A conservation framework for the Critically Endangered endemic species of the Caribbean palm Coccothrinax
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A conservation framework for the Critically
Endangered endemic species of the Caribbean palm
Coccothrinax
BRETT JESTROW, BRÍGIDO PEGUERO, FRANCISCO JIMÉNEZ, RAÚL VERDECIA
LISBET GONZÁLEZ-OLIVA, CELIO E. MOYA, WILLIAM CINEA, M. PATRICK GRIFFITH
A L A N W . M E E R O W , M I K E M A U N D E R and J A V I E R F R A N C I S C O - O R T E G A
Abstract With threatened species ( categorized as plant exploration initiatives, taxonomic revisions, outreach,
Critically Endangered and as Endangered, sensu IUCN), and fundraising. The ultimate aim of this review is to provide
Coccothrinax (c. species) is the flagship palm genus for baseline information that will develop conservation synergy
conservation in the Caribbean Island Biodiversity Hotspot. among relevant parties working on Coccothrinax conserva-
Coccothrinax has its centre of taxonomic diversity in these tion in Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Such colla-
islands, with c. endemic species. We present a conservation borations could also benefit through partnerships with
framework for the Critically Endangered species, found botanists working in other countries.
in Cuba, Haiti or the Dominican Republic. Only two species
Keywords Antilles, Arecaceae, IUCN, plant biodiversity,
(C. jimenezii, C. montana) occur in more than one country
red lists, taxonomy, tropical islands
(Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Immediate threats
include oil drilling and nickel mining, intrusion of saline
water into soil, urban and agricultural development, low
population recruitment, uncontrolled fires, interspecific hy- Introduction
bridization, and unsustainable ethnobotanical practices.
Coccothrinax bermudezii, C. borhidiana, C. crinita ssp. crini-
ta, C. leonis and C. spissa are not conserved in protected areas.
Coccothrinax bermudezii, C. jimenezii, C. leonis and C. nipen-
P alms are an iconic feature of the Caribbean landscape
and are associated with strong folk and ethnobotani-
cal traditions (Liogier, ; Leiva Sánchez, ). The
sis are not part of ex situ collections. Based on results from a Caribbean Islands hold endemic species of palms, with
conservation project targeting C. jimenezii, we recommend Cuba () and Hispaniola () hosting the majority (Moya
international cooperation between the three range states to & Leiva Sánchez, ; Roncal et al., ; Freid et al., ).
implement integrative conservation management plans, The islands have two endemic palm genera: Hemithrinax
(four species) from Cuba and the monotypic Zombia from
Hispaniola. The most widespread genera with endemic spe-
cies can be divided into two major groups. The first group
BRETT JESTROW Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami, USA
(c. endemic species in genera) has few species in the
BRÍGIDO PEGUERO and FRANCISCO JIMÉNEZ Jardín Botánico Nacional, Santo
Domingo, Dominican Republic
Caribbean Islands but many taxa from the Neotropical
mainland. The second group comprises genera with their
RAÚL VERDECIA Jardín Botánico Cupaynicú, Guisa, Granma, Cuba
centre of diversity in these islands (c. species in six gen-
LISBET GONZÁLEZ-OLIVA Herbario Nacional de Cuba, Instituto de Ecología y
Sistemática, La Habana, Cuba era: Coccothrinax, Copernicia, Gaussia, Pseudophoenix,
CELIO E. MOYA Sociedad Cubana de Botánica, Sección de Palmas, Boynton
Roystonea and Thrinax) and with few species occurring
Beach, Florida, USA on the mainland (Zona et al., ; Roncal et al., ).
WILLIAM CINEA Jardin Botanique des Cayes, Cayes, Haiti Among them, Coccothrinax is the genus with the highest
M. PATRICK GRIFFITH Montgomery Botanical Center, Coral Gables, Miami, USA
number of species in the Caribbean Islands.
Coccothrinax is regarded as being taxonomically difficult
ALAN W. MEEROW United States Department of Agriculture−Agricultural
Research Service−Subtropical Horticultural Research Station, National and in need of further systematic revision (Zona, ). Two
Germplasm Repository, Miami, USA prior taxonomic revisions focused on species from Cuba
MIKE MAUNDER The Eden Project, Bodelva, Cornwall, UK, and National Tropical (León, ) and the southern Greater Antilles (Bailey,
Botanical Garden, Hawaii, USA ). Prior to these two works, Burret () provided a
JAVIER FRANCISCO-ORTEGA* (Corresponding author) Department of Biological taxonomic account of the taxa on Cuba and Hispaniola.
Sciences, International Center for Tropical Botany, Kimberly Green Latin
American and Caribbean Center, Cuban Research Institute, Florida
However, Burret’s () publication was based solely on
International University, Miami, USA. E-mail ortegaj@fiu.edu material collected by the Swedish botanist and plant collect-
*Also at: Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami, USA or Leonard Ekman (–). In the s the Hungarian
Received December . Revision requested January . botanist A. Borhidi (–) and the Caribbean botanist
Accepted April . First published online September . O. Muñiz (–) described new species for Cuba,
Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317000588
Conservation framework for Coccothrinax 453
resulting in a palm catalogue for the island (Muñiz & Islands, covering () relationships between taxonomy and
Borhidi, ). Additional attempts were made to clarify conservation, () integrative species conservation manage-
the taxonomy of Coccothrinax (Nauman & Sanders, a, ment, () in situ and ex situ conservation, () plant ex-
b), based on phylogenetic analyses of morphological traits ploration, () the role of DNA data in understanding
mostly observed from cultivated plants. phylogenetic relationships and patterns of genetic diversity,
The current taxonomic uncertainties within this genus and () outreach and environmental education.
arise, in part, from the work of Henderson et al. (), Based on our own conservation initiatives we assert that
whose influential field guide for New World palms recog- international collaboration within the region provides the
nized only species. Nevertheless, most palm taxonomists best possible approach to deal with these six issues. Similar
and botanists working on the Caribbean Islands (e.g. Moya conservation challenges are faced by other threatened ende-
& Leiva Sánchez, ; Acevedo-Rodríguez & Strong, ; mics of the Caribbean Islands (reviewed by Maunder et al.,
Greuter & Rankin, ) do not follow that narrow taxo- , , and Carey et al., ), and we propose that con-
nomic view and still recognize many species that were servation initiatives centred on Coccothrinax could be ap-
synonymized by Henderson et al. (). For instance, plied effectively to other taxa. A main goal of this review is
C. jamaicensis and C. proctorii are currently regarded as dis- to provide a framework for land managers, conservationists,
tinct species endemic to Jamaica and the Cayman Islands, palm biologists and environmental educators that will offer a
respectively (Proctor, ; Duno de Stefano & Moya, regional perspective for what we consider the flagship palm
). Likewise, botanists from Cuba and Hispaniola still ac- genus for conservation in the Caribbean Islands. This is par-
cept Coccothrinax species that Henderson et al. () syno- ticularly relevant as this Biodiversity Hotspot comprises sev-
nomized (e.g. González-Oliva et al., , ; Peguero eral countries with a range of historical and sociological
et al., b; Verdecia, ). backgrounds (Maunder et al., , ).
The current available taxonomic framework for Data collection pertinent to ex situ conservation of
Coccothrinax is not the result of a single monographic en- these threatened species in botanic gardens, as well as
deavour, and therefore as a working taxonomy for our con- literature reviews, were conducted during January –
tribution we follow the classification system currently March . Field observations were conducted during
accepted by most palm biologists and plant taxonomists –.
working in the region (Fig. ). Therefore, we consider that
the genus has species, with of these endemic to the Ecology, biology, and conservation biology of the
Caribbean Islands (Fig. ). These island endemics are re- Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax
stricted to the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles (except
Puerto Rico). The taxonomic placement of C. alta, thought Red List assessments of Coccothrinax species
to be endemic to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands
(Acevedo-Rodríguez & Strong, ), needs further study. Zona et al. () assessed the conservation status of species
In this review, C. alta is considered a synonym of C. barba- of Coccothrinax of the Caribbean Islands using the IUCN
densis following the recent treatment of Acevedo-Rodríguez Red List categories and criteria (IUCN, , ). Other
& Strong (). Red List assessments have targeted Coccothrinax and other
Two Caribbean species (C. argentata and C. barbadensis) endemic plant species of the Cayman Islands (Burton,
are found both on the islands and on the mainland, and only ), Cuba (Rankin Rodríguez & Areces Berazaín, ;
one species (C. readii) is restricted to the mainland (Fig. ). Berazaín Iturralde et al., ; González-Oliva et al., ,
The vast majority of Caribbean Island endemic species are ; González-Torres et al., ) and Hispaniola (Peguero
single-island endemics, with the exception of C. fragrans & Jiménez, ; Peguero et al., b). Of the species of
(found on Hispaniola and Cuba). Reports of the presence Coccothrinax endemic to the Caribbean Islands, are cate-
of C. jamaicensis on the small islands of Providencia, gorized as Endangered and as Critically Endangered, with
Colombia (Galeano-Garces, ), and Swan, Honduras of the latter restricted to Cuba (Fig. ).
(Nelson & Proctor, ), need to be validated by additional The Cuban endemic C. camagueyana was originally
taxonomic studies. For intraspecific taxa, C. alexandri, described by Muñiz & Borhidi (), and is reported
C. clarensis, C. crinita and C. salvatoris have one subspecies from the south of Sierra de Cubitas, Camagüey province
each, and C. miraguama has three subspecies. (Méndez Santos et al., ). It was categorized as
Given its high number of species, many with restricted Critically Endangered by Zona et al. (); however, its
ranges in the Caribbean Islands, Coccothrinax provides a taxonomic status is unclear, and more recently it was cate-
good case to study regional species conservation issues in gorized as Data Deficient (González-Oliva et al., ). Field
the Caribbean. We provide a review of conservation chal- exploration led by CM in failed to find this species in
lenges and perspectives for the Critically Endangered spe- the location from which it was originally reported (Moya
cies of Coccothrinax that are restricted to the Caribbean et al., a).
Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317000588454 B. Jestrow et al.
FIG. 1 Geographical distribution and Red List
status of Coccothrinax species: (a) Caribbean
Island endemics; (b) species found both on
the Neotropical mainland and on the islands.
Red List categorizations (LC, Least Concern;
VU, Vulnerable; EN, Endangered; CR,
Critically Endangered; DD, Data Deficient)
follow the IUCN (, ) guidelines and
come from Zona et al. (), Burton (),
González-Oliva et al. (, ) and
Peguero et al. (b). Taxonomy and
geographical distribution follow Moya &
Leiva Sánchez (), Hoyos Fernández &
Braun (), Acevedo-Rodríguez & Strong
(), Proctor (), Duno de Stefano &
Moya (), Freid et al. (), Peguero et al.
(a,b), Verdecia (), Greuter & Rankin
(), Moya et al. (b) and Jestrow
(unpubl. data).
All of the Critically Endangered species have been as- Among the inland species, the Hispaniolan endemic
signed to this category based on the criteria Bab or Bab C. montana occurs at the highest elevations, to , m;
(IUCN, , ; Table ); i.e. they have an extent of occur- it was described from the Cordillera Central in the
rence , km or an area of occupancy , km. They Dominican Republic and the Massif de la Selle in Haiti
are restricted to a single locality or to a fragmented site. (Burret, ). However, its distribution is poorly under-
In addition, they show continuing decline in their extent stood, with populations reported from three disjunct sites
of occurrence, area of occupancy, habitat quality, number in the Dominican Republic (Cordillera Septentrional,
of sites, or number of mature individuals (IUCN, , Cordillera Central, and Sierra de Bahoruco) and two sites
). Eight of these species are shown in Plates and . in southern Haiti (Massif de la Hotte and Massif de la
Selle) (Burret, ; Judd, ; B. Peguero, unpubl. data).
We have no recent data on population size and distribution
Ecology, distribution and demography ranges for C. montana except from the Massif de la Hotte,
where there are two populations of fewer than seven indivi-
Of the Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax, duals each (B. Jestrow, unpubl. data), and from Bahoruco,
most occur on limestone soils, with six Cuban taxa (five spe- where a single population with very few individuals is
cies and one subspecies) occurring on serpentine soils known to exist. Fieldwork is needed to determine the taxo-
(Table ). Only five species occur in coastal environments nomic and distribution status of this species both in Haiti
(Table ). One of the two populations of C. jimenezii occurs and the Dominican Republic. Reports of the Hispaniola en-
on the fringes of Lago Enriquillo in the Dominican demic C. spissa in northern Haiti (Bailey, ) need to be
Republic, a hypersaline lake m below sea level, which is confirmed (Henderson et al., ).
currently expanding (Romero Luna & Poteau, ), and We have population estimates for only five of the
where the wild populations are threatened by saline intru- Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax (Table ).
sions (Peguero et al., a). Coccothrinax cupularis, C. leonis, C. nipensis and
Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317000588Conservation framework for Coccothrinax 455
Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, ) and will be a
major concern for in situ conservation of threatened
Coccothrinax species. Tourism is an important economic
activity in the Greater Antilles (Gayle & Goodrich, ),
and is a growing industry particularly in Cuba (Hingtgen
et al., ), where the sector is likely to undergo significant
development following the easing of U.S. embargo restric-
tions and the establishment of formal diplomatic relation-
ships in July (Hershberg & LeoGrande, ). This
may result in an intensification of human pressure on
Cuban ecosystems, with a potential negative impact on en-
demic palms (González-Torres et al., ).
Five of the Critically Endangered taxa are not recorded
FIG. 2 Distribution of the Critically Endangered species of from protected areas (Table ), and those found within pro-
Coccothrinax. (a) Cuban taxa; the three sites for C. cupularis tected areas of the Dominican Republic are also of major
represent the distribution range of the highly fragmented conservation concern. From our field observations it ap-
population of this species. (b) Hispaniolan taxa. pears that most of these protected areas (with the exception
of Parque Nacional Nalga de Maco and Reserva Científica
C. pauciramosa each have a single but dispersed population Quita Espuela) have poor conservation enforcement
comprising scattered individuals; fieldwork is required to (Powell & Inchaustegui, ; Pasachnik et al., ).
confirm their distribution range, population sizes and Eleven of the Critically Endangered taxa are cultivated in
demographic status. botanic gardens (Table ). These collections are located
Population recruitment has been recorded for six taxa in Cuba (five botanic gardens), the Dominican Republic
(Table ). Based on preliminary field observations, both C. (one), Spain (one), and USA (two) and they are based
yuraguana and C. pauciramosa also appear to have recruit- on wild collected germplasm. Four of the Critically
ment in their single locations. Coccothrinax jimenezii has Endangered species of Coccothrinax are not held in ex situ
low levels of recruitment, with seedlings found only in the conservation collections (Table ).
Dominican Republic population (Peguero et al., a).
There are no population size estimates for eight species.
Conservation biology research
Conservation challenges Only four taxa have been the focus of conservation research
that included population size studies, ethnobotanical sur-
Our review identified six major threats (Table ). Two of veys, ecological studies or seed germination protocols
these threats (population decline; urban, agricultural and (Table ). Coccothrinax jimenezii is the only Critically
forest development) affect of the Critically Endangered Endangered species that has been the subject of conserva-
species. Threats from invasive alien plant species, unsustain- tion genetics studies (Jestrow et al., a). This work was
able ethnobotanical exploitation, and uncontrolled fires are based on microsatellite markers and included the two
relevant to seven taxa. Poaching for the horticulture trade known populations of the species, with the majority of indi-
has been reported only for C. victorinii. Four species are at viduals being sampled. Levels of genetic differentiation be-
risk because of nickel mining or oil drilling. One species tween the two populations of C. jimenezii are unusually high
(C. crinita) has been detected to hybridize with at least compared to those reported among populations of other
another species of the genus, and one is facing the threat palm species. This suggests that species delimitation within
of saline intrusion in soils. Based on our experience in Coccothrinax needs to be re-evaluated, and a clear taxonom-
botanic gardens, interspecific hybrids are produced easily ic framework for conservation initiatives is needed. Despite
in Coccothrinax. These threats are likely to intensify in the their small size, both populations of C. jimenezii have a
near future; for example, nickel mining and oil drilling are relatively large number of unique alleles and there is no
major development priorities for the Cuban economy evidence of genetic bottlenecks. Only the population in
(Wacaster et al., ). Furthermore, invasive alien plant Haiti exhibits evidence of inbreeding, with a moderately
species are regarded as a major challenge for plant bio- high positive inbreeding coefficient value (Fis = . vs
diversity management in the Caribbean (Maunder et al., Fis = . for the Dominican Republic population).
, ; reviewed for Cuba by Oviedo Prieto & Recent habitat fragmentation coupled with long generation
González-Oliva, , and González-Torres et al., ; re- times could explain the unusually high levels of genetic di-
viewed for the Dominican Republic by Ministerio de versity in these Caribbean species (Jestrow et al., a).
Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
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456
B. Jestrow et al.
TABLE 1 Red List assessment criteria (sensu IUCN, , ), ecology, number of populations, demographics, and the in situ and ex situ conservation status of the Critically Endangered
species of Coccothrinax.
IUCN criteria for
Critically Endangered No. of populations/ Ex situ conservation1
Taxon status Ecology No. of individuals In situ conservation (No. of individuals)
C. baracoensis B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)+2ab(i, Scrub on serpentine, 10–200 m (Cuba)2 1/Unknown2 Cuchillas de Toa UNESCO Man & the JBT3
ii,iii,v)2 Biosphere Reserve
C. bermudezii B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii, Scrub & pine forest on serpentine, 500–700 m 14/, 10,0002 Unprotected Unprotected
iii,v)2 (Cuba)2
C. borhidiana A4ace;B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv, Coastal scrub on limestone, 15–20 m (Cuba)6 14,5/3386,7 Unprotected FTBG (4), JBM (7),
v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)6
Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
JBN-C (3), JBT(15), MBC
(25), PSCT (15)
C. boschiana A4acd;Blab(i,ii,iii,iv, Coastal scrub on limestone, 5–200 m 15/Unknown9 Parque Nacional Sierra Martín García FTBG (5)3, JBN-DR (6),
v)8 (Dominican Republic)9 MBC3, PSCT (11)
C. crinita ssp. B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)2 Scrub on serpentine & human-modified sa- 15/c. 5002,10 Unprotected JBC (9), JBI (11), JBN-C
crinita vannah, 20–40 m (Cuba)10 (70), JBT (20)
C. crinita ssp. A2acde;B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) Semi-deciduous forest & human-modified 14/1762 Área Protegida de Recursos Manejados JBI (8), JBT (5)
brevicrinis +2ab(i,ii,iii,v);C12 savannah on limestone, 300 m (Cuba)11 Yaguanabo
C. cupularis B2ab(ii,iii,v)2 Coastal, sub-coastal scrub & evergreen forest 14,5/Unknown2 Área Protegida de Recursos Manejados JBN-C (11), JBI (7), JBT
on limestone, 5–15 m (Cuba)2 Península de Zapata & Paisaje Natural (4)
Protegido Guajimico
C. jimenezii A2abcd+4abcd;B1ab Scrub on limestone fringe of hypersaline lake, 15/6112 Dominican Republic: Parque Nacional Lago Unprotected
(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii, & coastal scrub on limestone, 45 m (below sea Enriquillo e Isla Cabritos
iv,v);C2a(i)8 level, Dominican Republic), 70–80 m (Haiti)12
C. leonis B2ab(ii,iii,v)2 Scrub & human-modified savannah on lime- 14/Unknown2 Unprotected Unprotected
stone, 100–600 m (Cuba)2https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317000588
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Table 1 (Cont.)
Taxon IUCN criteria for
Critically Endangered No. of populations/ Ex situ conservation1
status Ecology No. of individuals In situ conservation (No. of individuals)
C. montana B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C1 Montane evergreen forest, cloud forest, & pine 54/Unknown Haiti: Parc National Pic Macaya, Parc PSCT (2)
+2a(i)8 forest on limestone, 500–1700 m (Haiti & National Morne la Visite; Dominican
Dominican Republic)13,14 Republic: Reserva Científica Quita Espuela,
Parque Nacional Nalga de Maco
C. nipensis B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii, Scrub & pine forest on serpentine, 400–600 m 14/Unknown2 Parque Nacional La Mensura–Pilotos Unprotected
iii,v)2 (Cuba)2
C. pauciramosa B2ab(ii,iii,v)2 Scrub & pine forest on serpentine, 400–900 m 14/Unknown2 Parque Nacional La Mensura–Pilotos FTBG (4), JBT (5), PSCT
(Cuba)2 (2)
C. spissa A2ace+4ace;B1ab(i,ii, Scrub on limestone, 20–600 m (Dominican 34,5/4,500 Unprotected JBN-DR (9), MBC (28),
15,16
iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv, Republic) PSCT (9)
v)8
C. victorinii A2c;B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab Coastal scrub on limestone, 0–3 m (Cuba)2 2/c. 2502 Parque Nacional Desembarco del Granma JBC (4)
(ii,iii,v)2
C. yuraguana B1ab(ii)+2ab(ii)6 Scrub & pine forest on serpentine, 30–300 m 14/unknown6,17 Área Protegida de Recursos Manejados Mil JBN-C (7), JBT3
(Cuba)17 Cumbres
Botanic gardens with ex situ collections based on wild collected individuals are as follows: FTBG, Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, USA; JBC, Jardín Botánico de Cupainicú, Cuba; JBI, Jardín Botánico de
Cienfuegos; JBN-C, Jardín Botánico Nacional, Cuba; JBN-DR, Jardín Botánico Nacional, Dominican Republic; JBM, Jardín Botánico de Matanzas, Cuba; JBT, Jardín Botánico de las Tunas, Cuba; MBC,
Montgomery Botanical Center, USA; PSCT, Palmetum de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
González-Oliva et al. ()
Ex situ collection has seedlings that have not yet been transplanted to the field
Highly fragmented population(s)
Population(s) exhibit(s) recruitment
Conservation framework for Coccothrinax
González-Oliva et al. ()
Enríquez Rodríguez et al. ()
Peguero et al. (b)
Mejía & García ()
Leiva Sánchez et al. ()
Suárez Oropesa ()
Peguero et al. (b)
Burret ()
Judd ()
Peguero et al. ()
Veloz et al. ()
Urquiola Cruz et al. ()
457458 B. Jestrow et al.
PLATE 1 Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax: (a) C.
jimenezii, (b) C. borhidiana (in ex situ collection of Montgomery
Botanical Center), (c) C. spissa, (d) C. victorinii (in ex situ
collection of Jardín Botánico de Cupainicú). Photograph credits:
PLATE 2 Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax (all in
(a) Francisco Jiménez, (b) Patrick Griffith, (c) Scott Zona, and
habitat): (a) C. yuraguana, (b) C. montana, (c) C. boschiana, (d)
(d) Raúl Verdecia.
C. jimenezii (heavily harvested to make brooms). Photograph
credits: (a) Lisbet González-Oliva, (b–d) Brett Jestrow.
Future genetic studies may find that at least some of the re-
maining Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax for
which there are currently no population genetic data avail- Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Conservation ef-
able still harbour high genetic diversity. forts for C. jimenezii have been structured within the con-
text of broad international cooperation led by the Jardín
Botánico Nacional (Dominican Republic) and Jardin
Conservation and research agenda Botanique des Cayes (Haiti) in association with botanists
from South Florida (Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden,
The conservation management of threatened plants faces
Montgomery Botanical Center, U.S. Department of
particular challenges in the Caribbean Islands (Brown
Agriculture, and Florida International University). There
et al., ; Maunder et al., , ; Carey et al., ),
have been extensive plant exploration expeditions in both
most notably the diversity of political, cultural and socio-
Haiti and the Dominican Republic, including demographic
economic systems. We propose the following conservation
studies and conservation assessments (Peguero et al., a).
and research framework for Coccothrinax.
Outreach outputs included the production of printed educa-
tional material presented during the VI Simposio Flora de La
Establish a regional conservation approach Española in June at Santo Domingo, Dominican
Republic. Furthermore, we have established joint initiatives
Regional cooperation is required to utilize and coordinate for professional progression of young Caribbean botanists,
the existing skills and resources of the various Caribbean na- including two workshops on plant systematics in Haiti,
tions more effectively. With endemic Critically Endangered training of one graduate student from the Dominican
species in three countries, a comprehensive regional ap- Republic at Florida International University (Rodríguez,
proach to the conservation of Coccothrinax will require col- ), and developing grant-supported projects for palm
laboration between managers and plant biologists from conservation through the Prince Bernhard Nature Fund,
Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
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TABLE 2 Main conservation challenges and conservation biology research conducted for the Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax (Table ).
Nickel min- Urban, agricultural
ing or oil Invasive Population & forest Uncontrolled Unsustainable Conservation biology
Taxon drilling alien plants decline developments fires ethnobotany Other challenges research
C. baracoensis Nickel1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 No1
C. bermudezii No1 No1 Yes1 Yes1 No1 No1
C. borhidiana Oil2,3 No2 Yes2 Yes2 Yes2 Yes2 Ecology3
C. boschiana4,5 No4,5 No4,5 No4,5 No4,5 No4,5 No4,5
C. crinita ssp. No1 Yes1 No1 Yes1,6 No1,6 Yes6 Ethnobotany6, ecology7,8
crinita
C. crinita ssp. No1 Yes1 Yes1,9 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 Hybridization10 Ecology9
brevicrinis
C. cupularis No1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1
C. jimenezii No4 No4,11 Yes4,11 No No4,11 Yes (Plate 2)11 Saline intrusion in soils11 Conservation genetics12,
ecology11
C. leonis No1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 No1
C. montana No4 No4 Unknown Yes4 Unknown Unknown
C. nipensis Nickel1 No1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 No1
C. pauciramosa Nickel1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 No1
C. spissa13,14 No4 Unknown Yes13,14 Yes13,14 No13,14 Yes13,14 Ecology13,14, ethno-
botany13,14, seed
germination13,14
C. victorinii No1 Yes1 Yes1 Yes1 No1 Yes1 Adult plants are transplanted
to gardens in urban & resort
developments
C. yuraguana No2,15 No2,15 Yes2,15 Yes2,15 No2,15 Yes2,15
González-Oliva et al. ()
Conservation framework for Coccothrinax
González-Oliva et al. ()
Enríquez Rodríguez et al. ()
Peguero et al. (b)
Mejía & García ()
Martínez Betancourt & Miranda (–)
Leiva Sánchez et al. ()
Martínez Betancourt ()
Suárez Oropesa et al. ()
Suárez Oropesa ()
Peguero et al. (a)
Jestrow et al. (b)
Peguero et al. ()
Veloz et al. ()
Urquiola Cruz et al. ()
459460 B. Jestrow et al.
the International Palm Society, and the Mohamed bin Zayed the Dominican Republic have maintained a tradition of bo-
Species Conservation Fund. tanical fieldwork and research, Haiti has not had sustained
Botanists from the Dominican Republic have developed support for field botany. Both the Dominican Republic and
successful protocols for seed germination of C. spissa Haiti have a single botanic garden, and are key to developing
(Peguero et al., ; Veloz et al., ), which may also be a framework for future conservation initiatives. Through
applicable for the Critically Endangered species from our inter-institutional collaborations (mostly supported by
Cuba. Across the distribution range of Coccothrinax there the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund),
are field botanists and palm taxonomists who are familiar members of our team have been exploring areas of Haiti sel-
with its ecology and morphology. Their preliminary surveys dom visited since Ekman was there in the s (Jestrow
suggest that hybridization detected in botanic gardens et al., b). Fieldwork led by RV resulted in the rediscov-
is also common in areas where species overlap (Suárez ery of C. rigida on limestone cliffs near Sagua de Tánamo
Oropesa, ). Caribbean island conservation biologists (Holguín province) in (Verdecia et al., ). This spe-
working with this genus have also gained experience regard- cies had not been seen since it was described by Grisebach
ing unsustainable ethnobotanical practices, and are familiar () based on material collected by the American plant ex-
with the challenges faced by land managers and administra- plorer Charles Wright (–). Recent plant exploration
tors regarding implementation of effective protection in the activities led to the discovery of a new species, Coccothrinax
protected areas of Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti. spirituana, in Cuba by CM and RV (Moya et al., b). This
Preliminary molecular results suggest that the microsatellite new species is currently known in a single locality in the
loci used for C. jimenezii (Jestrow et al., a) are also ap- province of Sancti Spiritus in an area of serpentine soils.
plicable to other species of this genus. The experiences Studies focusing on its demography and distribution range
already gained by individual teams provide a framework are in progress.
for development of a biodiversity strategy for There are four Coccothrinax species that have not been
Coccothrinax in the region. located since they were originally discovered. The first,
C. acunana, was described by León (), and plants of
this species were reported to occur only in the highest
Establish a scientific framework for conservation mountains of Cuba, near Pico Turquino, in the province
of Santiago de Cuba. The species is categorized as
A phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic review would clarify
Vulnerable on the Red List for the Cuban flora (González-
the conservation status of Coccothrinax taxa. For instance,
Torres et al., ); however, its conservation status needs to
C. jimenezii was described as a new species in (Mejía
be reassessed. The second species, C. microphylla, is another
& García, ) but molecular studies revealed uncertainties
Cuban endemic, described by Muñiz & Borhidi (). It ap-
in the taxonomy of the two populations of this species
pears to be restricted to limestone cliffs of Abra de Mariana
(Jestrow et al., a), highlighting the need for a compre-
in the lowlands of Guantanamo province. The third species,
hensive taxonomic revision for Coccothrinax. The morpho-
C. concolor, is known from only one herbarium collection,
logical phylogenetic study of the genus undertaken by
by Ekman in . The species was described by Burret
Nauman & Sanders (a,b) identified three major groups,
() and reported from low-elevation areas with volcanic
each one including Critically Endangered species, with high
soils near Jacmel, southern Haiti (Bailey, ). The fourth
levels of homoplasy for the morphological characters.
species, C. camagueyana, not only has an uncertain taxo-
Molecular phylogenetic reconstructions for Coccothrinax
nomic status but has not been found since it was described
(Roncal et al., ) did not resolve major clades.
(Moya et al., b).
However, the conservation genetics study of C. jimenezii
(Jestrow et al., a) demonstrated the utility of microsat-
ellite DNA markers for insights into both genetic diversity
and taxonomy. There are still many gaps in knowledge of Ensure wild populations are protected in situ, with
the biology of the species, and there have been no studies supporting ex situ collections
focused on breeding systems, plant–animal interactions,
The Critically Endangered species of Coccothrinax are fa-
competition from invasive alien plant species, or population
cing a variety of threats. Five of the species are not present
viability analyses.
in protected areas, and four are not included in ex situ germ-
plasm collections. An integrative approach to conservation
Assess and monitor wild populations is the most immediate priority (Esposito, ; Petriello &
Wallen, ). We are aware that in many cases official pro-
There is a need to expand botanical field work in the range tected areas are not sufficiently resourced to ensure viability
nations, particularly in Hispaniola, where there are still of wild populations; however, both Cuba and the
under-collected areas, mostly in Haiti. Although Cuba and Dominican Republic have protected areas with effective
Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317000588Conservation framework for Coccothrinax 461
conservation management. Ex situ conservation is necessary de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and Scott Zona for sharing
in some cases; for instance, the Dominican Republic insights concerning taxonomic challenges associated with
population of C. jimenezii is facing an immediate threat Coccothrinax and allied genera. This is contribution num-
from the increasing water level of the hypersaline lake ber from the Tropical Biology Program of Florida
Lago Enriquillo, and the small population in Haiti is International University.
overharvested.
Establishing an ex situ resource should be part of an
integral approach for conservation planning that involves Author contributions
all stakeholders (Pritchard et al., ; McGowan et al.,
). Ideally this resource would be held primarily in the BJ, BP, FJ and WC led field work in Hispaniola and reviewed
range state, and should ensure adequate genetic representa- conservation challenges for Haiti and the Dominican
tion (Oldfield, ). There are botanic gardens located out- Republic. CEM, RV and LGO led field work in Cuba and re-
side the Caribbean Islands that have ex situ conservation of viewed conservation challenges for Cuba. MPG made sig-
palms as a mission priority (Maunder et al., ). Several of nificant contributions pertinent to ex situ conservation.
these (e.g. Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Montgomery AWM provided insights regarding conservation genetics.
Botanical Center, and Palmetum of Tenerife) are already BJ, JFO and MM developed the proposed conservation
collaborating with botanists from Hispaniola and Cuba to and research agenda and wrote the first draft of the article.
develop representative living collections that hold duplicates BJ and JFO led grant proposals to undertake this project,
of living germplasm collections and can mitigate issues re- and designed and developed the structure of this study.
garding limited space and resources for ex situ conservation.
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Botánico Nacional, , –. botanic garden management. M. P A T R I C K G R I F F I T H is specialized
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las palmas (Arecaceae) en el Macizo Guamuhaya, provincia conservationist with a focus on tropical plant species. J A V I E R
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Oryx, 2018, 52(3), 452–463 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317000588
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