An Inspirational Milieu - St. Petersburg Cosmopolitan Collections of Old Masters - Brill
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Experiment 23 (2017) 81-92
EXPERIMENT
ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТ
brill.com/expt
An Inspirational Milieu
St. Petersburg Cosmopolitan Collections of Old Masters
Fabio Franz
Ph.D. candidate in History of Art, University of Warwick, UK
F.Franz@Warwick.ac.uk
Abstract
This paper focuses on the provenance, conservation history, and critical fortuna of
some selected Western European paintings that were placed in Saint Petersburg
between 1850 and 1917. In my research, I link archival information with scientific bibli-
ography and material data for three purposes: Firstly, I compare the two stays in Russia,
in 1861 and 1862, by the German expert Gustav Friedrich Waagen with the 1865 visit to
St. Petersburg of the Italian connoisseur Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. Secondly, I in-
vestigate Cavalcaselle’s alleged meeting with the Russian expert Fedor Antonovich
Bruni regarding the technique, fruition, and state of conservation of the paintings
Saint Sebastian Barbarigo by Titian, Apollo and Marsyas Litta by Bronzino, and Virgin
and Child with the Infant Saint John, now attributed to Pontormo. Thirdly, I explore to
what extend Duke of Leuchtenberg’s art gallery, Nikolai Dmitrievich Bykov’s collec-
tion, and some other private collections, among them those of Princess Kotchubey,
Counts Buturlin and Stroganov, and Armenian general Lazarev, were accessible to
Western scholars. The research results will enable art historians, curators, and restorers
to fill in some blanks in the provenance research and conservation history of these
Western masterpieces that used to enrich the Saint Petersburg art scene before the
October Revolution.
Keywords
Nikolai Dmitrievich Bykov – Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle – Joseph Archer Crowe –
Gustav Friedrich Waagen – Dukes of Leuchtenberg collection – connoisseurship –
collecting – Russia
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European Old Master collecting in imperial St. Petersburg1 was enriched and
pauperized by some Western dealers, curators, and connoisseurs who influ-
enced Russian collectors and intellectuals. Some European (and later also
American) collectors heavily affected the provenance, conservation history,
and critical and commercial fortuna of some seminal Western paintings and
sculptures kept in St. Petersburg, mostly between 1850 and 1917, when the
city was crowded with people of different origins, languages, and religions.
Unfortunately, many Russian public and private collections were dispersed in
the early twentieth century and many works of art, which were once placed
in St. Petersburg, are not located there anymore. Today, these works are the
highlights of some major European, North and South American museum col-
lections. Thus, European Old Master collecting in Russia can be considered a
main pillar of the cultural relations between Russia and the West.
Imperial, Aristocratic, and Bourgeois Treasures
In her survey of art collecting in late tsarist St. Petersburg, Irina Sokolova
demonstrates that, from the mid-nineteenth century to the First World War,
St. Petersburg was a cosmopolitan city crowded with Western intellectu-
als. Many of them were Protestant, Catholic, or Jewish and, along with the
Orthodox upper-class and bourgeoisie, were fond of collecting European
Renaissance and Baroque paintings and statues.2
The Imperial Hermitage and the Romanovs’ suburban residences of
Gatchina, Peterhof, and Tsarskoe Selo used to house the tsar’s most significant
Old Master collection in pre-1917 St. Petersburg. In the nineteenth century,
the imperial Western masterpieces gradually became accessible to Russian
and foreign artists and experts.3 Furthermore, the Imperatorskaya akademiya
khudozhestv [Imperial Academy of Arts] on Vasilevsky Island used to display
not only casts and copies but also original European Old Master works.4 The
1 All images in this article are reproduced with kind permission of the Ministero dei Beni
e delle Attività Culturali e del Turismo—Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Venice, Italy. All
rights reserved.
2 Irina Sokolova, The Russian Passion for Dutch Painting of the Golden Age: The Collection of
Pyotr Semenov and the Art-Market in St Petersburg, 1860-1910 (Leiden: Brill, 2015).
3 On the Hermitage’s evolution see Boris Petrovskii, Istoriia Ermitazha (Moscow: Iskusstvo,
2000).
4 Damiano Rebecchini, “An Influential Collector: Tsar Nicholas I of Russia,” Journal of the
History of Collections 22 (2010) 1: 45-67.
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most famous nineteenth-century St. Petersburg private gallery was that of the
French-Bavarian-Russian Dukes of Leuchtenberg.5 From 1853 to 1884, the col-
lection was located in Mariinsky Palace, where the Leuchtenberg widow, the
Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna (1819-76), a ravenous collector and patron-
ess herself, also used to keep some of her own Old Master paintings.6 Only in
rare cases did Russian and foreign connoisseurs get permission to visit these
two distinct collections. Most of the Leuchtenberg works were exhibited at the
Imperial Academy only for a couple of years in the mid-1880s and were later
moved to the Rumiantsev Mansion, where they were inaccessible to experts.7
Similarly, the Yusupov gallery on Moika, Count Pavel Sergeevich Stroganov’s
(1823-1911) and general Nikolai Egorovich Chelishchev’s (1807-66) mansions on
Sergeiskaia ulitsa, Count Petr Andreevich Shuvalov’s (1827-89) collection in
the Shuvalov-Naryshkin palace, Countess Mordvinova’s (Maria Aleksandrovna
Miliutina, 1822-83) gallery close to the Mariinsky Theater, and Princess
Kotchubey’s (Elena Pavlovna Bibikova, 1812-88) collection in the Belosselskii–
Belozerskii Palace were accessible only to special visitors and connoisseurs.
The same was true for viewing the artworks owned by Count Karl Robert
(Vasilevich) von Nesselrode (1780-1862), Emanuel Dmitrievich Naryshkin (1813-
1901), and Armenian general Ivan Davidovich Lazarev (Hovhannes Lazarian,
1820-79).8 In contrast, Count Sergei Grigorievich Stroganov’s (1794-1882) cel-
ebrated gallery on Fontanka was regularly accessible to artists and amateurs.9
Rediscoveries
Some papers that are placed in the Cavalcaselle Bequest at the Biblioteca
Nazionale Marciana in Venice and in the Crowe Bequest at the National
Art Library in London reveal new details on art collecting in St. Petersburg
5 Dwight C. Miller, “A Note on the Collection of the Duke of Leuchtenberg,” Paragone. Arte
16 (1990) 489: 76-83.
6 Serguei Androsov, “Collection de la Grande Duchesse Maria Nicolaevna et de Karl Edward
von Liphart,” Baltic Journal of Art History 1 (2012): 283-302.
7 Aleksandr Babin, ed., Russkie potomki frantsuskoi imperatritsy: Gertsogi Leikhtenbergskie
v Peterburge, exh. cat. (St. Petersburg: State Hermitage Museum and State Museum of the
History of St. Petersburg, 2011).
8 On the other collections see Oleg Neverov, ed., Great Private Collections of Imperial Russia
(New York: Abrams, 2004).
9 Penelope Hunter-Stiebel, ed., Stroganoff: The Palace and Collections of a Russian Noble Family,
exh. cat. (New York: Abrams 2000).
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in the 1860s.10 In September 1865, the Italian connoisseur Giovanni Battista
Cavalcaselle (1819-97) spent some weeks in town. He drew numerous sketches
and took interesting notes on the attribution, technique, conservation, and
provenance of some Old Master works that he analyzed in public and private
St. Petersburg collections. Cavalcaselle’s Russian papers reveal that this stay
provided him and his editorial partner, the British journalist, diplomat, and
expert Joseph Archer Crowe (1825-96), with the opportunity to improve their
connoisseurship and art historical knowledge. Cavalcaselle’s letters to Crowe,
his travel notebooks, and his notes in printed gallery guides, provide clues on
Russian art experts and collectors with whom he was in contact during and
after his stay in St. Petersburg.11
Western Old Masters placed in St. Petersburg and Moscow had already been
studied by the German expert Gustav Friedrich Waagen (1794-1868).12 Waagen
was invited to Russia by the tsarist court to update the attributions and the
display of the Western paintings located in the Romanov collection.13 Such
a distinct invitation provided him with the opportunity to visit, in 1861 and
1862, any collection in town which was usually closed to the public. As a result,
Waagen published a guide of the city’s art galleries in 1864.14 At the same time,
Waagen’s influential rejection of some generous attributions caused him some
issues with a few Russian collectors. Some “downgraded” artworks that he as-
signed to less famous painters were indeed later dispersed on the art market.
For instance, nowadays scholars ignore the present whereabouts of a Venere
[Venus] that, in the mid-nineteenth century, used to be proudly exhibited as a
work of Raphael in the Stroganov Gallery. Allegedly, Count Sergei Grigorievich
Stroganov undersold this painting because Waagen had attributed it to
Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio.15
10 Venice, Italy, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Cavalcaselle Bequest, Cod. It. IV, 2033
(=12274), Fascicolo IV [hereafter referred to as Marciana, MS], ff. 1-86. London, United
Kingdom, National Art Library (Victoria and Albert Museum), Crowe Bequest, Mis
cellaneous boxes bearing pressmarks 88.ZZ.40, 86.ZZ.41, 86.ZZ.42.
11 Donata Levi, Cavalcaselle: Il pioniere della conservazione dell’arte italiana (Turin: Einaudi,
1988), in particular 367, n. 205, and 421, n. 178.
12 Boris Aswarischtsch, “Gustav Friedrich Waagen in Russland,” Jahrbuch der Berliner
Museen 37 (1995): 61-73. See also Rebecchini, “An Influential Collector,” 49, and Sokolova,
The Russian Passion, 59-60.
13 Bernard de Koehne, Ermitage Impérial: Catalogue de la Galerie des tableaux (St. Petersburg:
Imprimerie Centrale du Ministère des Finances, 1863).
14 Gustav Friedrich Waagen, Die Gemäldesammlung in der Kaiserlichen Ermitage zu
St. Petersburg (Munich: Friedrich Bruckmann, 1864).
15 Waagen, Die Gemäldesammlung, 400; Aswarischtsch, “Gustav Friedrich Waagen,” 70-71.
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Unlike Waagen, Cavalcaselle came to St. Petersburg without any official
invitation. Maybe this is the reason why the Italian expert did not visit the
Romanov suburban residences or the Yusupov and Chelishchev collections.
Yet, like Waagen, Cavalcaselle managed to enter the Imperial Art Academy and
some other private collections. Similarly to Waagen, Cavalcaselle spent most of
his time in Russia in the Hermitage, focusing on the techniques of each master
and on the conservation of many major paintings. For instance, during his visit
to the museum’s display rooms, he analyzed a painting (fig. 1),16 which is now
thought to be a copy of the Madonna del latte [Virgin of the Milk] by Antonio
da Correggio (1489-1534).17 This copy, which is still located in the Hermitage
today, is now assigned to an anonymous painter.18 Cavalcaselle, on the contrary,
believed that the Hermitage copy was an original work by Correggio which had
been heavily restored by Ludovico Carracci (1555-1619), to whom the work was
actually assigned by the Italian connoisseur Adolfo Venturi (1856-1941) in 1926.19
Moreover, during his stay in the display rooms of the Imperial Hermitage,
Cavalcaselle drew a detailed sketch of the Barbarigo painting Ecce Homo (1570-
76) by Tiziano Vecellio (c. 1477/90-1576).20 The painting is now in the Pushkin
Museum’s storage in Moscow because, unfortunately, it was heavily damaged
in the late 1920s. Therefore, the sketch by Cavalcaselle (fig. 2) provides impor-
tant visual evidence of the state of conservation of the painting in 1865.21
In September 1865, Cavalcaselle noted that he did not have the chance to
visit the gallery of Count Mikhail Dmitrievich Buturlin (1807-76), mentioned
in Waagen’s 1864 guide, because it had been moved to Odessa.22 However, un-
like Waagen, he managed to visit the collection in the mansion of the wealthy
academic Nikolai Dmitrievich Bykov (1812-84) on the XII Line of the Vasilevskii
16 Venice, Italy, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Cavalcaselle Bequest, Cod. It. IV, 2033
(=12274), Fascicolo IV [hereafter referred to as Marciana, MS], f. 3r.
17 Correggio, Szoptató Madonna (Madonna del latte), c. 1524, oil on panel, 68.5 × 56.8 cm,
Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest, inv. 55.
18 Correggio (copy from), Мадонна с младенцем и ангелом (Madonna del latte), oil on
panel, 69.5 × 57.5 cm, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. 87.
19 Tatiana Kustodieva, Museo Statale Ermitage: La pittura italiana dal XIII al XVI secolo.
Catalogo della collezione (Milan: Skira, 2011), 193-94, n. 75.
20 Titian, Се человек, 1570-76, oil on canvas, 96 × 79 cm, State Pushkin Museum of Fine
Arts, Moscow, inv. 187. See Viktoriia Emmanuilovna Markova, Gosudarstvennyi muzei
izobrazitelnykh iskusstv imeni A. S. Pushkina: Sobranie zhivopisi. Italiia, vol. 1-2, here vol. 1,
Italianskaia zhivopis VIII-XVI Vekov (Moscow, Galart, 2002), 232-34, n. 137.
21 Marciana, MS, f. 84v.
22 Marciana, MS, ff. 12v and 54r: “Buturlin—Galleria portata in Odessa” [Buturlin—Gallery
moved to Odessa]. Waagen, Die Gemäldesammlung, 435-36.
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Figure 1 G. B. Cavalcaselle, Sketch from a copy from Correggio [?] [Hermitage, inv. 87].
Venice, Italy, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Cavalcaselle Bequest, Cod. It. IV, 2033
(=12274), Fascicolo IV f. 3r.
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Figure 2 G. B. Cavalcaselle, Sketch from Ecce Homo by Titian [Pushkin Museum, inv. 187].
Venice, Italy, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Cavalcaselle Bequest, Cod. It. IV, 2033
(=12274), Fascicolo IV f. 84v (detail).
Island, which was generally open to visitors and artists. Here, Cavalcaselle ana-
lyzed a Ritratto di giovane ragazza [Portrait of a Young Girl] on slate that he
assigned to Sebastiano del Piombo (c. 1485-1547). The present whereabouts
of this alleged masterpiece is unknown (fig. 3).23 This painting was not listed
in the inventory of Bykov’s late collection when it was put up for sale at the
Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts in St. Petersburg in 1884.
Additionally, the portrait was not even mentioned by Vladimir Viktorovich
Chuiko (1839-99) in his letter regarding the Bykov gallery to the Moscow jour-
nal Rossiia (1884).24
During his 1865 stay in Russia, Cavalcaselle was given permission to enter
some closed-off areas of the Hermitage, among them the storage and the
restoration laboratory. This was most likely possible due to the intercession
by someone who was extremely well-connected in the tsarist museum and
23 Marciana, MS, f. 78r. The painting was mentioned in Joseph Archer Crowe and Giovanni
Battista Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in North Italy (London: Murray, 1871), vol. 2, 359.
24 Spisok russkikh i inostrannykh kartin iz sobraniia N. D. Bykova, naznachennykh k prodazhe
s auktsiona v zalakh Imperatorskogo Obshchestva Pooshchreniia Khudozhestv v voskresene
14 oktiabria 1884 (St. Petersburg: Tip. V. Kirshbauma, 1884). See also Vladimir Viktorovich
Chuiko, “V kartinnoy galeree Bykova (pismo iz Peterburga),” Rossiia 35 (1884): 10-12.
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Figure 3 G. B. Cavalcaselle, Sketch from Bykov’s Portrait of a Girl by Sebastiano del Piombo
[present whereabouts unknown]. Venice, Italy, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana,
Cavalcaselle Bequest, Cod. It. IV, 2033 (=12274), Fascicolo IV f. 78r (detail).
artistic milieu of the mid-1860s. This unknown figure could perhaps be iden-
tified as the Russian painter of Italian origin, Fedor Antonovich Bruni (1798-
1875), who had been a curator at the Hermitage and became a teacher at the
Imperial Art Academy in 1865.25 Cavalcaselle drew two different sketches of
the Leonardesque Flora (1510-15),26 which is still in the Hermitage collection
today. Aside from these sketches, he noted that Bruni had said—to him or to
someone else who reported it to the Italian connoisseur—that under the pig-
ment film of Flora, there was an underdrawing showing a female figure with
bare breasts. It therefore seems plausible that Cavalcaselle and Bruni met in
25 On Bruni see Rebecchini, “An Influential Collector,” 52-55, and Sokolova, The Russian
Passion, 60.
26 Francesco Melzi (?), Флора, 1510-15, oil on panel transferred to canvas, 76 × 83 cm, State
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. 107. See Kustodieva, Museo Statale Ermitage, 227,
n. 208.
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St. Petersburg in September 1865 and talked about the attribution, conser-
vation, and provenance of Flora and allegedly even of some other Western
paintings.27
Perhaps thanks to his contacts, Cavalcaselle had the opportunity to ana-
lyze the Litta painting Scorticamento di Marsia [Flaying of Marsyas] by Agnolo
Bronzino (1503-72). He noted that the work was located in the museum’s res-
toration laboratory due to its extremely damaged state of conservation.28 In
September 1865, the Hermitage’s restorer Aleksandr Sidorov (1835-1906) was
in fact working on this painting with the aim to transfer it from a panel onto
a canvas. Just a few weeks later, on November 2, 1865, Sidorov was awarded a
silver medal celebrating his rescue of the painting.29
During his visit to the Hermitage in September 1865, Cavalcaselle drew
various sketches of details of the Barbarigo painting San Sebastiano [Saint
Sebastian] (c. 1570) by Titian (fig. 4).30 He noted, in September 1865, that
the painting was not on display in the museum: it was actually placed in the
Hermitage’s storage until 1895.31 Cavalcaselle was the first to realize that the
Saint Sebastian was not just a Titianesque sketch but a finished masterpiece.
He might not have studied the Saint Sebastian in the museum’s storage but
rather elsewhere in the Hermitage, where the painting might have been tem-
porarily hung in September 1865. In another of his Russian papers, Cavalcaselle
noted that he evaluated a Florentine Madonna con il Bambino e san Giovannino
[Virgin and Child with the Infant Saint John] (c. 1520)32 that was hung not in
27 Marciana, MS, f. 21v: “si dice che era nuda (Bruni)” [one says [the female figure] was
naked]. Marciana, MS, f. 51r: “Bruni dice nuovo panno si vedeva dietro il disegno di nudo
e non delle pieghe” [Bruni says [that the painting is on a] new canvas and [before the
transfer to canvas] one could see the underdrawing [with the] bare [breast] and not the
folder of the vest]. See Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting, vol. 2, 58, n. 1.
28 Agnolo Bronzino, Состязание Аполлона и Марсия, 1531-2, oil on panel transferred to
canvas, 48 × 119 cm, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. 250. See Kustodieva,
Museo Statale Ermitage, 116-17, n. 55. Marciana, MS, f. 20v: “non esposto—si [s]tacca dalla
tavola” [not on display—[the pigment film] is falling from the wood panel].
29 On the medal see State Hermitage Museum, Central Archive, MS, goda 1865; n. fonda 1;
n. opisi 5; n. ed. hr. 2/2, prot. n. 212, 142-4.
30 Titian, Святой Себастиан, c. 1570, oil on canvas, 210 × 115.5 cm, State Hermitage Museum,
St. Petersburg, inv. 191. Tamara D. Fomichova, The Hermitage Catalogue of Western
European Painting, vol. 2, Venetian Painting. Fourteenth to Eighteenth Centuries (Florence:
Giunti, 1992), 346-47, n. 261.
31 Marciana, MS, f. 74r. He analyzed some details of the Saint Sebastian on Marciana, MS,
ff. 12r, 13r and 13v.
32 Mадонна с младенцем и Иоанном крестителем, c. 1520, oil on canvas, 109 × 81.5 cm,
Russian Academy of Fine Arts Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. Ж-28.
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Figure 4 G. B. Cavalcaselle, Sketch from Saint Sebastian Barbarigo by Titian [Hermitage, inv.
191]. Venice, Italy, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Cavalcaselle Bequest, Cod.
It. IV, 2033 (=12274), Fascicolo IV f. 74r (detail).
the Hermitage’s display rooms then but on a wall located close to “the stair-
case where the [painting by?] Titian [is placed].”33 This Florentine work is
now attributed to Jacopo da Pontormo (1494-1557) and is placed in the Russian
Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg. Since all other artworks—apart from
the Saint Sebastian—which Cavalcaselle assigned to Titian during his visit to
the Hermitage were exhibited in the museum’s display rooms in 1865, the Italian
33 Marciana, MS, f. 20v: “nella Scala ove il Tiziano.”
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connoisseur might have had the opportunity to study the Saint Sebastian when
it was temporarily placed close to the painting now attributed to Pontormo. In
1866, Cavalcaselle and Crowe specified that the painting, now at the Russian
Academy, was located close to the Hermitage’s State Council Staircase, de-
signed by Andrei Ivanovich Stakenschneider (1802-65) in the 1850s.34
During his 1865 Russian stay, Cavalcaselle also studied the Leuchtenberg
and Maria Nikolaevna’s collections in the Mariinsky Palace. On this occasion,
he did not meet the Estonian connoisseur Karl Eduard von Liphart (1808-91),
Maria Nikolaevna’s advisor for Old Master purchases in Venice, Paris, London,
and Florence, who was actually in Great Britain with her in the autumn of 1865.
Thanks to Maria Nikolaevna’s intercession, Liphart was allowed to enter the
Imperial Hermitage’s storage in 1866. There, he found the Saint Sebastian by
Titian and realized that it was not an unfinished sketch but a finished master-
piece worthy of being exhibited in the Hermitage’s display rooms.35 This was
exactly the same judgment that Cavalcaselle had noted in his Russian papers
in September 1865 (fig. 4). It is not known when Cavalcaselle and Liphart met
for the first time and whether they shared their opinions on the Saint Sebastian
when they were both in Florence in 1867.36
Finally, on another sheet of Cavalcaselle’s Russian papers, in which the
Italian expert analyzed a painting which, in 1865, was placed in the Grand
Duchess’s collection in the Mariinsky Palace,37 an unknown Russian speaker—
it could not have been Cavalcaselle as he did not speak Russian—noted in
very personalized cursive Russian handwriting: “Turgeneff [sic] will come on
Saturday to see [the] two paintings that are in the closet from [the collection
of] Ivan Ivanovich” (fig. 5).38 Research on this note with the aim to identify its
author, the member of the Turgenev family, Ivan Ivanovich, and the two paint-
ings, most likely of small dimensions, since they were kept in a closet, is still
in fieri.
34 J. A. Crowe and G. B. Cavalcaselle, New History of Painting in Italy, vol. 3 (London: Murray,
1866), 581.
35 Androsov, “Collection,” 291, also n. 25.
36 On the relationship between Cavalcaselle and Liphart see Levi, Cavalcaselle, 371, 367, 412
and 421.
37 Piero di Cosimo, Nativity, c. 1500, oil on panel transferred to canvas, Ø 145.7 cm, National
Gallery of Art, Washington, inv. 1939.1.371.
38 Marciana, MS, f. 59v: “Turgeneff [sic]—въ субботу придетъ смо / треть двѢ картины
которыя въшкапу [sic] / отъ Ивана Ивановича.”
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Figure 5 Venice, Italy, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Cavalcaselle Bequest, Cod. It. IV, 2033
(=12274), Fascicolo IV f. 59v.
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