2PAC 2Furious: Envisioning an iOS compromise in 2019 - Marco Grassi - @marcograss Liang Chen - @chenliang0817 - Immunity Inc.
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2PAC 2Furious: Envisioning an iOS compromise in 2019 Marco Grassi - @marcograss Liang Chen - @chenliang0817
About Us • Members of Tencent KEEN Security Lab (formerly known as KeenTeam) • Marco (@marcograss): • My main focus is iOS/Android/macOS and sandboxes. But recently shifted to hypervisors, basebands, firmwares etc. • pwn2own 2016 Mac OS X Team • Mobile pwn2own 2016 iOS team • pwn2own 2017 VMWare escape team • Mobile pwn2own 2017 iOS Wifi + baseband team • Liang (@chenliang0817): • Lead Pwn2Own team in KeenLab (Co-founder of KeenTeam/KeenLab) • Browser exploiting, iOS/MacOS sandbox bypassing and privilege escalation • Winner of Mobile Pwn2Own 2013 iOS category • Winner of Pwn2Own 2014 OSX category
About Tencent Keen Security Lab • Previously known as KeenTeam • White Hat Security Researchers • Several times pwn2own winners • We are based in Shanghai, China • Our blog is https://keenlab.tencent.com/en/ • Twitter @keen_lab
Agenda • Introduction of ARMv8.3 pointer authentication • PAC on iOS 12 A12 • Possible attacks on PAC • When PAC is combined with APRR • Baseband • Baseband Application Processor • Conclusions
ARMv8.3 pointer authentication
• Principle: in ARM64, the pointer uses less than 64bit, the unused bits
can be used as additional information to authenticate the pointer(PAC)
64bit pointer 47 0
PAC part Address part
ARMv8.3 pointer authentication
• Three factors to generate PAC: value (address), context , key
Key + Algorithm
in CPU
Value(address) + Context
= PAC
ARMv8.3 pointer authentication
• Context
• A 64bit value used to strengthen PAC
• Isolate different types of pointers used with the same key
• Avoid pointer replacement attack (If all pointers use 0 context)
• Key
• 4 keys (combination of instruction/data and A/B keys), plus a G key (general
key) for data hash purpose
• Stored in system registry, inaccessible at userland
• Keys are per process and per exception level (or weakness is introduced)
• Algorithm
• QARMA
ARMv8.3 pointer authentication
• Instructions relating to PAC
Instruction set Examples Comment
PAC* PACIAZ, PACDB, etc… Generate PAC using specific key +
context
AUT* AUTIAZ, AUTDB, etc… Authenticate PAC using specific
key + context
Combined RETAA, BRAA, Authenticate PAC first, and do the
LDRAA… original instruction
ARMv8.3 pointer authentication
• PAC generation and authentication
Raw pointer PAC* PACed pointer
instruction
Pass Continue exec
PACed pointer AUT*
instruction Crash/Exit
Fail
• What if the authentication fails?
• Place an error code on specific bits of the address, making address invalid
(53rd and 54th bit for EL0 address)
• Process crash? Or not?
ARMv8.3 pointer authentication
• What should be protected?
• All pointers?
• Of course not! Too expensive
• Most important and sensitive content should be protected
• Function pointers: using instruction keys
• Important data pointers: using data keys
• Important contents: using G key
• Can be used to implement CFIARMv8.3 pointer authentication • How effective at preventing exploitation? • Keys are inaccessible in userland • Keys can not obtained by kernel R/W in EL1 • Algorithms might be public and know • So with arbitrary R/W, cannot compute PAC • To obtain arbitrary code execution you must compute PAC of function pointer first • To compute PAC of function pointer you must obtain arbitrary code execution • Chicken-egg problem!
The design is quite good, any real
world phones using PAC?PAC on iOS 12 A12 • iPhone XS, XS Max, XR are facilitated with A12 chip • First phones adopting ARMv8.3 in the world • The whole iOS kernel, and all system Apps/binaries have PAC enforced
Key initialization in iOS 12 • Kernel A key, B key, G key initialized during boot & cpu start (after idle) • Kernel IA IB DA DB G keys all initialized as constant value.
Key initialization in iOS 12 • iOS doesn’t change A key in any situation • B key is per-process initialized at process creation time, IB is enabled by default • In task_create_internal • Switched during context switch
Key initialization in iOS 12 • A key and DB key are enabled by default for platform binary • Such as Webcontent • But disabled for our own App, why? • According to ARMv8.3 document, system register SCTLR_EL1 responsible for key status control • EnIA, EnIB, EnDA, EnDB
Key initialization in iOS 12 • In exception_return: • For non-arm64e binary, EnIA EnDA and EnDB bit are masked
Key initialization in iOS 12 • How to enable IA DA DB keys for our own App? • Compile the binary as arm64e
What we can conclude so far
• We can conclude:
• B key is per-process
• A key is the same for all processes
• Non-arm64e apps have A key and DB key disabled, IB key and G key enabled
• Questions?
• A key and G key are constant value, same pointer same PAC upon each reboot?
• That will cause big issue for sure
• A key and G key are same for both EL0 and EL1, can use userland App to
compute kernel pointer PAC?
• Seems crazy ideaHow PAC is used in iOS 12?
Enhanced stack protection
• Previously stack is protected by adding a cookie value
between return address and local variable data
• Cookie value is unique in the same process
• Attackers can obtain the value via arbitrary memory read,
defeating the stack protection
• With PAC, the return address is authenticated(Using
B key) with SP as context
• The value is unique per pointer + stack frame
• And, B key is per-processCFI in iOS 12
• No BLR and BR any more
• Indirect function pointers are authenticated
• C++ vptr is authenticated via data A key
• Functions in vtable are authenticated via instruction
A key plus specific context (entry location + a static
value)
• GOT function pointers are authenticated via A
key plus their address(ASLR) as contextObjective C pointers
• Objective-c vptr(isa) is not protected by
PAC
• But the method function pointer is IB key
protected
• B key is per-process
• But before reaching object-c selector
cache, there is chance to reach A key
call
• E.g __xpc_file_transfer_dispose, pointed
out by Ian BeerUse of G key
• Exception, trap, interrupt involve PC
register change
• Previous state needs to be stored and restored
frequently
• Hackers can change those states to control
the execution flow
• LR PC and CPSR are the most critical registers
• iOS uses G key to compute the hash of
those critical registers, and ensure the
values are not modified before restore
• Validate the hash during restore, panic the
system if validation failedPAC makes exploitation harder
• Modern exploitation aims to achieve arbitrary memory read/write as
prerequisite
• With PAC, achieving arbitrary memory read/write becomes harder
• Especially vptr object involved UAF
• Heap-overflow, or non vptr UAF are still likely to achieve R/W
• Final goal of exploitation is to achieve arbitrary code execution
• Sadly
• This is what PAC aims to prevent
• R/W -> code execution becomes super hardR/W -> code execution? How?
Possible attacks
• Real chicken-egg problem?
• Key is there! Even B key can be read via R/W, other keys are constant value
• Any ways to compute PAC without calling CPU PAC instruction?
• QARMA https://github.com/dkales/qarma64-
python/blob/master/qarma.py
• Result: fail
• Apple might redesign/tweak the algorithm , and never publishPossible attacks • Same key, same address, EL0 and EL1 PAC same? • Constant key, on each reboot, same address same PAC? • Result: all different. Why? • Guess: some customization / randomization set to the CPU during iBoot phase • And, Apple’s design cannot be that weak.
Possible attacks • Brute force guess • Some daemons are user-friendly when crashing • Some function pointers use context as 0 • Can replace between each other • Neither of the above is very practical or enough to achieve code execution
I believe, good design always has not so good implementation, in early version
Possible attacks • A key is the same for all processes • App can compute PAC for other processes • Case of userland privilege escalation or sandbox bypass • A great example was posted by Ian Beer recently: • https://googleprojectzero.blogspot.com/2019/04/splitting-atoms-in-xnu.html
Possible attacks – Signing gadgets • Signing gadgets, e.g ”PACIA x0, x1; ret”: • Without arbitrary code execution, just by calling API + R/W • And of course, obvious signing gadgets do not exist in iOS • But how about indirect signing gadgets?
Possible attacks – Signing gadgets • Found by Azad Brandon: in sysctl_unregister_oid, a converted 0-context pointer is stored and can be read out • X10 can be controlled • But AUTIA will fail as we cannot get PACed function pointer with specific context
Possible attacks – Signing gadgets
• Failed != panic, after AUT*, a fixed error bit will be appended
to the pointer
• So we can always get the correct PACIZAed value of any
function pointer
• Which means we can control the PC
• But how about code execution, ROP? Or JOP?
• ROP is hard to achieve, as return address is PACed by B key. JOP
should also be hard, but thanks to Apple’s obfuscated kernel
extension, quite some non-PAC indirect branching instructionPossible attacks – Signing gadgets • Apple’s fix:
Is it effective?
• Of course, it is helpful to prevent R/W -> code
execution
Post jailbreak steps(in the Can be achieved by data-only
past) attack
• But, why we need code execution? Disable Sandbox Yes
• In previous jailbreaks, only rootfs rw remount needs
code execution Disable code Yes
• With R/W, you can do almost everything. signing(Critical)
Rootfs rw remount(since Practically no(In theory yes)
• So, Apple must make sure critical operations iOS 11.3)
cannot be achieved by pure R/W Install system app(e.g Yes but needs rootfs rw remount
Cydia) as prerequisite
• Then, APRR(possibly Apple Page Read-only
Region) is introducedAPRR protection
• In iPhone 7, KTRR(Kernel Text Read-only Region) is introduced
• A memory range in kernel is marked as rx and the only rx memory in kernel
• Everything else can be read-write
• Some critical memory region should be modified frequently after iOS boot,
which should have been protected also
• APRR was introduced
• Protect critical operations such as: AMFI trust cache management, pmap
managementAPRR protection: implementation
• Introduce a function dispatch table:
• Function pointers in “__PPLTEXT:__text”
segment
• __PPLTEXT:__text is not executable by default
• And special system register: “#4, c15, c2, #1”
• “__PPLTEXT:__text” can be executed if the
system register is set to 0x44554455646667
• Only ppl_enter will set the register
• APRR protected memory is only modified in
__PPLTEXT:__text codeAPRR protection: implementation
• How virtual memory pages are marked as APRR protected pages
• By setting flags in APRR attribute table
• And specify some bits in page table TTE
• Page table and APRR attribute table are APRR protected also
• It means, to modify APRR protected memory, only three ways:
• By modifying APRR attribute table and change page table TTE (both protected by
APRR)
• By setting system register “#4, c15, c2, #1” to 0x44554455646667, but you need to
get code execution first, and also no good gadget to set this register, because of PAC
• By executing code in __PPLTEXT:__text , but need to set system register first…When PAC is combined with APRR
• PAC
• Makes exploitation harder
• Makes kernel RW -> code execution super hard
• But in previous jailbreak, code execution is useless, data-only attack is enough
• APRR provides better memory protection
• KTRR can only protect kernel text and const area, cannot change after iommu
is initialized
• APRR can protect memory on demand after iommu initialization, at hardware
level
• Apple moves critical memory into APRR protected area
• E.g AMFI trust cache, pmap, cs_valid feature etc.
• And it is certain that Apple will move more stuff into APRR protect area
• Future jailbreak needs code execution
• PAC + APRR = effective mitigation!Demo
An alternative story • The AP side of the iPhone is getting more and more mitigations and security scrutiny. • Recently, PAC, and more and more auditing. • There are several other paths of least resistance. • The Baseband is one of them • Can become a 0 clicks entry point • Complexity is an enemy of the vendor, but a friend of the attacker. • Basebands are VERY complex.
The Intel Baseband: Intro
• We will not cover the baseband basics for time constraints, you can
find them in other talks, most notably:
• Amat Cama, A walk With Shannon
• Comsecuris, Breaking Band
• Keen Lab, Exploitation of a Modern Smartphone Baseband
• Charles Nitay Anna, The Baseband Basics
• Guy – From Zero to Infinity
• Comsecuris - There's Life in the Old Dog Yet (blogpost on iphone intel
baseband)
• The iPhone XR has the Intel (x-gold) XMM7560 modelAttacking the baseband in one slide
+ =
Modified Base station software stack Software defined Radio, or Over the air
to trigger the exploit equivalent hardware exploit RCE inside the
OpenBSC USRP phone
OpenBTS BladeRF baseband
srsLTE CMU200 (Testing
… hardware)Getting the baseband • Grab the ipsw link of your choice, for example iPhone XR • Shameless plug, save time by grabbing https://github.com/marcograss/partialzip • You can download single files from inside the huge ipsw, saving time/bandwidth • Use “list” command to find the baseband firmware, for example “Firmware/ICE18-1.03.08.Release.bbfw” • Use the download command to get just that file (~40mb instead of 3- 4gb) • You are welcome.
The bbfw • The bbfw is just a zip file • Extract and it’s composed of several ELFs • SYS_SW.elf is where the main os/stack is located • It says ELF for ARM… but it’s Intel.. (from iPhone XS and XR, before it was ARM) • Patch the elf header to make it Intel arch (010 Editor with the ELF template is a good choice), load into IDA Pro
Reversing the firmware • I prefer to use the ARM version of the firmware because IDA Pro handles it better • It has several disadvantages compared to the x86 ones, • It’s the older baseband model • Lack of some network support such as CDMA • Baseband reversing is not straightforward… You can check the talk “Breaking Band” by Comsecuris, it’s basically a continuous wash and rinse, until you have a usable IDB • More challenging on Intel IMO since less strings than Samsung Shannon
Reversing the firmware • Around 120k functions • First thing to do is to find alloc / free variants, and Rtos APIs • Not too hard to find • You can then find init functions of the tasks. And the handler functions of the threads • Hint: UtaOsThreadCreate
“Important” threads • There are descriptions in memory for the threads that handle the juicy radio stuff where you want to find the RCEs. • Stuff like GMM, GRR, mobility management, EMM etc are there. • You need a good knowledge of the specs to choose what to go after..
Threads • Like most of the basebands/rtos they constantly wait for some messages, dequeue them and then handle them (including the radio messages) • Lot of messages are intra tasks, not all are relevant for over the air content
Memcpy_s • Like Qualcomm and Huawei, they have some “secure” version of memcpy, checking bounds on destinations and source (if properly specified)
Message
handling
Messages between tasks and over the air are usually described
programmatically in arrays with id and handlersMessage
handling
The task routine will find the
correct handler and invoke itHow to get more debugging info from baseband • Go to https://developer.apple.com/bug-reporting/profiles-and-logs/ • Download and install the “Baseband.mobileconfig” profile for iOS • Reboot the device • You can trigger also a sysdiagnose by holding both volume and the top button • Get some (very) basics information on baseband crash. (task, address of abort, …)
Escaping the baseband (example)
Target 2: UserClient Target 1: PCI-E Baseband where you
CommCenter etc. Kernel have code exec
Application Processor
You have several places where you can trigger a second bug on the Application Processor from the baseband
Kernel
CommCenter
Others
(Keep in mind that at this point you will still have to face PAC, since we will go on the
Application Processor)Intel Baseband Application Processor
interface on iPhone XS/XR (Kernel)
• Relevant IOKIT classes and components that we can gather from ioreg:
• Connected over pci-e (baseband-pcie) is a IOPCIDevice
• Has 2 IODeviceMemory, one of 0x1000 and one of 0x100
• AppleBasebandPCI
• Baseband (IOPlatformDevice)
• Has a interesting “function-coredump”
• AppleBasebandD101
• AppleBasebandPCIICEControl
• AppleBasebandPCIRTIDevice
• AppleBasebandPCIRTIInterface
• AppleBasebandPCIPDPADAMSkywalk
• Others… Not enough space… But you can see there is a lot of «meat»Intel Baseband Application Processor interface on iPhone XS/XR (Usermode) • AppleBasebandUserClient • Used by «CommCenter» but also by «locationd» to communicate with the kernel
CommCenter • Usermode launchdeamon related to the modem • Huge binary, 24mb plus libraries • Runs as “_wireless” user • It has a couple of “helpers” CommCenterMobileHelper, CommCenterRootHelper • “CommCenter is a 30 mb binary, even with PAC I bet you can find the right primitives” - qwerty
How to make your research easier • Researching on iPhone often requires a jailbreak on the latest version… • You can do some of the research on older models, or wait in 2019 for Intel to push some new Android models with the new XMM • Asus Zenfone 2 (Android,old as fuck) • Some Sierra Wireless Modules
The future (guesses) • ASLR will soon come to all mainstream basebands, making the bar for RCE higher, and this could be in theory implemented right now • Intel CET or ARM64 PAC in the future when new SoC come out? • True opt out option for unauthenticated networks for the paranoid users? They cannot just remove the unauthenticated networks since they are still widespread worldwide. But it will reduce the attack surface.
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