A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE EFFECTIVE DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF MPAs FOR SHARKS AND RAYS - 2019 REPORT - WWF Sharks
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A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE
REPORT EFFECTIVE DESIGN AND
2019 MANAGEMENT OF MPAs
FOR SHARKS AND RAYS
This project has been a collaboration between the Centre LEAD AUTHOR:
for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture Cassandra L Rigby, James Cook
(CSTFA) at James Cook University, Australia, and WWF. University
ABOUT WWF AUTHORS:
WWF is one of the largest and most experienced Colin Simpendorfer, James Cook
independent conservation organizations, with over University
5 million supporters and a global network active in Andy Cornish, WWF-Hong Kong
more than 100 countries. WWF´s mission is to stop the
degradation of the planet´s natural environment and
to build a future in which humans live in harmony with HOW TO CITE THIS WORK:
nature, by conserving the world´s biological diversity, Rigby, C.L., Simpfendorfer, C.A.
ensuring that the use of renewable resources is and A. Cornish (2019) A Practical
sustainable, and promoting the reduction of pollution Guide to Effective Design and
and wasteful consumption. WWF works to reverse Management of MPAs for Sharks
declining shark populations through Sharks: Restoring and Rays. WWF, Gland, Switzerland.
the Balance, a global initiative.
www.panda.org
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION:
sharks.panda.org
Evan Jeffries, Catherine Perry –
Swim2Birds Ltd
www.swim2birds.co.uk
ABOUT CSTFA
Research within the Centre for Sustainable Tropical
Fisheries and Aquaculture (CSTFA) focuses not only Published in May 2019 by WWF
on the aquatic and aquaculture systems that produce – World Wide Fund for Nature,
food, but also the industries and communities that Gland, Switzerland
utilise them. Multidisciplinary collaborations between
our researchers provide the synergies to address
Any reproduction in full or part
substantial research problems in a way that individual
must mention the title and credit
research groups cannot. CSTFA provides research
the above-mentioned publisher as
outputs for sustainable food production to local, state,
the copyright owner.
federal and international resource managers, both in
government and in the private sector. Thus, making us
a key player in helping secure aquatic food production COVER PHOTOGRAPH:
in the tropics for future generations. © naturepl.com / Cheryl-Samantha
www.jcu.edu.au/tropical-fisheries-and-aquaculture Owen / WWF
WWF and James Cook University would like to thank the Shark Conservation Fund for
its financial support of the James Cook University-led project, ‘Maximising outcomes
for shark and ray MPAs’, that contributed significantly to the production of content for
this Guide. Thanks also to the project’s partner institutions – the Australian Institute of
Marine Science, the University of Queensland and Simon Fraser University – and to the
project team for their input, comments and thoughts.
WWF International, WWF-Germany and WWF-Netherlands provided the financial
resources to produce and print this guide.
CONTENTS
ABOUT
ABOUT THIS GUIDE 5
SECTION 3
SPATIAL FISHERIES 16
SECTION 6
DESIGNING SHARK 32
MEASURES AND RAY MPAS
SECTION 1 SECTION 4
DEFINING GOALS 20
SECTION 7
EXISTING MPAS 6 MONITORING AND 40
AND OBJECTIVES FOR EVALUATION
SHARK AND RAY MPAS
SECTION 2 SECTION 5 INDEX
INFORMATION, 44
EFFECTIVE MPA 12 KEY INFORMATION 24
MANAGEMENT REQUIRED FOR ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PLANNING SHARK AND REFERENCES
AND RAY MPAS
3
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019
FEATURE 4 DATA 4 MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019
DATA
The Office of the Comptroller of benefitted from waivers from certain
the Currency is warning banks provisions of the SRA Handbook, an
to review their risk management extraordinarily dangerous precedent for
programs and take necessary a licensing authority, which purports to
precautions against escalating be consumer-focused, to establish.
attacks by fraud-minded hackers. Once again, the security of the waivers
from rules rooted in the LSA and
In an alert issued to national banks designed for the protection of the
and federal savings associations, the consumer, enables ABSs to operate
regulator is warning of Distributed their business and adopt practices
ABOUT THIS GUIDE
Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks being which are not necessarily consistent
used to perpetrate customer account with the best interests of clients. In
fraud. A DDoS attack seeks to deny addition, the recent removal of the
Internet access to b ‘sunset clause’ in the LSA to allow
viser who is ‘tied’ to certain products. ABSs to remain in the Solicitors’
Concentrating on the latter, the new Compensatio Shark and ray numbers are declining globally,
rule is dangerous, because it allows and a quarter of all species are believed to be
legal practices to absolve themselves threatened with extinction.1 Marine protected
of all responsibility by transferring the areas (MPAs) can potentially play a key role
risk to the financial adviser. Further, the in protecting and conserving shark and ray
absence of any incentive to monitor the populations – but for MPAs to be effective their
performance of the financial adviser to planning, design and management need to
ascertain whether or not the referral reflect the unique characteristics of these species.
was in the client’s best interests could
actually encourage lawyers to make MPAs for sharks and rays need clear goals, objectives
referrals where the risk transfer is in line and conservation targets. They must incorporate
with their own interests. the considerable scientific knowledge on shark and
ray movement, biology and habitat use alongside
ABS WAIVER POLICY socioeconomic and cultural considerations; and they
Another case in point is the treatment must be well managed and enforced in the long term.
of Alternative Business Structure (ABS)
applications during the SRA’s first 12 This Guide has been produced to provide practical,
months as a licensing authority. When science-based advice on how to maximize the
the concept of non-lawyer ownership effectiveness of both new and existing shark and ray
was unveiled, legitimate concerns were MPAs, to ensure these animals are protected now
raised over the SRA’s ability to properly and far into the future. While it will be of interest to
assess the suitability of prospective, anyone wanting to know more about the subject, it’s
and in some cases, international, particularly aimed at:
investors in ABSs. In response, the
© Jarrett Corke / WWF-Canada
SRA asserted that it was acutely aware ● Authorities responsible for marine habitat and
of the risks posed to consumers by species protection
complex structures and the involvement ● N ational fisheries managers
of external investors. However, the ● Regional fisheries management organizations
regulator’s credibility was subsequently (RFMOs)
called into question when three of ● N GOs and other conservation practitioners
the first seven ABS licences granted ● Shark and ray tourism operators.
5
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019
SECTION 1 EXISTING MPAS ● Introduction to MPAs ● Shark and ray species suited to MPAs ● Key features of effective shark and ray MPAs
SECTION 1
© Daniel Versteeg / WWF
EXISTING MPAS
SHARKS AND RAYS IN CRISIS
Sharks and rays are facing a global crisis. Many species are in decline
due to overfishing,2 while populations are also being impacted by
habitat degradation and loss.3 To compound these pressures, sharks
and rays tend to be slow to recover when their numbers fall: they
typically grow slowly, mature at a late age, and have few young.
The conservation of sharks and rays is urgent and crucial. Many species play
vital roles in the marine ecosystem, and their loss would cause major long-
term issues for the environment.4 They’re also important for food security,
and they generate income in many countries through fishing and tourism.5
© Ethan Daniels / WWF
INTRODUCTION: fishing and retention of shark and ray The majority of these shark and ray
MPAs encompass countries’ entire
products, and sometimes a ban on all
SPATIAL MANAGEMENT trade of shark and ray products, all within a exclusive economic zones (EEZs),
AND MPAS clearly defined area. They may also include and are sometimes referred to as
Support is growing for the use of seasonally closed areas, spatial fishery ‘shark sanctuaries’. Their large size
spatial management to protect closures, and fishing gear restrictions. helps ensure they have the potential
sharks and rays. Its purpose is to to protect not only inshore coastal
protect sharks and rays from major species but also the highly mobile
threats, such as overfishing and sharks and rays that range into
habitat loss, as well as to reduce open waters offshore.
the level of these impacts.
Most shark and ray MPAs have
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are the only been in place since 2009: as
main tool used in spatial management. they’re relatively new, monitoring,
They come in many forms – from large, evaluation and adaptive
zoned multiple-use areas to small management are particularly
important.
38
no-take marine reserves – all aiming
to restrict activities that affect marine IN 2018, SOME 38
life within a defined area, thereby There are also many general MPAs
EXISTING SHARK
benefiting biodiversity and improving that have been implemented to
AND RAY MPAS
ecosystem resilience.6 MPA governance protect a broad range of marine
COVERED A TOTAL
varies widely, from government control species and habitats. Although they
AREA OF ABOUT
21
to local management. aren’t designed solely for sharks
21 MILLION and rays, they do provide protection
Some MPAs have been implemented when they’re large enough and
KM2, OR
6%
specifically for shark and ray conservation in the right areas to cover key
– in this Guide, we refer to them as 6% OF THE movements, critical habitats or life
‘shark and ray MPAs’. These usually OCEAN SURFACE stages, such as nursery areas or
incorporate a ban on shark and ray breeding grounds.7
7
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019
SECTION 1
EFFECTIVE SHARK AND RAY MPAS
EFFECTIVE MPAS
PROTECT PROTECT POSITIVE
REDUCE
SPECIES FROM CRITICAL CONSERVATION
MORTALITY
KEY THREATS HABITATS OUTCOMES
habitats for part or all of their
© naturepl.com / Doug Perrine / WWF
blacknose shark, can be protected
lives tend to benefit the most. by inshore MPAs.8 Aside from reefs,
inshore habitats important for
These reef-dwelling species include: sharks and rays include mangroves,
rey reef shark
● G seagrass beds and sand flats.9
hitetip reef shark
● W n Inshore MPAs can also protect
iger shark
● T sawfishes which inhabit shallow,
lacktip reef shark
● B
coastal areas including estuarine and
freshwater habitats.10
calloped hammerhead
● S
ide-ranging species that predictably
n W
urse shark
● N
use an open water area can benefit
ilvertip shark
● S
from appropriately placed offshore
harptooth lemon shark
● S MPAs. These can protect habitat
alapagos shark
● G hotspots or migratory corridors,
lacktip shark
● B such as the corridor between the
aribbean reef shark
● C Galapagos Marine Reserve and the
Scalloped hammerhead sharks, iant manta rays
● G Cocos Island National Park used by
Galapagos Islands eef manta rays
● R a variety of species including silky
sharks and scalloped hammerheads.11
The effectiveness of MPAs for
However, since most scientific studies
sharks and rays depends on ONLINE RESOURCE
the overlap between their area have focused on MPAs around reefs
of spatial protection and the there may be an element of bias in For interactive information on
animals’ movements and critical these findings. Other species can also how different shark and ray
habitats. These vary widely by benefit: species’ movement distances and
species, meaning MPAs are more mall-bodied shark species that spend
n S distribution overlap with existing
effective for some types of shark their lives in inshore coastal habitats, MPAs, visit https://rossdwyer.
and ray than others – research such as the sharpnose shark and shinyapps.io/sharkray_mpa/.
suggests those that use reef
8
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019
The table below shows some examples of shark and ray species that have responded well to MPA protection, and the benefits
and factors involved in each case (other species may also benefit in each MPA, but the data quoted relates to specific studies).
GENERAL MPA YEAR SIZE SPECIES EVALUATION BENEFIT FACTOR FOR
DESIGNATED (KM2) BENEFITED METHOD BENEFIT
COCOS ISLAND 1978 1,997 Scalloped UVC-diver Occurrence Reef-associated site
NATIONAL hammerhead, observers increased over fidelity, tiger shark
PARK, COSTA tiger shark, over 21 years, time in MPA, long-term residents,
RICA12 Galapagos shark, telemetry seasonally resident stop-over for scalloped
blacktip shark, hammerheads and
whale shark whale sharks
GLOVERS 1997 328 Caribbean reef Telemetry Stable population No-take zone
REEF MARINE shark, nurse shark & fishery- over time, surrounded by area
RESERVE, independent frequently occurring with regulated fishing,
BELIZE13 longline survey within MPA habitat connectivity
KOMODO 1980 1,520 Reef manta ray Telemetry Predictable feeding Aggregation site
NATIONAL & visual and cleaning fidelity in protected
PARK, observation aggregation sites area
INDONESIA14 in MPA
MORETON 2016 3,205 Giant guitarfish Telemetry Sub-adults No-take zone in critical
BAY MARINE seasonally seagrass habitat
NATIONAL PARK, prevalent
AUSTRALIA15
Table 1: General MPA benefits to sharks and rays
© naturepl.com/naki Relanzon/WWF
Reef edge areas can offer particular conservation benefits for shark and ray species
BEHAVIOUR FACTORS Bay, Ningaloo Marine Park, ● Critical habitat (important for
Australia.17 Juvenile pigeye a particular species, such as
The main shark and ray behaviours
sharks spend several years in breeding, nursery and feeding
which determine the selection of
Cleveland Bay, Great Barrier Reef grounds) New-born and juvenile
effective MPA areas include:
Marine Park, Australia.18 scalloped hammerheads occur
● Residency and site fidelity seasonally in the Rewa River MPA, Fiji.20
(remaining in a particular ● Philopatry (repeatedly Reef manta rays form regular feeding
area) Caribbean reef sharks are returning to a particular area) aggregations in Komodo Marine Park,
long-term residents of Glovers Nurse sharks seasonally return Indonesia.21 Whale sharks aggregate
Reef Marine Reserve, Belize.16 to breed in the Dry Tortugas in their hundreds every summer to
Juvenile sharptooth lemon National Park, Florida, USA.19 feed in the Yucatan Peninsula Whale
sharks remain within Mangrove Shark Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.22
9
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019
SECTION 1
MPAS OFFER VARYING LEVELS OF PROTECTION
TO INSHORE REEF SPECIES AND ALSO TO WIDE-
RANGING SPECIES THAT REGULARLY AND
PREDICTABLY USE A PARTICULAR AREA
KEY FEATURES OF
© NASA
EFFECTIVE SHARK
AND RAY MPAS
● Isolated – separated from
fished areas by habitat
boundaries such as depth.
The area doesn’t have to be
remote – it could comprise
reefs separated by deep water
that reef sharks and rays do
not frequently cross.23
● Old age – long-term
protection. Time is needed
for benefits to accrue. This
is particularly important for
many shark and ray species,
which are long-lived, mature
late and have few young – as
such, their populations are
slow to rebuild.
● No-take or reduced fishing
pressure – decreased shark
and ray mortality helps reduce
population decline and can
help depleted populations
rebuild.
● High-value habitat – nursery
areas (for both juvenile
feeding and protection from
predators),24 breeding areas
and feeding areas for a variety
of life stages are particularly Individual reefs separated by deep water. Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Satellite
valuable habitats. image courtesy of NASA
10
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019MPAs operate most effectively NON-TARGETED TAKE
when they combine spatial
protection and complementary Sharks and rays may be captured while fishing for other species. They are not
fisheries management measures being targeted but are still caught, becoming ‘non-targeted take’ or ‘bycatch’.
to reduce mortality. Even if they’re required to be released the animals may be dead when brought
to the fishing boat, or die soon after release – non-targeted take mortality is a
serious threat to many shark and ray populations worldwide.
SEE SECTION 4
MPA SIZE
© Hélène Petit / WWF
If well designed, all sizes of MPAs
can be effective for sharks and rays:
● Large shark and ray MPAs
(>100–100,000km2)25 offer
protection of a wide range of habitat
types used by many shark species
at different life stages; protect
pelagic sharks whose home ranges
extend beyond coastal areas of most
MPAs; and encompass a mosaic
of ecologically connected habitats
beneficial for wide-ranging sharks.
● Small shark and ray MPAs
(SECTION 2 EFFECTIVE MPA MANAGEMENT ● Shark and ray MPA characteristics to enable optimum management ● Good governance and effective management ● Solutions to common management issues
SECTION 2
© Beautiful Destinations
EFFECTIVE MPA MANAGEMENT
An effective shark and ray
GOOD GOVERNANCE30 n Adaptive management
MPA will have these essential framework that allows
n Clearly defined, legitimate,
characteristics:28 performance monitoring
equitable and functional
and flexible governance,
n W ell-defined goals and objectives governance arrangements,
with capacity to incorporate
n Suitable size, location and design
including the political will to
improvements and maximize
to deliver goals implement the MPA. Transparent
effectiveness
anagement plan to reach goals decision-making processes
n M n Functioning legislative and
n Clearly defined, fairly agreed and
and clear responsibilities for
institutional frameworks
implementation
legislated boundaries n Permitted extractive activities
n Fairly represents and addresses
n Support from key local (if any) well managed and
stakeholders, particularly fishers the needs of society, rights-
regulated
n Resources and capacity for
holders and stakeholders.
n Adequate financial resources
implementation. and capacity, including
EFFECTIVE personnel
This requires good governance and MANAGEMENT31 n Effective and appropriate
effective management, usually best compliance investment
n A management plan or
achieved through a combination
equivalent, with a periodic review n Communications strategy to
of top-down and bottom-up inform stakeholders, build
and amendment process for
approaches with community trust and ownership, increase
updating objectives, conservation
involvement.29 participation.
targets and management
MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS
Every shark and ray MPA is unique, but key management issues are common
across the board. The most frequent are discussed below.
INSUFFICIENT When a shark and ray MPA is designated, particularly at a large scale, it is essential that
RESOURCES enough resources are committed for effective management. If not, there’s a risk that
it will simply be a ‘paper park’ that fails to properly restrict access and exploitation,
or reduce threats.32 Financial resources and technical capacity are both needed for
management, monitoring and enforcement.33
Many shark and ray MPAs are in developing countries,34 and external assistance may
be required with resources and capacity-building, both initially and on an ongoing
basis. This assistance needs to be coordinated with local communities and MPA users,
to ensure the support of key local stakeholders, particularly fishers. Buy-in from these
groups and others such as tourism operators can also strengthen monitoring and
enforcement, especially in remote areas.
13
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 2
© Antonio Busiello / WWF-US
Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi) with hook. Roatan, Bay Islands, Honduras.
INADEQUATE This is a major issue in some existing shark and ray MPAs, with illegal fishing
ENFORCEMENT reported in the Marshall Islands, Palau and Honduras.35 Surveillance is often restricted
to patrol boats and fisheries staff, and logistics can mean that response times to
reported illegal activities are slow.
However, improving technology and decreasing costs for remote surveillance – eg
using satellite data and drones36 – could prove useful for enforcement, particularly in
large shark and ray MPAs.
SEE SECTION 5
14
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019POOR PLANNING Despite a prohibition on such activities, inadequate planning has led to continued trade
in shark products and sometimes targeted capture within some shark and ray MPAs. In
the Maldives shark and ray MPA, cross-institutional arrangements weren’t in place when
the ban on shark fishing and trade was abruptly announced, and legislative conflicts
meant that trade of shark products was not regulated. There was no formal stakeholder
consultation, and little provision for alternative livelihoods for the shark fishers. As a
result, and with a lack of education and awareness, many fishers continued shark fishing
after the ban.37
Cross-institutional alignment, stakeholder engagement, education, communication
and awareness are all essential in planning effective MPAs. Consideration of alternative
income sources and livelihoods is important to engage public support.38 Sometimes shark
tourism has the potential to generate an alternative non-consumptive revenue stream for
the local economy – but not all fishers can easily adapt to such a major change in their
way of life, and their needs must be carefully considered and managed.39
FISHING MORTALITY The most effective way of reducing shark and ray mortality is for MPAs to have strictly
enforced no-take areas – however, it’s not always practical or socioeconomically and
culturally acceptable to completely prohibit fishing, particularly across large areas and in
developing countries that depend on marine resources for economic and food security.40
A spatial ban on target shark fishing and trade in shark products is a more tolerable
solution in such locations, and should still reduce mortality levels.
It’s also feasible to work with the fishing industry and regulators to change fishing
practices and gears within MPAs to reduce shark and ray bycatch: this has been an
ongoing process in tuna fisheries in the Pacific and other regions,41 although it’s essential
that results are monitored to determine how far the threat has been reduced.42
Measures and methods which can reduce shark and ray bycatch mortality include:43
n A ban on wire leaders on tuna longlines and other line fishing gears
n U se of circle hooks instead of J-hooks
n T rials of permanent magnets, rare earth metals and other electrical measures to reduce
shark and ray attraction to baited hooks
n T rials of LED lights on gill-nets (see https://sharks.panda.org/stories-from-the-field/
seeing-the-light-in-reducing-wildlife-bycatch)
n B est-practice at-vessel handling and release methods
n M anagement/retrieval of abandoned fishing gear
n F ish aggregation device (FAD) design to eliminate shark entanglement
n C hanged night/day setting depending on species behaviour.
SHARK AND RAY Shark and ray MPAs can’t always completely protect species from the threat of
MOVEMENT BEYOND MPA fishing mortality, because animals often move beyond the MPA boundaries.44
Greater protection and reduction of fishing mortality requires complementary
strategies such as ecosystem-based management approaches or fisheries
management outside the MPA.45
15
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 3
SPATIAL
FISHERIES
MEASURES
● Some shark and ray
MPAs are based on
fishery management
tools – from gear
restrictions to
closures – within
specified areas
● Improved
conservation
outcomes can
be achieved by
combining spatial
protection and fishery
management tools
Blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus
melanopterus) hunting at night,Yap,
Federated States of MicronesiaSECTION 3
© Simon Lorenz / WWF-Hong Kong
SPATIAL FISHERIES MEASURES
Spatial protection alone may Some large-scale MPAS – such as the fishing industry, regulatory
not be enough to reduce Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine agencies and RFMOs.
shark mortality to levels Park – integrate a range of fisheries
which allow population management measures. Multiple Fishery management measures applied
rebuilding, so additional zones ranging from no-take to general in a spatially defined area haven’t
regulation and reduction of use exist alongside fisheries effort traditionally been viewed as a type of
fishing effort can enhance controls, gear restrictions and size and MPA, but this is changing. The ‘other
catch limits to manage and conserve effective area-based conservation
conservation outcomes.46
biodiversity (including sharks and rays) measures’ acknowledged in the Aichi
Fisheries management and
across a large area.47 Such planning Biodiversity Target 11 have a new
spatial protection are certainly
needs to be carried out in cooperation definition which now includes ‘area-based
not mutually exclusive.
with relevant stakeholders including fisheries management measures’.48
IUCN DEFINITION: MARINE PROTECTED AREA
“A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and
managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-
term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and
cultural values.”
Although the IUCN’s widely adopted definition requires an MPA’s primary
objective to be conservation, this excludes other types of spatial protection
which can also contribute but which have different primary aims – such as
area-based fisheries management measures and areas designated under
marine spatial planning processes.
GEAR RESTRICTIONS
© Simon Lorenz / WWF-Hong Kong
Fishing gear restrictions in a spatially
defined area can provide conservation
benefits to sharks and rays, but today MPAs
are largely based only on spatial protection.
In some regions spatial gear restrictions
may be more socially acceptable than
complete spatial closures, for example
among small-scale fishers whose
traditional fishing grounds are coming Silvertip shark (Carcharhinus albimarginatus), Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia
under pressure with increased fishing
effort and reduced catches. continues. Many Pacific island countries leaders on tuna longlines, shark and ray
with large shark and ray MPAs depend bycatch mortality is reduced. This gear
Similarly, gear restrictions within shark economically on commercial tuna restriction is in force in the Marshall
and ray MPAs can reduce bycatch fishing, so are in no position to ban Islands, Cook Islands and the Federated
mortality while commercial fishing it – but by, for example, banning wire States of Micronesia.49
17
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 3
SUCCESSFUL GEAR RESTRICTIONS
© Jürgen Freund / WWF
Whaler sharks (Carcharhinids) benefit from fisheries
management measures in a number of tropical
MPAS: their biomass has been found to increase in
response to restrictions on all fishing gear except for
hook and line.50
© Brian J. Skerry / WWF
Towed bottom-fishing gear has been prohibited in a 340km2
area on the south coast of the UK since 1978. Both the
spotted skate and smalleyed skate have heavier individuals
within the restricted gear area, the benefits of the refuge
resulting from its coverage of suitable habitat combined
with the limited movement of the rays.51
© Simon Buxton / WWF
A permanent spatial ban on shark longline and
dropline gear is in place in Western Australia. This
was implemented in 1993 to protect breeding stocks
of large whaler shark species, the sandbar shark and
dusky shark.52 Both are important to fisheries, but the
gear closure area provides them with a spatial breeding
refuge.53
SPATIAL FISHERY bycatch levels, while minimizing n Some pelagic species taken as
loss of fishery yield.54 bycatch in tuna fisheries – such as
CLOSURES silky sharks, shortfin mako, blue
n Seasonal fishery closures in
Fixed area seasonal fishery closures shark and great hammerhead
fixed areas have been proposed
have been suggested to conserve – have been shown to occupy
to protect the Endangered
some varied species of sharks and predictable areas, or ‘habitat
speartooth shark in northern
rays: hotspots’.56 Spatial, seasonal
Australia. This species migrates
fishery closures in these hotspots
n A three-year seasonal spatial seasonally, so the proposed
could lessen bycatch, although
closure was modelled as an closures aim to protect its
targeted take would likely be
effective way of ensuring most frequently used seasonal
reduced too – hence to date no
recovery of a thornback skate habitats while maximizing open
spatial closures are known to
population threatened by high areas for fisheries.55
have been introduced by any
18
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019tuna RFMOs. However, with
silky sharks there are areas of SUCCESSFUL SPATIAL CLOSURES
persistent high non-targeted
take of small sharks that are
© Boris Pamikova / Shutterstock
spatially distinct from high tuna Since 2007, a network of
catch areas. These areas could spatial closures has been
be appropriate for seasonal designated within a fishery
protection, reducing non-targeted in eastern and southern
pelagic shark take with the least Australia. This is enabling the
loss of targeted tuna catch. recovery of two gulper shark
species – Harrisson’s dogfish
spatial closure to trawl fishing
n A and southern dogfish – both
was proposed in Costa Rica to of which were significantly
a depth of 100m in an area depleted by fishing. The
where fishing grounds overlap closures, implemented
© Rudolf Svenson / WWF
with habitat for threatened through legislation,
sharks and rays. It could be encompass the species’
reasonably enforced through movement within their home
the use of the Automatic ranges. Biomass declines have
Identification System (AIS) halted, although recovery is
vessel tracking system, which is likely to take decades due to
a cost-effective solution.57 This the species’ longevity and low
later led to a more widespread productivity.58
ban on trawling in Costa Rica.
© Brent Stirton / Getty Images / WWF-UK
Documenting MPAs and WWF projects in Tanzania, East Africa
19
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 4
DEFINING
GOALS AND
OBJECTIVES
FOR SHARK
AND RAY MPAS
● How to define MPA
goals and objectives
● How multiple-zone
MPAs help sharks
and rays
● Remember the rays!
Waisomo villagers prepare to drop
anchor for a buoy marking Fiji's first
marine protected areaSECTION 4
© Meg Gawler / WWF
DEFINING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES FOR
SHARK AND RAY MPAS
Can other relevant activities be
There are a range of reasons for protecting sharks and rays, regulated? Is inshore or offshore
and these will influence the nature of the protection that’s put protection more appropriate?
in place. Broadly speaking, MPA objectives can be grouped into
n What resources are available?
three main categories:59
COMMON AIMS
The central conservation purpose of
spatial management is to maintain
viable populations of sharks and rays in
their natural surroundings.60 A variety
of goals and objectives can address this
overall aim in shark and ray MPAs:
ECOLOGICAL ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND n Assess and protect from key threats
Protect Safeguard human CULTURAL – overfishing, habitat loss and
climate change
biodiversity, habitats livelihoods and fishery Promote tourism,
n Restore and recover depleted
and threatened species sustainability education and research
populations – reduce shark
mortality, protect critical habitat
Conserve critical habitats, migration
Clearly defining and stating goals and
REALISTIC OBJECTIVES: n
corridors and critical life stages
objectives is an essential first step in
creating and managing an MPA. This KEY QUESTIONS n Conserve threatened species or
enables focused design, assessment The objectives must be realistic to be subsets of species
of effectiveness, and determination effective – and the resources needed n Protect biodiversity and ecosystem
of success. to achieve them must be available. health, benefiting multiple species
This means being clear on some basic n Protect biodiversity hotspots,
questions: prioritizing areas with high
EFFECTIVENESS concentrations of endemic species
The ability n What shark and ray species need threatened by habitat loss61
and capacity to be protected? Are they inshore n Protect evolutionary distinctness,
coastal species, or offshore open- prioritizing irreplaceable species with
of an MPA to
water species? few close relatives62
accomplish
n Ensure sustainability of sharks and
its goals n Which fisheries in the area catch rays caught in targeted fisheries and/
sharks and rays? Do people rely on or as non-targeted take
SUCCESS them for income or food? Do other n Reduce mortality – to enable
human activities (e.g. oil and gas recovery to sustainable levels
The
extraction) affect sharks and rays? n Improve socioeconomic benefits
accomplishment
– capitalize on shark and ray
of an MPA’s n Which spatial and fisheries measures contribution to cultural, economic
goals most effectively minimize threats? and tourism values.
21
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 4
All these objectives can be enacted at a local, regional and national level. Some contribute directly to
higher-level shark and ray policies and conventions, including:
International and National Plans of Action
The Memorandum of Understanding on Conservation of Migratory Sharks
The Convention on Biological Diversity (Aichi Targets 11 and 12)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Protect sharks and the ecosystem they
support…shelter over 100 Western Pacific
shark and ray species threatened or near
MPA GOALS threatened with extinction…maintain
One key question is whether the integrity of our marine ecosystem.”
MPA aims to protect all sharks and
Palau shark and ray MPA
rays in its spatial area, or to focus
on a particular threatened species:
A refuge for the protection and conservation
SINGLE SPECIES
of marine mammals and sharks…
May be more relevant for highly
threatened species such as sawfish. Appropriate measures will be taken to
Species-based conservation ensure protection of sharks and their
targets are more likely to ensure
critical species-specific habitat
habitats from the negative impacts of human
requirements are addressed.63 activities, whether direct or indirect, actual
MULTIPLE SPECIES or potential.”
Shark and ray community species Dutch Caribbean shark and ray MPA
may respond differently to the
same threat depending on their life CASE STUDY: GLOVERS REEF MARINE RESERVE
history traits, such as the size of
The Glovers Reef Marine Reserve (GRMR) in Belize is a good example of an
their home range or the speed of
effective general MPA which has achieved success for sharks in line with its
recovery once protected.64 Effective
clearly stated goals. The Caribbean reef shark is one of the species targeted
protection of multiple species
for conservation in the GRMR’s management plan,66 and long-term monitoring
may increase the conservation
over 13 years indicates that populations have remained stable with no
contribution of an MPA.65
apparent changes in population size or structure.67 A high proportion of the
To decide on the most appropriate sharks are resident, and all life stages are present across a range of habitats.
approach, identify the shark and Caribbean reef sharks are more abundant within the GRMR than in fished
ray species and life stages that reefs outside its boundaries.
are to be conserved, along with
the critical habitat(s) required by The MPA’s success is attributed to a combination of its large size, remote
the species in question. Then use location, old age, active enforcement regime, and a multi-zoned approach
this information to determine where a large no-take zone with diverse and connected habitats is
optimal locations where an surrounded by larger zones with regulated fishing that includes gear
MPA could be placed to achieve restrictions.68 Research and monitoring along with community participation
conservation goals. also contribute to the MPA’s effectiveness.
22
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019MULTIPLE ZONED MPA
TE
L E ON E
Z
NO - O M P
E
US
C
MULTI-USE ZONE
NO-TAKE AREA
LAND
BUFFER ZONE
MULTIPLE ZONES its protection of a wider range of habitat
RAYS
types contributes to conservation of
The multiple zone approach incorporates Rays receive less attention than sharks,
different shark species and life stages.70
multiple objectives into a single MPA. A yet they’re currently more threatened.
good example is Australia’s Great Barrier The most threatened species include
Reef Marine Park, which encompasses IUCN PROTECTED sawfishes, wedgefishes, stingrays and
a wide range of aims across different
areas, from strict biodiversity protection
AREA MANAGEMENT guitarfishes.72 Some of the large shark
and ray MPAs include ray protection in
to sustainable resource management.69 CATEGORIES their regulations, including in the Dutch
The zones – based on four of the six 1. Strict nature reserve and Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands,
IUCN protected area management wilderness area the Cook Islands, New Caledonia and
categories – are like different types of II. National park the Maldives.73 Rays are not, however,
MPAs with varying levels of protection, III. Natural monument or feature included in the regulations of large
which work together to form a network IV. Habitat/species management MPAs in the Bahamas, Honduras and
within one larger MPA. area the Marshall Islands.
V. Protected landscape or seascape
The multiple zone MPA approach offers VI. Protected areas with sustainable The first nationwide MPA created
protection to mobile shark species by use of natural resources71 specifically for ray conservation was
reducing their exposure to fisheries, while announced for Belize in October 2017.74
23
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 5
KEY
INFORMATION
REQUIRED FOR
PLANNING SHARK
AND RAY MPAS
●E
ffective spatial
protection for sharks
and rays depends on
knowledge of their
movement, biology
and habitat use75
●T
he conservation
contribution of MPAs
can be increased
by focusing on
biodiversity hotspots
and threatened
species
● I nformation on
socioeconomic
factors is critical
to the ecological
success of MPAs76
The Glovers Reef Marine Reserve
in Belize, a good example of an
effective MPA for sharks.SECTION 5
© Beautiful Destinations
SPATIAL PROTECTION
MOVEMENT
Source: V. Udyawer unpublished data Australian Institute of Marine Science
Movement of sharks and rays is the AVERAGE HOME RANGE WHALE SHARK
main type of information needed
when considering spatial protection
– knowledge of movement patterns BLACKTIP
and life stages will determine where REEF SHARK
an MPA should be located, and how BLUESPOTTED
large an area it should cover, in FANTAIL RAY
order to best protect mobile species
from fishing and other threats.77
In recent decades acoustic and satellite
0.44 km2
telemetry, as well as conventional
tagging, have provided a large amount
316 km2
of information on a wide variety of
shark and ray species’ movements,
74,000 km2
some specifically in relation to MPAs.78
There’s a growing understanding of:
n The type, scale and timing of
Different species have home ranges of different sizes
movement patterns
n Home range size
n Site fidelity
n Connectivity
distribution and individual movements.
BIOLOGY AND
These models use environmental
n Critical habitat requirements. characteristics from the habitats of ECOLOGY
For futher infrmation see Rapid tagged animals to find other similar The biology and ecology of sharks
Assessment Toolkit for Sharks and Rays areas of potential species occurrence.80 and rays partly drive their movement
patterns. Key aspects include
Much of this is available via internet
For example: reproduction, feeding and migration
searches on a shark or ray species and
n Large-scale migration telemetry data – these are linked to site fidelity,
movement – and even if information on
was used in a habitat selectivity repeated use of critical habitats,
a particular species or group of species is
model to confirm that a network and ecological connectivity between
not available, data from similar species or
of MPAs on Australia’s west coast habitats.
groups could be used as a proxy source.79
provides important habitat and
n A good starting point is
www.shark-references.com
protection to whale sharks. The data
also revealed other large areas of
CRITICAL HABITAT
n Detailed species-specific movement MPAs are often criticized as being
suitable habitat in the wider region
data is available at too small to provide effective
that could become priority areas for
https://rossdwyer.shinyapps.io/ protection to highly mobile, wide-
whale shark conservation in future.81
sharkray_mpa ranging shark and ray species.
n A species-distribution model was
used to project the probability of the However, protection of shark and
If the area proposed for protection is
presence of Critically Endangered ray habitats critical to life history
larger than the area for which tagging
or telemetry information is available, angelsharks in the coastal waters (breeding, nursery and feeding
movement data models can project of the Canary Islands, providing areas; migratory routes) contributes
additional spatial planning information key information for the design of to the conservation of some species
on habitat selectivity, species effective spatial protected areas.82 and populations.84
25
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 5
© Jürgen Freund / WWF
Knowledge of migratory movements should be incorporated into existing and future MPAs for a wide variety of species,
including the whale shark.
Many shark species segregate by closures to protect whaler sharks94 aggregation area has been discovered
size and sex, with mature females, n Western Australia – spatial fishery further east along the peninsula:104
juveniles and new-borns residing in closures to protect southern dogfish adaptive management would provide
different habitats at times.85 Juveniles and whiskery sharks.95 a mechanism to act on this new
and new-borns show site fidelity information.
to shallow, inshore habitats, which Other species that show breeding site
provide them with feeding grounds fidelity include the blacktip reef shark,96 LIMITED MOVEMENT
and shelter from predators.86 Some bull shark,97 grey nurse shark,98 Port
Some species – particularly smaller
general MPAs around the world have Jackson shark,99 lemon shark100 and
skates and rays, and some smaller
shown that they can offer significant smooth stingrays.101
sharks – show limited movement
protection to these young animals,
throughout their lives. Information on
for species including grey reef shark,87 Site fidelity – for juveniles and adults
the presence of these types of species
pigeye shark,88 grey smoothhound,89 alike – is also related to the availability
in an area can show if spatial protection
lemon shark,90 sharptooth lemon of prey. This can cause aggregations
of their habitat will be effective.
shark,91 Caribbean reef shark, blacktip of animals (whale sharks and manta
Examples of these species include:
shark, spinner shark, milk shark, nurse rays are known to aggregate for
n The nervous shark – inhabits
shark and southern stingray.92 feeding) which may make species more
nearshore, shallow waters105
vulnerable to fishing mortality.102 Spatial
n The epaulette shark and Pacific
Some shark and ray species repeatedly protection can be used to reduce
angelshark (and others) – prefer
return to the same areas, often for mortality where these aggregations
complex bottom habitats106
breeding. This breeding site fidelity has are predictable – the Whale Shark
n T he deepwater Kermadac spiny
been used in a number of cases as the Biosphere Reserve on Mexico’s
dogfish – protected in the Kermadac
basis for shark conservation: Yucatan Peninsula, for example, was
Islands Marine Reserve, which
n Dry Tortugas, Florida – seasonal designated specifically to protect
encompasses most of its known
closures to protect nurse sharks93 whale sharks aggregating to feed.103
distribution.107
n Western Australia – spatial gear Since the designation, another feeding
26
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019MIGRATORY ROUTES n Silky sharks and scalloped hammerheads
OCEANIC MPAS
migrating between the Galapagos
Migratory routes are important Many shark and ray MPAs include
Marine Reserve and the Cocos Island
habitats for a range of sharks and rays. open ocean areas where highly mobile
National Park could be protected by
Increasing information is available on species such as the oceanic whitetip
a migratory corridor MPA.120
the migratory movements of a wide shark occur: if oceanic MPAs are
variety of species,108 including: established and their regulations are
● Whale sharks109 ONLINE RESOURCE respected, then such species will be
● Deepwater leafscale gulper sharks 110 protected. The proposed Galapagos-
● Bull sharks111 MigraVia Cocos migratory corridor (see above)
● White sharks112 For more than a decade, MigraVia would essentially be an oceanic MPA.
● Reef manta rays113 has been generating information
● Silky sharks114 on the movement of migratory Some pelagic sharks – eg shortfin
● Scalloped hammerheads.115 species in the Eastern Pacific. mako, blue shark, great hammerhead
You can find out more at http:// – occupy habitat hotspots which
These and other studies recommend that migramar.org/hi/en/migravia-2/ vary according to seasonally shifting
knowledge of migratory movements ocean temperatures and primary
should be incorporated into existing productivity. Dynamic spatial and
and future MPAs to increase protection, temporal closures may be more
particularly for threatened species.116 appropriate than fixed measures
to protect them, leaving room for
ECOLOGICAL greater management flexibility.
AND HABITAT In the case of the tuna industry, where
CONNECTIVITY non-targeted sharks and rays are also
Movement of sharks and rays taken, although dynamic closures may
between habitats can be essential have economic consequences for the
for activities such as feeding and target species industry, they would
breeding. It can be challenging to
provide protection to wide-ranging
MPA NETWORKS deliver a conservation benefit to shark
and rays. Dynamic spatial closures
adult sharks and rays and species A network of ecologically
of this kind have been successfully
that don’t show site fidelity, but connected MPAs can enable habitat
implemented to limit the catch of non-
it is still possible in some cases connectivity – and reduce exposure
target species in an Australian longline
to include ecological connectivity to fisheries – across a wide area.
tuna fishery.121
of habitats in spatial design to
improve population viability and
© WWF-Indonesia / Amkieltiela
conservation outcomes.117
Sometimes this movement occurs on
a scale that enables protection of the
adults. For example:
n Silvertip shark and large male grey reef
shark protection could include closely
spaced reef habitats (SECTION 5
CONSERVATION CONTRIBUTION
A biodiversity hotspot is often face the highest risk of extinction – in
EVOLUTIONARY
defined as an area with a high most cases this matches the species
concentration of endemic species most threatened by overfishing. DISTINCTIVENESS
threatened by habitat loss;122 There’s a general consensus that all
although it can also signify an area The most threatened sharks and elements of biodiversity should be
of general species richness (not rays tend to be large-bodied, conserved, including evolutionary
solely endemic) where habitat loss shallow-water species that are information.126 The ‘evolutionary
may not be an issue. most accessible to fisheries. The distinctiveness’ (ED) concept is that
most threatened family of all is species on the longest evolutionary
the sawfishes, with other mainly branches represent a greater degree of
inshore families of large rays also evolution, are more distinct, and have
highly threatened – wedgefishes, few close relatives: their loss would
guitarfishes, sleeper rays and mean a disproportionately large loss of
stingrays. Angel sharks and thresher evolutionary information than in the case
sharks are also at great risk.125 If of more recently evolved species with
these families can be included in the many close relatives. With this in mind,
design of an MPA, its conservation ED may be useful to consider when
contribution will be increased. setting MPA conservation priorities.127
ENDEMIC SPECIES EDGE SPECIES
only exist in one geographical area
Aichi Target 11 of the Convention on
Biological Diversity aims to preserve
areas of importance for taxonomic
biodiversity.123 In the case of sharks
and rays, with more than 1,100 species
globally, a prioritization of biodiversity
hotspots is needed.
© Shutterstock / Andrea © LuisMiguelEstevez / © Wild Wonders of Europe /
There are biodiversity hotspots for Izzotti / WWF Shutterstock Staffan Widstrand / WWF
sharks and rays in nearly all waters
of the countries where they’re fished The Edge of Existence programme ( www.edgeofexistence.org) lists
most intensively.124 Finding out the top 50 shark and ray species with the highest ED and most threatened
the number of species in an area, conservation status. The highest ranked EDGE shark and ray species are
and whether they’re endemic or sawfishes, angelsharks and guitarfishes.
threatened, helps inform how an
MPA can make a contribution to To maximize the conservation regions as prime locations for shark and
biodiversity protection. contribution of an MPA, it’s usually best ray conservation. The regions are:
to focus on a combination of these ● Southwest Pacific Ocean
THREATENED SPECIES hotspot biodiversity metrics – endemics, ● Northwest Pacific Ocean
The IUCN Red List of Threatened species richness and ED. A recent ● Southwest Indian Ocean
Species ( www.iucnredlist.org) study128 examines these metrics to ● Western Africa
identifies which shark and ray species identify 21 countries across five hotspot ● Southwest Atlantic Ocean.
28
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS
● People must be included in Community stakeholders should be In developing countries, community
conservation plans engaged from the initial planning governance of MPAs is common.
● Build up social capital and equity stages and through the design and It’s particularly important to explore
● Sharks and rays may contribute management process, since the how to build social capital with
to food security and income MPA will regulate and modify their communities, especially trust and
● MPAs need to balance behaviour.130 It’s particularly important transparency in local leadership;
protection with economic to understand how local people and long-term support and positive
and subsistence needs view the MPA – unless they perceive outcomes will likely depend on
benefits, their support is less likely.131 an equitable distribution of MPA
benefits.136 Local and traditional
WORKING WITH Within communities there may also knowledge may assist in design and
COMMUNITIES be different perceptions, depending planning of a shark and ray MPA,
on the roles and skills of the people particularly if data is lacking.
concerned: for example, some fishers
may not feel able to adapt to the Socioeconomic data on communities
loss of a fishing way of life, and may affected by MPAs is crucial. It can
feel marginalized from the tourist be spatial – such as tenure area,
activities replacing their traditional subsistence and artisanal fishing
living.132 Social inequity of this kind grounds; or non-spatial – such
can cause conflict,133 and needs to as education, livelihood options,
be avoided – it’s essential to engage material assets, and perception
with all stakeholders to build social of MPAs. Information on all of
licence (trust, respect, support). these areas was gathered to
create multiple use MPAs in Raja
If a proposed MPA will reduce Ampat, Indonesia, which were later
income or food security in the local incorporated into the Raja Ampat
community, alternative income Shark Sanctuary.137 Stakeholders
sources, livelihood options and were given the opportunity to
WWF has produced a fair compensation should all be review the draft zoning plans to
detailed guide to shark and considered. So too should people’s produce final plans: these both
ray tourism, which includes capacity for resilience – their ability satisfied guidelines for resilient MPA
guidance on building strong to cope with and adapt to external design, and were supported by the
relationships with local change. This is likely to vary between community and government.138
communities. The guide individuals and demographic groups.134
Stakeholder partnerships within
is available for free at
Socioeconomic and cultural shark and ray MPAs are useful to
sharks.panda.org/tools-
considerations in MPA planning are promote good fishing practices,
publications/tourism-guide
likely to vary between developed to gather catch and release
and developing countries. In a few information, and to increase
STAKEHOLDER of the large shark and ray MPAs – the value of sustainable catches
ENGAGEMENT specifically Palau, the Marshall Islands
and the British Virgin Islands – the
through certification. Direct
stakeholder engagement can
To achieve effective conservation needs of local communities have also play a critical role in adaptive
outcomes in an MPA, the social and been considered and incorporated management, particularly in
economic needs of the people it into the regulations, which allow for light of the increasing effects of
affects must be taken into account.129 subsistence shark fishing.135 climate change.
29
MPA Guide | Sharks and Rays 2019SECTION 5
COMPLIANCE AND of a fishing community who’ll apply
positive social pressure on their peers
ENFORCEMENT to comply; or to build up a sense of
The ecological success of MPAs depends stewardship in maintaining shark and
heavily on people complying with their ray resources for the community.145
regulations.140 Stronger monitoring and
enforcement are known to improve Introducing positive incentives to
MPA effectiveness, but these can be change people’s perceptions may
challenging and expensive, particularly also achieve compliance more
in larger MPAs.141 cost-effectively than monitoring
and enforcement.146 Understanding
Technology can help. Access to how to apply these incentives can
WHO HOLDS A satellite data, vessel monitoring be valuable, whether that involves
STAKE IN AN MPA? systems (VMS) or automatic users participating in management
Stakeholders can include identification systems (AIS) can all decisions, promotion and education
many groups with a vested improve surveillance capacity. Some about the benefits and regulations of
interest in an MPA – initiatives that use VMS and AIS, such MPAs, or the promotion of traditional
including local community as Global Fishing Watch, provide knowledge.147 Communities can also
information in almost real time.142 be engaged to assist with monitoring
groups and traditional
owners, the fishing industry, and enforcement through education
The ability to enforce regulations will and outreach, and with the
environmental NGOs, ethical
depend on considerations like the development of community-derived
investment funds, financial
number and capacity of patrol boats, regulations.148
institutions, governments
fisheries and MPA staff: assessing
and others.
and prioritizing these resources Compliance in MPAs is stronger
efficiently is important.143 when engaged and empowered
fishers and local communities
In some circumstances, promoting
STAKEHOLDER voluntary compliance may reduce
work together with administrators,
researchers and NGOs in a co-
AWARENESS the need for strict enforcement. management scheme. In areas where
AND COMMUNITY This involves focusing on people’s tourism operations regularly occur,
EDUCATION behaviour, perceptions and these too can assist in monitoring.
motivations; all of which can be In some cases – such as at Fiji’s
Raising awareness of the value
influenced by social and personal Shark Reef and at Monad Shoal in
of protecting sharks and rays –
norms. Understanding these norms the Philippines – tourism operators
and the role of MPAs in doing
can reveal routes towards behaviour have some limited enforcement
so – should be an integral part of
change: for example, it may be powers, reducing the burden on local
MPA planning and management.
possible to involve trusted members authorities.
In addition, stakeholders need to
understand the structure of the
MPA’s design and governance, GOVERNANCE
and how it will impact them and
their community. Complex spatial [Governance is defined as] who makes
planning processes may also
need to be explained. Ongoing
decisions and how those decisions
education and outreach is are made. Governance also describes
essential to provide communities
who has the influence, authority and
with the information they require
on the MPA process, as well accountability with respect to the rights
as updates on monitoring and of all legitimate parties.”149
adaptive management changes.139
30
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