepresented in agricultural and ve-
terms, in any power space. In a similar way that terinary science but tend to be overrepresented
stereotypes build STEM scientific career as mas- in research in medical and health sciences and in
culine, power is also seen as male competence. social sciences in most of the countries.
Although data by seniority is available only for In summary, although the LAC region shows
a few countries, and it is unreliable to compare better results than the world average in terms
seniority grades since they differ greatly among of parity among researchers, there are still mul-
countries, the data available in two countries tiple barriers, such as cultural stereotypes and
clearly shows this trend. Figure 8 and Figure 9 gender-based expectations, that prevent wo-
display this path for Argentina and Brazil. men from reaching the highest levels in research
and affect their disciplinary choices. The gender
Women are also underrepresented across re- parity is seen at the access level and in specific
search positions in STEM fields, a phenomenon areas, mostly natural sciences, heath, and others
known as horizontal segregation. Figure 10 associated with the care industry, which obfusca-
shows that, according to the data of RICYT, the tes significant gaps, such as those in technology,
percentage of women researchers working on engineering, and math’s, which have a significant
engineering and technology topics in the region impact on access to high paid and influentialFigure 10. Share of female researchers by field of study, 2018 (or latest available year)
21
Source: RICYT (data consulted in September 2021)
Figure 11. Situation of women researchers (FTE) in Latin America as % of total resear-
chers according to the sector of work 2019, (or latest available year)
Source: RICYT (data consulted in September 2021)
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITYfields such as AI, software development and ad- and this is according to the most optimistic pro-
vanced digital technologies. jection models of the study (Wang , Stanovsky e
Weihs 2019).
While Figure 11 referred to the gender gap affec-
ting R&D employment in government and Hi- In the LAC, the involvement of women in scienti-
gher Education sector, the underrepresentation fic production is very heterogeneous across the
of women in research is even more pronounced region. In particular, the share of scientific arti-
in the enterprise sector. Indeed, the share of wo- cles that include the participation of at least one
men researchers employed in this sector in five female author ranks from 43% in El Salvador to
out of seven countries with available data -Ar- 72% in Brazil. Following Brazil, the top countries
gentina, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Uruguay- is are Argentina (67%) and Guatemala (66%), while
less than total personnel employed, as showed in the countries where the share is below 51% are
22 Figure 11 (RICYT 2021). Nicaragua, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Costa Rica,
Dominican Republic, and Honduras (OEI 2018).
2.5. Scientific and technological production When looking at all the authors of scientific pu-
blications between 2014 and 2017, parity has
Around the world, women scientists publish less been reached at the regional level as 46% of au-
than their male counterparts (Liza Howe-Walsh y thors are women (OEI 2018).
Turnbull 2016). A recent study analysing 2.87 mi-
llion papers of computer science literature throu- Despite women’s participation in the scientific
gh 2018, shows that, if current trends continue, production, studies show that women are less
parity will not be reached before the year 2100, likely than men to be first or last authors -more
Box 2. Science careers, gender and COVID-19
COVID-19 has broadly impacted the greater share of domestic and caring than their male peers (Frederickson
science community. Researchers are responsibilities are at least partly to 2020)(M. Frederickson, 2020).
struggling to align the work of STEM blame (In Mexico women take on Furthermore, in many countries,
investigators and limited access 72% of domestic labour on average there was an amplification of male
to laboratories and time-sensitive (INEGI 2019). voices in the media and research
experiments. While more evidence In another study (Than, Yin y Myers institutions. In the UK, according to
is needed for an in-depth analysis 2020)it was reported that female data gathered by the Expert Women
of the effects of the COVID-19 scientists from USA and Europe project (EWP) from the University
pandemic on women in the STEM testified a 5% larger decline in of London, found an imbalance of
workforce, initial studies are already research time than their male peers, 2.7 men for every female expert
showing the amplification of reaching a 17% when they have featured on the UK’s flagship TV
challenges and barriers for women at least one child five years old or and radio news programmes on the
scientists. younger. Reduction of work hours political handling of the coronavirus
A study from the Australian Aca- or unemployment for STEM women, outbreak across Britain.
demy of Science (AAS), show that will challenge the victories achieved As stated by the UN in the policy
job insecurity affects more women for women scientist in the last brief Policy Brief “The Impact of
than men and could significantly set decade. COVID-19 on Women” (April 2020)
back recent gains towards gender In terms of publications, initial “COVID-19 is not only a challenge
equality in STEM fields (Austra- analyses suggest that women’s pu- for global health systems, but also
lian Government 2020). The high blishing rates have fallen relative to a test of our human spirit. Recovery
proportions of women employed in men’s amid the pandemic. Women must lead to a more equal world
short-term contracts and the fact are posting fewer preprints and that is more resilient to future
that women still tend to take on a starting fewer research projects crises”.Figure 12. Share of female authors in LAC countries, 2014-2017
23
Source: OEI (data consulted in September 2021)
prestigious authorship positions- and that wo- tent system differs according to the fields. They
men-authored publications receive fewer cita- are well represented in biotechnology (58% of
tions. Also, the percentage of women listed as the patents include at least one women inven-
first and last authors is negatively associated tor), pharmaceuticals (56%), and organic and
with a journal’s impact factor. In other words, the food chemistry (55% and 51% respectively). In
higher impact factor, the less female presence contrast, only 16% of patents related to machine
(Shen, Webster and Shoda 2018). tools, 15% to civil engineering and 14% to me-
chanical elements have at least one-woman in-
Compared to the proportion of scientific papers ventor (WIPO 2018).
they publish each year, the proportion of wo-
men using the patent system is low. According to
WIPO data, in LAC only a third of the international
patent applications include at least one-woman
inventor. Regarding the US patents filled by Latin
American2 assignees, only 22% are filled by wo-
men (Sifontes and Morales 2020). Moreover, the
participation of women in the international pa-
2 The countries considered in the study are Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Chile, Cuba, Colombia, México, Panamá, Peru,
Uruguay, and Venezuela
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITYBOX 3 : Availability of statistical information
Over the last XX years, the statistical information being countries have the basic indicators (i.e number of R&D
collected on gender has increased in Latin America, personnel and institutional sector by sex) the availability
both in the area of science and technology and in higher decreases as the level of detail and complexity of the data
education. Among the most visible examples is the work increases. This is particularly critical when looking at the
of the Ibero-American Network of Science and Techno- specific fields that make up STEM.
logy Indicators (RICYT) and the Ibero-American Network The following Table shows the percentage of Latin Ameri-
of Higher Education Indicators (INDICES). They have been can countries reporting the five main gender indicators to
working together with the national bodies responsible RICYT over the last ten years, expressed in both indivi-
for statistical production across the region to produce dual’s headcount (HC) and full-time equivalents (FTE) .
comparable indicators (RICYT 2021). (Red Indices 2021) The data is available at www.ricyt.org”.
24
But up-to-date data on higher education and research
and development (R&D) activities in the region is needed
to analyse the current situation and trends in the gender Regional coverage of science and gender indicators, 2021
gap in STEM. Moreover, as the results of the UNESCO
HC FTE
SAGA Project have recently highlighted, there is a signi-
ficant lack of sex-disaggregated data on gender equality Female Staff 100% 71%
in STEM, which hampers sound mapping of the needs Researchers by employment sector 88% 65%
and the development of better oriented initiatives and
evidence-based policies. Researchers by scientific discipline 65% 47%
This is not always an easy task, given that some coun- Researchers by training level 65% 53%
tries still have an information bias that makes it difficult Researchers by age group 35% 24%
to fully comprehend the situation of women and to
Source: own computations based on RICYT data
design specific policies founded in evidence. While most
3. BARRIERS TO THE Families, communities, and educational institu-
tions – the main brokering agents of broad cul-
PARTICIPATION OF tural patterns – influence from very early stages
WOMEN IN STEM study preferences and scientific and techno-
logical vocations. During primary socialisation
children internalise gender representations and
3.1 Stereotypes
norms that build their first cultural background
Gender stereotypes are among the factors that about feminine and masculine roles in the world.
explain gender segregation affecting women’s Because girls are less encouraged to perform in
integration into STEM studies and the negative STEM-related subjects, gender bias appear alre-
incidence in retention and career advancement. ady in early childhood (UNESCO 2018) and tend
Stereotypes take place at different instances of to discourage girls to specialize in STEM.
lifecycle: childhood and the interplay with family
At primary and secondary school stage, teachers
and school socialization; youth vocational elec-
and institutions might keep reinforcing (cons-
tions for university studies; and critical stages in
ciously or not) that bias by assuming that some
decision-making process at scientific workplace.
disciplines are more appropriate for girls and
Even though those stereotypes appear to be less
others for boys, and by applying gender-blind
persistent among new generations, women re-
pedagogies which end up reproducing stereo-
main affected by them (A. Bello 2020).
typical behaviours and impacts. Girls and youngwomen are seen as “best prepared for caregiving rentiated among disciplines, and of course linked
and household tasks” rather than for STEM fields. with other broad problems related to science as
a job in different contexts. Standards of scientific
Discipline choices are gendered in different ways excellence that are translated into evaluation cri-
by both girls’, boys’ and non-binary identities‘ teria can define scientific trajectories and impact
preferences. Less attention of boys in so conside- strongly on promotion opportunities. Besides
red “feminine” studies is also a matter of gender those universal rules that govern professional
stereotypes. Intersectionality as social diversity advancement, other factors are involved in the
source also contribute to educational choices. exercise of scientific profession. Some of them
For this reason, actions intended to build equity affect women and men equally, but others are
should be oriented to all groups. highly gendered, often because a gender-blind
approach is taken to their design.
These types of horizontal gender segregation in 25
education are widely acknowledged as one of For example, literature review shows, as evidence
the roots of gender segregation in science. of prevailing cultural stereotypes, that the quality
of men’s work is unconsciously better evaluated
3.2 Obstacles in professional advance than women’s work when they are aware of the
gender of the person to be evaluated, but not
Career progression within STEM is a hard task when the gender is unknown (European Com-
and requires time and resource, for any person mission, 2012).
working in science. As part of the professional
process, it is expected to get PhD credentials and Due to what is known as “peripheral science”
recognized post-docs experience, to produce sig- (Diaz y Vessuri 1983) scientific excellence can be
nificative amount of quality papers, to obtain fe- expressed in Latin America in other forms than
llowships abroad and other critical achievements global standards usually applied to STEM re-
required to be hired as researcher in a scientific search evaluation. Many research topics, socially
institution and, eventually, to be promoted (Eu- relevant to local needs, may not be considered
ropean Commission 2012). Professional require- issues of relevance according to global sciento-
ments imply almost exclusive dedication, high le- metrics trends. This is also the case for technical
vels of geographical mobility and available time. tasks, often related to applied science, that are
linked to external demands or extension activi-
For women, once they obtain their first academic ties. Because of gender discrimination practices,
position, different types of obstacles affect spe- women are more likely to oversee these kinds of
cifically their advancement in the scientific pro- tasks in the research workplace and/or attending
fession. First, there are strong social expectations to issues of local relevance in research projects.
about the right moment to establish a family that These complex factors might of course affect
influence decision making besides the biological men and women working at different countries,
clock determinants: at the so called “rush hour”, as both are involved in high and less developed
women face biological childbearing decisions. scientific environments. In the end they are part
The family-or-science dilemma discourages of a stratification process strongly related to the
young women to get into scientific careers and sexual division of labour which reinforce gender
produces early system dropouts acting as a filter. bias to a differentiated degree.
This problem is reinforced as there is not enough
institutional support to assist undergraduates in These examples are part of the multiple barriers
front of these challenges. that affect women’s advancement in scientific
careers, widely described in the gender litera-
On the other hand, definition of good science and ture by metaphors like the ‘leaky pipeline’, ‘Sticky
best professional performance is associated with Floor’ and ‘Glass Ceiling’. These barriers hold back
a complex set of factors, closely related, yet diffe- woman researchers, keeping them in lower posi-
CILAC 2021 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5: GENDER EQUALITYtions, even in the cases of similar credentials, abi- unmarried woman, maternity before 30 years
lities, and scientific productivity (Fox Keller 1995) old or having more than one child. Under these
(Etzkowitz, Kemelgor y Uzzi 2000). cases, when work-family balance became more
uncertain and complex, a detrimental effect on
3.3 Partnering and care / workload inside research productivity could be observed.
families
In a recent study in Argentina, several female
Despite some improvements in the division of scientists were interviewed to get testimonies
household labour, women still shoulder the main about caregiving duties related to childbearing
responsibility for caregiving and domestic du- and career advancement. (Lotitto y Szenkman
ties. Not only does this speak to prevailing gen- 2020). Mostly of them indicated that in early sta-
der stereotypes, but more importantly the lack of ges of academic career - with more professional
26 competition and less possibilities to delegate
organisational and structural facilities within HE
institutions to deal with parental tasks (nursery work- motherhood generated a disadvantage
and breastfeeding facilities, kindergarten, mater- in comparison their male colleagues: access to
nity/paternity leave regulations, etc.). As a result, publications, scholarship or participation in re-
there are significant barriers for women with care search projects became more difficult.
responsibilities to effectively pursue their careers.
Moreover, having the primary responsibility for
Cultural contexts, economic constraints, so- caregiving and household tasks makes it more
cio-institutional agreements for the participation challenging for woman to attend informal or
of woman with children in the workforce -in- formal meetings out of the academic schedule.
cluding family moral and physical support - will Those meetings are usually the opportunity for
vary across countries and regions but always are academic political negotiations, exchange of in-
strong factors determinant the continuity and formation and other critical issues to gain power
advance of woman in science careers. inside the scientific profession. To sum up, all the-
se constraints build institutional barriers in part
Gender differences present in “academic habitus” formal, in part informal, that affect the gender
(Bourdieu 1990) acquire the form of norms, vi- gap
sions and perceptions directed to organise priori-
ties and decisions related to that dilemma. These 3.4 Sexual harassment and other gender-based
are “lifestyle values” that bring women to family violence (GBV)
priorities in career decisions, to occupational sa-
crifices, or work flexibility, especially when they Efforts at ‘gender mainstreaming’ can be un-
have children. But men’s’ preferences, as recent dermined by sexist practices such as sexual ha-
evidence have showed (UNESCO 2018) do not rassment (Morley 2010). Sexual harassment and
change significantly with or without children. other forms of GBV impact significantly on wo-
men in HE and on the choices they make about
Several pieces of evidence show that marriage the work they do, an issue that all research fun-
and children do not appear to have a significant ders should be accounting for. The risks involved
influence on women’s scientific productivity and in undertaking fieldwork shouldn’t be undermi-
academic performance (Krapf et al., 2014). In the ned, and all institutions need to do a lot more on
case of motherhood, there is evidence showing safeguarding their students.
no significant influence on overall women’s
scientific productivity. In 10.000 responses to LAC region has the largest number of feminicides
an economy researchers survey, no evidence of worldwide and the second highest rate of teen
low research productivity was associated to mo- pregnancies in the world. It has been reported (
therhood (Matthias Krapf 2014) . But this overa- Maldonado-Maldonado y Acosta 2018) that wo-
ll trend changes in specific family contexts, like men living in Brazil and México are strongly affec-ted by the culture of “machismo”, experiencing competent than men for top positions both by
physical and psychological violence, discrimina- female and male peers (European Commission
tion, lack of equal opportunities and limited re- 2008).
cognition for their work, abilities, and capacities.
While access to HE for women is not a significant Moreover, in evaluation process where publica-
issue, there are several primary areas of concern: tions outputs are key criteria, there are certain
disparities between men and women in promo- aspects which reinforce gender inequality, such
tion and leadership; and sexual harassment of as it being more common for the first author
female students and female faculty. position to be male. Social capital resources as
mentioned above, play a specific role in gen-
der discrimination: as part of the “boys clubs” or
3.5 Obstacles in professional leadership and
other similar gendered networks, male candida-
decision-making roles 27
tes acquire additional advantage to be promoted
Women are under-represented in professional to senior positions (Liza Howe-Walsh y Turnbull
leadership and decision-making roles: in go- 2016).
verning and evaluating bodies, as gatekeepers
In other professional places, female leadership is
(members of leader councils and scientific or-
also affected by the conjunction of those factors
gans) in upper academic positions; generally, in
and results in fewer women having the expe-
power spaces. As social imagery of science and
rience to lead STEM organisations. This has been
scientists seems to be male, power is also seen
shown in the case of the academies of science
as male competence. The naturalization of these
around the world, where less than 10% of their
biases works to the detriment of women, non-tra-
members are women (UNESCO 2018).
ditional men, and gender diversities in research
decision-making spaces (European Commission
2008).
4. MAIN ACTORS AND
Section 2 clearly shows the gender pattern INITIATIVES IN LAC
throughout career advancement: women par-
ticipation in science begins high at first acade- Over the last decade, different actors in the re-
mic positions but decrease as positions go up. gion, ranging from Governmental institutions
Around the world, a lot of evidence was collected and universities and research centres to civil so-
to make visible the delay of woman in senior ro- ciety and international agencies as well as priva-
les participation. te companies have launched different types of
initiatives aimed at reducing the gender gap in
A range of dimensions, widely covered by litera-
STEM. Some actors of this complex ecosystem
ture, explain the critical and complex challenges
have also started acting together a to increase
that woman must face to access a leadership role
the inter-institutional linkages and coordinated
at science. Alongside the institutional barriers
efforts needed to address a topic that requires
and caring responsibilities highlighted above,
a holistic approach. In addition, programs laun-
formal, and informal gender practices play an im-
ched at the global level by international organi-
portant place.
sations often had a presence in many LAC coun-
A lack of institutional transparency and accoun- tries.
tability affects evaluation procedures applied
In many LAC countries, actions initially targeted
to funding and promotion for example. These
the retention of women in STEM studies and
practices facilitate gender discrimination hidden
jobs. Recently, efforts have been directed also at
inside the way peers, academic heads and other
raising the visibility of women’s scientific achie-
gatekeepers apply standards of excellence. For
vements and connecting them through regional
example, women candidates are evaluated less
and national networks (UN Women 2020). In re-
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