A Look at the Approaches to Multicultural and Anti-Racist Education Through the Lenses of Critical Race Theory: The Reported Benefits and Failures
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Journal of Advanced Research in
Education
ISSN 2709-3980
www.pioneerpublisher.com/jare
Volume 2 Number 1 January 2023
A Look at the Approaches to Multicultural and
Anti-Racist Education Through the Lenses of Critical
Race Theory: The Reported Benefits and Failures
Rawia Azzahrawi1
1
University of Manitoba, Canada
Correspondence: Rawia Azzahrawi, University of Manitoba, Canada.
doi:10.56397/JARE.2023.01.01
Abstract
Multicultural and anti-racist education are pedagogies developed to include all students, despite their
cultural and lingual backgrounds. As educative pedagogies, they recognize the importance of ethnic
and cultural diversity in affecting people’s existence, social involvements, identities, and educational
opportunities (Gay, 2004). This paper presents various approaches that encourage curriculum reform
through the lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT). The paper highlights the efficacy of the different
approaches in providing equal opportunities for students from diverse racial, ethnic, linguistic, and
cultural backgrounds to succeed academically.
Keywords: multicultural education, Critical Race Theory, diversity, curriculum reform, anti-racist
education
1. Introduction cause a crisis of identity stemming from the fact
In today’s classrooms, race, socio-economic that children and their parents are physically
status, gender, ethnicity, languages, and distant from what they call their “homeland,”
religious beliefs are elements of diversity in while they are culturally and linguistically
education. Students and their families distant from their adopted country. McAndrew’s
immigrate to Canada from other countries for (2009) study of the academic performance of
myriad reasons including looking for a safe youth immigrants showed fewer positive
place to live, for better opportunities, for greater features in immigrant students’ performance
access to medical services, and to obtain an compared with other groups in terms (p. 15).
advanced education (Canadian Immigration With increasing diversity in Canadian
Law Firm’s report, 2016). classrooms, different teaching pedagogies are
Researchers such as McAndrew (2009) and required (Li et al., 2019; Paniagua et al., 2018;
Shalabi (2012) argue that the traditional Wong et al., 2020), and the need to incorporate
public-school system does not adequately differences among students becomes
recognize the difficulties minority students face challenging. Research has found that the
while trying to cope with two cultures. This can dominant forms of knowledge and ways of
thinking can be seen in many elements of
1Journal of Advanced Research in Education
schools’ systems, such as within curricula, socially acceptable in most places in the western
language teaching, and epistemology (Baker, world; however, covert racism has emerged,
2001; Dei, 1996; Dovidio, Gaertner, Kawakami & causing uncensored values and negative feelings
Hodson, 2002; Nieto, 2017). Accordingly, (Dovidio et al., 2002).
emphasis on group relations and understanding This paper presents various approaches that
among culturally and linguistically diverse encourage curriculum reform through the lens
students becomes a priority (McLeod & Smolska, of Critical Race Theory (CRT). The paper
1997, p. 2). examines the efficacy of the different approaches
Banks and Banks (2001) and Gay (2004) assert in providing equal opportunities for students
that multicultural education can be defined as from diverse racial, ethnic, linguistic, and
curricular framework emphasizing ethnic and cultural backgrounds to succeed academically.
cultural diversity. They stressed the importance According to various researchers (Creswell, 2007;
of multicultural education in social Jefft et al., 2011; Manji, 2021), CRT can aid in
involvements, identities, and educational understanding how racism functions both
opportunities. Multicultural education, individually and structurally within society. It
according to Banks and Banks (2001), is an idea, also emphasizes the socially constructed and
an educational reform movement, and a process discursive nature of race while focusing on
geared toward changing the structure of schools racial subordination and prejudice.
to provide equal opportunities for males and Furthermore, when CRT is used in research, the
females, exceptional students, and students from investigator puts race and racism front and
diverse racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural center in all aspects of their study and
backgrounds to succeed academically in school. challenges conventional research texts and
Anti-racist education recognizes that students’ worldviews. Therefore, CRT assists in
outcomes are affected by racism, sexism, examining multicultural approaches from a
classism and heterosexism which are rooted in critical perspective. The paper will start with a
the social structure (James, 1995, p. 33). Dei brief overview of the CRT. It will then examine
(1996) asserted that anti-racist education is a the multicultural and anti-racist approaches
way to criticize the use of power and privilege through the lens of CRT by highlighting the
“to elicit social reward and mete out social reported benefits and failures. The paper ends
punishment/penalty along the lines of race and by emphasizing the critical aspect of
social difference. It means an exploration of multicultural and anti-racist education in
issues of race, class, gender, and sexuality as developing global identities among students
sources of socially constructed difference” (p. that can communicate, respect, and understand
254). Anti-racist education should provide all others.
students with the necessary skills to challenge 2. An Overview of the Critical Race Theory
oppression and eliminate domination (James,
The CRT movement was created by a collection
1995). Scholars (e.g., Banks 2004; Dovidio, 2001;
Dovidio et al., 2002; Gibson, 1984; Sleeter & of scholars such as Derrick Bell, Alan Freeman,
Kimberlé Crenshaw, Angela Harris, Cheryl
Grant, 2007) have discussed different
Harris, Mari Matsuda, and Patricia Williams,
approaches that support curriculum reform and
multicultural and anti-racist education. Cultural who were examining the correlation between
race, racism, and power (Delgado & Stefancic,
and linguistic diversity are integral parts of
2017). CRT examines the assumptions behind
multicultural and anti-racist educational
approaches (Flores et al., 2009; Robinson, 2011). the call for equal rights and attempts to
re-examine equality and power relations among
Different cultures around the world have been
groups. It goes beyond traditional civil rights
affected by racism and colonialism. Racism is a
social phenomenon characterized by different and ethnic discourses to place these
relationships in economic, historic, and social
behavioral practices and shaped by factors such
settings (Coello et al., 2003).
as history, politics, economics, and context.
Azzahrawi (2020) believes that many cultures Delgado and Stefancic (2017) have established
face various types of discrimination because of basic tenets for CRT as follows: (1) racism is
their different views from the dominant culture. ordinary, not aberrational, and it permeates our
After the success of the Civil Rights Movement society at all levels, not just loud, blatant
in the United States, overt racism is no longer happenings; (2) there is an interest convergence
2Journal of Advanced Research in Education
in our society, where racism advances the encounters?” (p. 299). The challenge is not the
interests of most White people irrespective of complete silence of ‘Others’, but the refusal of
their socioeconomic status which creates a the dominant to hear the voice of ‘Others’ (Jones,
lacking of incentive to change things; (3) race 1999).
and racism are products of social thought and When using CRT, the multicultural approach is
construction; (4) differential racism exists, in seen to develop the cultural knowledge of
which the dominant society will often racialize diverse cultures and less as an action plan to
different minority groups in accordance with defeat social injustice among minorities.
economic and political currents. Therefore, Gibson (1984) argues, there is no
3. Approaches to Multicultural and Anti-racist reason to assume that classes directed toward
Education Through the Lenses of CRT studying ethnicity and cultural perspectives will
In this section, I have used CRT as a conceptual stop prejudice and discrimination. Furthermore,
framework to examine multicultural and educational institutions may see multicultural
anti-racist education approaches, and their role education as ensuring “color blindness” to
in student empowerment in education. This confirm equality and inclusiveness for all
section will cover: (1) the multicultural approach, students. However, education scholars (Howard,
(2) the contribution approach, (3) the additive 2010; Rios et al., 2014; Urrieta, 2009) have argued
approach, (4) the transformation approach, (5) that educational practices that appropriate
and teaching the exceptional and culturally “color blindness” ideologies are not color
different student. blindness at all. Rios et al. (2014) claimed that
these strategies of erasure are simultaneous
3.1 The Multicultural Approach
practices of whiteness (pp. 87-88). These
The multicultural approach recognizes the many “colorblind” ideologies “reproduce racial and
influences on a person’s life. This approach cultural hegemony in school practices’’ (Howard,
acknowledges that an individual’s existence is 2010, p. 53).
characterized by one’s values, beliefs, thoughts, Despite its challenges, the multicultural
language, customs, and actions (Garcia et al.,
approach plays a critical role in students’
1991). Advocates of this approach (Banks, 2019;
empowerment. This approach seeks to change
Gibson, 1984; Sleeter & Grant, 2007) use the school culture and organizations, and to
phrase “multicultural education” to clarify
represent and empower diverse groups of
methods that support human rights, social
students. According to Gibson (1984), the
justice, equal opportunities, cultural diversity, multicultural approach aims to produce learners
and the distribution of power equally among
who can work successfully in different societies.
oppressed groups. Research carried out by
It develops a fuller understanding of one’s
Grant and Sleeter (2007, 2011) and Grand and heritage and traditions, strengthens one’s
Chapman (2021) claims that this approach
identity, and increases motivation and academic
requires inclusive education that transforms
success. Moreover, the multicultural approach
mainstream society into a culturally diverse reduces prejudice and discrimination, increases
society, where all people have equal opportunity
educational opportunities and social justice, and
for success. Curriculum content is reorganized
develops language competence (Gibson, 1984). It
to incorporate diverse racial and ethnic groups, also strengthens the validation and
genders, and social classes in this approach.
authentication of students’ identities. Carr and
Inviting others to participate in multicultural Klaussen (1997) purport that one of the purposes
dialogue has its challenges, especially the of multicultural education is to “validate the
problematic imperialist assumption that often lived experiences of an increasingly diverse
underlies it. According to Gibson (1984), this student body” (p. 67).
approach tends to overemphasize ethnic identity.
3.2 The Contribution Approach
Jones (1999) questioned, “What if “togetherness”
and dialogue-across-difference fail to hold a The contribution approach focuses on heroes,
compellingly positive meaning for subordinate holidays, and separate cultural events. In this
ethnic groups? What if the “other” fails to find approach, the curriculum remains unchanged in
interesting the idea of their empathetic its fundamental structure, goals, and main ideas
understanding of the powerful, which is (Banks & Banks, 2010; McCreary, 2009). Ethnic
theoretically demanded by dialogic content may be limited to particular days or
3Journal of Advanced Research in Education
events such as Martin Luther King Day, Black the heroes’ contributions to society. Also, it is a
History Month, Women’s History Month, or one-time experience with an ethnic hero that
Asian Heritage Month, decorating the walls does not reflect the hero’s role in the total
with displays of ethnic art and inviting cultural context of society.
performers into school assemblies, events which Furthermore, the stories of people of color,
are celebrated in schools. Also, in this approach, women, and anyone who challenges the
teachers have the opportunity to highlight dominant society are neglected, and included in
people’s contributions to society. According to ways that misinterpret their real meaning and
Lintner (2004), in the contribution approach, contributions to history (King, 1992). Rosa Parks
teachers can educate students about African is an example of a muting of cultural heroes; she
American contributions to liberate society from became the “tired seamstress” rather than a
the existing historical subjectivity of stereotypes, lifelong community activist (Dyson, 2000).
prejudices, and biases towards African Martin Luther King, Jr. became a sanitized folk
Americans and other minority groups. hero who enjoyed the support of all good
However, these activities do not help teachers Americans rather than being the FBI’s public
and students question systems of racial power. enemy who challenged an unjust war and
Many of the heroes in their communities are economic injustice. Cumming-McCann (2003)
invisible in dominant societies’ textbooks and argued that the heroes represented in this
teaching materials (Banks & Banks, 2010). approach tend to emphasize the myth: “If you
Besides, teaching about heroes and holidays work hard enough, you can make it.” (p. 10).
does not ensure any discussion of oppression, The implications are that if you do not “make it”
social inequity, human rights, justice, and you must not be trying hard enough. Heroes are
struggles with racism and poverty. The taken out of a cultural context and viewed from
Contributions Approach does not study an a dominant perspective, which can reinforce
ethnic cultures’ uniqueness and different stereotypes by presenting a limited
characteristics. It strengthens stereotypes and understanding of ethnic cultures
misconceptions. Therefore, students are not (Cumming-McCann, 2003).
helped to understand them as complete and 3.3 The Additive Approach
dynamic wholes (Banks & Banks, 2010). Even
though teachers might engage students in In the additive approach, concepts, themes, and
ethnic content are added to the curriculum
lessons or experiences related to the dominant
without changes to its basic structure (Banks &
culture and history, little attention is given to the
history and culture of ethnic groups. Banks, 2010). It is “the first phase in a
transformative curriculum reform effort
In the contribution approach, the curriculum designed to restructure the total curriculum and
remains unchanged concerning its principles, integrate it with ethnic content, perspectives,
goals, and characteristics. It gives the impression and frames of reference” (Banks & Banks, 2010,
that diversity is celebrated; however, people’s p. 241). This approach can help students draw
knowledge of other cultures and ethnicities is connections to real-world examples and support
minimal (Banks & Banks, 2010). While teachers’ and students’ efforts to be creative,
multiculturalism encourages us to look at authentic, and original. It also utilizes
societies as a mixture of different but equal collaborative and cooperative learning when
pieces, societies still privilege white people with ethnic content is added. Gorski (2017) argues
unequal political, social, and economic power. that creating and sustaining bias-free and
Multicultural education seeks to celebrate discrimination-free communities requires
differences rather than recognize the colonial everyone to understand that this represents a
and economic relations that marginalize basic responsibility.
racialized peoples. McCreary (2009) believes that When using a multicultural curriculum,
this approach fails to provide learners with the educators should be able to (a) recognize subtle
critical tools necessary to build a truly forms of bias, inequality, and discrimination; (b)
transformative education. Furthermore, Banks be thoughtful and equitable when responding to
and Banks (2010) argue that selecting ethnic bias and inequity; and (c) correct discrimination
heroes for the school curriculum originates from and inequity, not only by addressing individual
the viewpoint of the dominant society, not from bias, but also by studying the process by which
the perspectives of ethnic communities, limiting
4Journal of Advanced Research in Education
social change occurs in larger groups. Gorski 3.4 The Transformation Approach
(2006) asserted that the additive approach In the transformation approach, the curriculum’s
reflects a minor shift to inequitable conditions fundamental goals, structure, and perspectives
because the content is disconnected from a are changed. Students are encouraged to view
larger transformational process, and it cannot be concepts, issues, and themes from several ethical
considered multicultural education. Educational perspectives. According to Banks and Banks
materials, events, concepts, ideas, and issues are (2010), this approach permits students to
presented in this approach from a dominant criticize and analyze groups’ social positioning
perspective and mainstream historians (Stearns, through how knowledge is presented. The
2003). CRT’s advocates challenge both the White transformation approach advances the
privilege and the claims that educational fundamental right of all students to engage in
institutions make towards objectivity, core academics and arts, and it addresses the
color-blindness, race, neutrality, and equal urgent need for students to develop social and
opportunity (Solorzano & Yosso, 200; Yosso, intellectual skills to expand understanding in a
2005). At the same time, concepts, themes, and diverse society. It also develops students’
ethnic content about marginalized groups are criticality of their cultural, linguistic, familial,
added to the curriculum; yet inequities, academic, artistic, and other forms of
oppression, and Eurocentric perspectives are not knowledge.
challenged.
Banks and Banks (2010) state that teachers
Banks and Banks (2010) believe that the additive should assist students in becoming acquainted
approach fails to help students understand how with how these arts were shaped in society and
the dominant and ethnic cultures are how ethnic groups have contributed greatly to
interrelated and fail to assist students in viewing literary traditions. Furthermore, when students
society from diverse cultural and ethnic study the nature of English and proper language
perspectives. Furthermore, they suggest that it use, educators should support them in
limits the students’ understanding of how the understanding the linguistic richness and
histories and cultures of the diverse groups are language diversity in society and how a wide
organized and the effect of the dominant culture range of multicultural groups have influenced
on their oppression. Content, materials, and the development of several societies (Banks &
issues are added to curriculua as additions Banks, 2010).
instead of being an essential part of the
However, to apply this approach, a complete
curriculum. For this reason, teachers and
students may face a variety of problems since transformation of the curriculum is required.
Teachers must be willing to deconstruct and
students lack both the content background and
challenge their existing knowledge, critically
the attitude sophistication to participate
effectively (Banks & Banks, 2010). Furthermore, search for alternative perspectives, and include
voices and ideas other than those traditionally
Stearns (2003) believes that the additive
presented to them from the mainstream cultural
approach can reflect the impression that there is
one central culture and everyone else is perspective. Nieto and Bode (2008) stated that
multicultural curriculums must be antiracist to
fortunate to be included, which is not a healthy
be inclusive and balanced. They also believed
multicultural perspective. Furthermore, the
additive approach does not fundamentally that it is essential to teach students the beauty
and the ugliness of our history “rather than
change the power structures embedded in the
viewing the world through rose-colored glasses.
school or educational system.
Antiracist and multicultural education forces
Examining the additive approach using CRT teachers and students to take a closer look at
“shifts the research lens away from a deficit everything as it was and is, instead of just how
view of Communities of Color as places full of we wish it were” (Nieto & Bode, 2008, p. 45).
cultural poverty disadvantages, and instead
3.5 Teaching the Exceptional and Culturally
focuses on and learns from the array of cultural
knowledge, skills, abilities and contacts Different Student
possessed by socially marginalized groups that Teaching the exceptional and culturally different
often go unrecognized and unacknowledged” approach is concerned with helping students
(Yosso, 2005, p. 69). from different cultural backgrounds, including
students with disabilities, adapt to the school’s
5Journal of Advanced Research in Education
and society’s mainstream demands. The ultimate anti-racist education are curricular frameworks
goal of this approach is “building bridges to the developed to include all students, despite their
curriculum that enable students to succeed and cultural and lingual backgrounds. Treating each
adapt to the requirements of the traditional student with dignity, appreciation, and respect is
classroom” (Grant & Sleeter, 2007, p. 11). This essential for effective and inclusive teaching.
approach assumes that education is an However, to have anti-racist and multicultural
investment that allows individuals to gain skills education, educators need to recognize the
for successful employment that certain groups essential role of race and ethnicity in shaping
have not achieved because their home and students’ identities, behaviors, and beliefs.
cultural environments are different from Acknowledging students’ race and ethnicity will
mainstream environments. allow educators to understand students’
Grant and Sleeter (2007) believe that most attitudes and behaviors.
teachers using this approach typically maintain I firmly believe that education in multicultural
high expectations for their students. They and anti-racist settings and environments is a
believe that the traditional curriculum is useful driving force behind global coexistence,
for all students but must be adapted to various collaboration, productivity, and strong
students’ needs. Teachers using this approach leadership. Brownlee (2022) and de Guzman et
“[take] responsibility for making sure that al. (2016) agree that incorporating students with
learning happens. They find out what works for diverse cultural practices, beliefs, and
their students and what does not. They figure contributions, and supporting them to
out how to fill in gaps in learning or supports communicate with other groups in school and
for learning” (Grant & Sleeter, 2007, p. 11). society, will ultimately assist in developing more
Further research conducted by Grant and Sleeter cohesive and productive communities. The
(2007) identified several significant weaknesses global population consists of many different
in this approach. They believed that there was cultures and identities. Various studies
minimal research on how to teach students of (Gerrard,1994; James, 2013; Shaeffer, 2019;) have
color, and that the methodology itself was too confirmed that opening societies’ minds to
restricted because it placed the weight of different languages, cultures, identities,
eliminating racial discrimination on individuals principles, justice, and inclusiveness can occur
of color and their teachers, instead of sharing through education. It might be a struggle for
responsibility with the general population, some students to find the motivation to stay in
particularly Whites (Grant and Sleeter, 2007). school when the cultural aspects that are
important to them have no value in school. This
Banks and Banks (1995) argued that achieving
feeling of security will affect how people
equity in teaching means changing strategies
understand their relationship to the world and
and the classroom environment. It also means their future possibilities.
respecting and including students with diverse
racial backgrounds, skills, and attitudes and References
helping create a democratic society. Furthermore, Azzahrawi, R. (2020). Emphasizing
multicultural education, “must deal with the Multicultural and Anti-racist Pedagogies as
total culture of the school. It must be aware of One Aspect of Decolonizing Education.
the differential treatment of students who have Canadian Journal for New Scholars in
very dissimilar experiences because of certain Education/Revue canadienne des jeunes
differences based on race, gender, culture, or chercheures et chercheurs en éducation, 11(1),
class” (Ghosh & Galczynski, 2014, p. 4). 36-43.
4. Conclusion Banks, C. A., & Banks, J. (1995). Equity
CRT investigates the assumptions behind equal pedagogy: An essential component of
rights and seeks to reexamine what constitutes multicultural education. Theory into Practice,
equality and power relations between groups. 34(3), 152-158.
Race and racism are products of social thought https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849509543674.
and construction. Racism exists, in which the Banks, J. A. (1993). Multicultural education:
dominant society often racialize different Historical development, dimensions, and
minority groups in accordance with economic practice. Review of Research in Education, 19,
and political currents. Multicultural and 3-49. doi: 10.2307/1167339.
6Journal of Advanced Research in Education
Banks, J. A. (2004). Multicultural education: Guzman, J. M., & Potthoff, K. L. (2016,
Historical development, dimensions, and February). Cultural competence an
practice handbook of research on important skill set for the 21st century.
multicultural education. In J. Banks, & C. Nebraska Extension Guide.
McGee Banks (Eds.). Handbook of Research on https://extensionpublications.unl.edu/assets
Multicultural Education, (2nd ed.), pp. 3-29. /html/g1375/build/g1375.htm.
Jossey-Bass. Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical Race
Banks, J. A., & Banks, M. (2010). Multicultural Theory: An introduction (3rd Ed.). NYU
education: Issues and perspectives (7th ed.). Press.
John Wiley & Sons. Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2013). Critical race
Banks, J. A. (2019). An introduction to theory: The cutting edge (3rd Ed.). Temple
multicultural education. Pearson Education. University Press.
Bell, D. A. (1980). Brown v. board of education Dovidio, J. F. (2001). On the nature of
and the interest-convergence dilemma. contemporary prejudice: The third wave.
Harvard Law Review, 93(3), 518-533. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 829-849.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1340546. Dovidio, J., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., &
Brownlee, T. (n.d.). Chapter 27, Section 8. Hodson, G. (2002). Why can’t we just get
Multicultural collaboration. Community along? Interpersonal biases and interracial
Toolbox. distrust. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic
https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/cultu Minority Psychology, 8(2), 88-102.
re/cultural-competence/multicultural-collab Dyson, M. E. (2000). I may not get there with you:
oration/main. The true Martin Luther King jr. Simon &
Carr, P. R., & Klassen, T. (1997). Different Schuster.
perceptions of race in education: Racial Flores, B. B., & Smith, H. L. (2009). Teachers’
minority and white teachers. Canadian characteristics and attitudinal beliefs about
Journal of Education, 22(1), 67-81. linguistic and cultural diversity. Bilingual
https://doi.org/10.2307/1585812. Research Journal, 31(1-2), 323-358.
Coello, H. M., Casanas, J., Rocco, T., & Parsons, Garcia, M. H., Wright, J., & Corey, G. (1991). A
M. (2003, July). Using critical race theory: multicultural perspective in an
An analysis of cultural differences in undergraduate human services program.
healthcare education. 2003 Midwest Journal of Counseling and Development, 70(1),
Research to Practice Conference in Adult, 86-90.
Continuing, and Community Education. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1991.tb01
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 566.x.
https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/handle/1805
Gay, G. (2004). Curriculum theory and
/306.
multicultural education handbook of
Creswell, J.W., (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research on multicultural education. In J. A.
research design: choosing among five approaches Banks, C. McGee Banks, (Eds.), Handbook of
(2nd ed). Sage Publications. research on multicultural education (2nd ed.)
Cumming-McCann, A. (2003). Multicultural pp. 30-49. Jossey-Bass.
education connecting theory to practice. Gerrard, L. C. (1994). Inclusive education: An
Focus on Basics: Connecting Research & issue of social justice. Equity & Excellence in
Practice, 6(B), 9-12. Education, 27(1), 58-67.
https://www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/ https://doi.org/10.1080/1066568940270111.
fob/2003/fob_6b.pdf.
Ghosh, R., & Galczynski, M. (2014). Redefining
Dei, G. J. (1996). Critical perspectives in multicultural education: Inclusion and the right
antiracism: An introduction. Canadian to be different (3rd Ed.). Canadian Scholars’
Review of sociology, 33(3), 247-267. Press.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-618X.1996.tb02
Gibson, M. A. (1984). Approaches to
452.x.
multicultural education in the United States:
De Guzman, M. R. T., Durden, T. R., Taylor, S. A., Some concepts and assumptions.
7Journal of Advanced Research in Education
Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 15, 9.x.
94-119. King, J. E. (1992). Diaspora literacy and
https://doi.org/10.1525/aeq.1984.15.1.05x147 consciousness in the struggle against
6t. miseducation in the black community.
Gorski, P. C. (2006, May). Complicity with Journal of Negro Education, 61(3), 317-340. doi:
conservatism: the de-politicizing of 10.2307/2295251.
multicultural and intercultural education. Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in
International Education, 17(2), 163-177. America’s schools. NY, United States of
https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980600693830. America: Crown Publisher.
Gorski, P. C. (2017). Reaching and teaching Li, Y., Garza, V., Keicher, A., & Popov, V. (2019).
students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the Predicting high school teacher use of
opportunity gap. Teachers College Press. technology: Pedagogical beliefs,
Grant, C. A., & Chapman, T. K. (2021). technological beliefs and attitudes, and
Multicultural Education: A Foundation of teacher training. Tech Know Learn, 24,
Curriculum Studies (CS). In Oxford Research 501-518.
Encyclopedia of Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-018-9355-2.
Grant, C. A., & Sleeter, C. (2007). Turning on Lintner, T. (2004, September). The savage and
learning five approaches for multicultural the slave: Critical race theory, racial
teaching plans for race, class, gender, and stereotyping, and the teaching of American
disability (4th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. history. Journal of Social Studies Research,
Grant, C.A., & Sleeter, C.E. (2011). Doing 28(1), 27-32.
Multicultural Education for Achievement and Manji, S. (2021, March 17). How I… hope to use
Equity (2nd ed.). Routledge. critical race theory as a lens for conceptual
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203831397. framework in my research. Educational
Haney-Lopez, I. F. (1994). Social construction of Research: Lancaster University.
race: Some observations on illusion, https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/educational-res
fabrication, and choice. Harvard Civil earch/blogs/how-i-hope-to-use-critical-race-
Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 29, 1-62. theory-as-a-lens-for-conceptual-framework-
in-my-research.
Howard, T. C. (2010). Why race and culture matter
in schools: Closing the achievement gap in McCreary, T. (2009, September 1). The myth of
American schools. Teachers College Press. the multicultural patchwork Anti-racist
education and the problem with
James, C. E. (1995). Multicultural and
multiculturalism. Briarpatch.
anti-racism education in Canada. Race, https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/vie
Gender & Class Journal, 2(3), 31-48.
w/the-myth-of-the-multicultural-patchwork
James, C. (2013). Equity, social, justice, and the Nieto, S. (2017). Language, culture, and teaching:
inclusive classroom. Etfo Voice.
Critical perspectives (3rd ed.). Routledge.
https://etfovoice.ca/article/equity-social-justi
ce-and-inclusive-classroom-research-teacher Nieto, S., & Bode, P. (2008). Affirming diversity:
s. The sociopolitical context of multicultural
education (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
Jeffy, S. B., Aronson, R., & Stephens, C. (2011).
Critical race theory as theoretical Ortiz, L., & Jani, J. (2010, March). Critical race
framework and analysis tool for population theory: A transformational model for
health research. Critical Public Health, 21(1), teaching diversity. Journal of Social Work
81-93. Education, 46(2), 175-193.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2010.49317 https://doi.org/10.5175/JSWE.2010.20090007
3. 0.
Jones, A. (1999). The limits of cross-cultural Paniagua, A., & Istance, D. (2018). Teachers as
dialogue: Pedagogy, desire, and absolution designers of learning environments: The
in the classroom. Educational Theory, 49(3), importance of innovative pedagogies. OECD
299-316. Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5446.1999.0029 Rios, C. V., Lo pez, J., & Morrell, E. (2014).
8Journal of Advanced Research in Education
Toward a critical pedagogy of race: Ethnic
studies and literacies of power in high
school classrooms. Race and Social Problems,
7(1), 84-96.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-014-9142-1.
Robinson, C. C., & Clardy, P. (2011). It ain’t what
you say, it’s how you say it: linguistic and
cultural diversity in the classroom. Journal of
Cultural Diversity, 18(3).
Shaeffer, S. (2019). Inclusive education: a
prerequisite for equity and social justice.
Springer Nature, 20, 181-192.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-019-09598-w.
Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (2007). Making
choices for multicultural education: Five
approaches to race, class and gender (6th ed.).
Wiley.
Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000).
Critical race theory, racial microaggressions,
and campus racial climate: The experiences
of African American college students.
Journal of Negro Education, 69(1/2), 60.
Stearns, C. (2003). Additive & transformative
approaches to multicultural curriculum
reform [Online course] Study.com.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/additive-
transformative-approaches-to-multicultural
-curriculum-reform.html.
Urrieta, L. (2009). Working from within: Chicana
and Chicano activist educators in whitestream
schools. University of Arizona Press.
Wilson, K. (1997). Multicultural education. Critical
Multicultural Pavilion.
http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/pap
ers/keith.html.
Wong, K.-T., Hwang, G.-J., & Choo Goh, P. S.
(2020). Effects of blended learning
pedagogical practices on students’
motivation and autonomy for the teaching
of short stories in upper secondary English.
Interactive Learning Environments, 28(4),
512-525. https://doi.org/10.108/
10494820.2018.1542318.
Yosso, T. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A
critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth. Race, ethnicity and education,
8(1), 69-90.
https://doi.org/10.1080/136133205200034100
6.
9You can also read
