UNSC A BACKGROUND GUIDE - IMUNA
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
UNSC A BACKGROUND GUIDE
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.nyc
Secretary-General Dear Delegates,
Ankita Bhat
It is so wonderful to have you at the 2022 National High School Model UN Conference and Security
Director-General
Council A! My name is Megan Yeh, and I am so excited and honored to be your Director for Session
Kathy Li
I. I am currently a sophomore at UC Berkeley, double majoring in legal studies and political science.
Chiefs of Staff Max and I can not wait to hear your innovative and enticing solutions and discussions regarding
Jon Basile West African terrorism and the situation in Ethiopia. Throughout the conference, we both hope
Abolee Raut to hear multifaceted solutions that encompass these complex and pressing topics. We have both
Conference Services worked incredibly hard on this background guide and hope that it provides a starting point in your
Hugo Bordas research and solution development.
Sofía Fuentes
This is my second year on NHSMUN staff and my third year with NHSMUN. My time with
Delegate Experience
NHSMUN began during my sophomore year as a delegate in the Historical Security Council.
Akanksha Sancheti
Beatriz Circelli My initial experience with NHSMUN demonstrated the entire staff ’s dedication to creating an
educational and immersive experience. As a delegate, I felt supported by my directors and grew as a
Global Partnerships
delegate and intellectual. Last year, I was the Assistant Director for Security Council Session II. As
Katherine Alcantara
an AD, I provided a similar experience and atmosphere for delegates, even in an online setting. My
Clare Steiner
first year on NHSMUN staff only reassured my beliefs of how unique and special NHSMUN is as
Under-Secretaries- a place, conference, and educational experience. The amount of support and constructive feedback
General
given continues to draw me back to NHSMUN for years to come.
James Caracciolo
Ana Margarita Gil At UC Berkeley, I am a part of our own Model UN competitive team. With UCBMUN, I also
Ming-May Hu staffed our college conference on Historical Crisis. Along with UCBMUN, I am involved with my
Brandon Huetter
sorority Alpha Delta Pi. I am currently living in our sorority house and am the Wellness Specialist
Juliette Kimmins
Caleb Kuberiet for our chapter. Hopefully, I will become more involved with theatre and pre-law organizations
Victor Miranda once things become in person. In my free time, you can find me watching New Girl, drinking
Anikait Panikker copious amounts of caffeine, and dancing it out with my friends.
Frances Seabrook
The topics we have selected this year are difficult, but they are excellent points of discussion for
Sharon Tang
Kylie Watanabe delegates to grow in crafting comprehensive solutions. The Security Council is a special committee
Sophia Zhukovsky of few highly skilled delegates. The size gives delegates the opportunity to collaborate and create
resolutions that address every aspect of the topics. I can not wait to see what you guys come up
with and can not wait to meet you! Best of luck in your preparation!
Best,
Megan Yeh
megan.yeh@imuna.org
Security Council A
Session I
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.nyc
Secretary-General Hello Delegates!
Ankita Bhat
My name is Max Bross, and I am incredibly excited to be back at NHSMUN 2022 as your Security
Director-General
Council A Director for session two! My Co-Director Megan Yeh and I have been working together
Kathy Li
to ensure that both selected topics would be interesting and relevant enough to maintain a well-
Chiefs of Staff flowing debate while keeping you all engaged.
Jon Basile
Abolee Raut Before the upcoming conference, I participated as a Security Council delegate at NHSMUN twice
in high school. I was an Assistant Director earlier this year, so you could say I have a deep love for
Conference Services
Hugo Bordas the Security Council. Though the past NHSMUN conference was online, I had an amazing time
Sofía Fuentes working with my director and developing our topic regarding Lebanon and the crisis with the Gaza
Strip. During the conference, I had never seen delegates more passionate about collaborating and
Delegate Experience
passing resolutions to effectively decrease warfare. While I love debating as a delegate, nothing
Akanksha Sancheti
Beatriz Circelli brings me more joy than watching you all enjoy committee after working so hard to establish
yourself. I cannot emphasize how important being a part of a community like Model UN is to
Global Partnerships
your future and understanding of the world, and I hope that NHSMUN turns out to be your best
Katherine Alcantara
experience yet!
Clare Steiner
Under-Secretaries- I am currently in my second year at the University of Southern California (Fight on!), where I
General am also on the USC Model UN team. I was born and raised in Los Angeles, where I founded my
James Caracciolo high school’s Speech and Debate Club. Outside of debate, I was a coxswain for four years on a
Ana Margarita Gil club rowing team. I love being outdoors and traveling so I can learn more about cultures that I am
Ming-May Hu frequently researching. Let me know where you are from in committee so I can find new places to
Brandon Huetter
visit!
Juliette Kimmins
Caleb Kuberiet The Situation in Ethiopia is the perfect topic for our committee because it highlights an internal
Victor Miranda conflict that has been ongoing since the Second World War. To make matters worse, the political
Anikait Panikker
disputes in Ethiopia have turned deadly as government officials and Eritrean supporters have
Frances Seabrook
slaughtered civilians in the Tigray region. Furthermore, government corruption has caused one of
Sharon Tang
Kylie Watanabe the worst famines and refugee crises Ethiopia has ever seen. The roots of Ethiopia’s conflict run
Sophia Zhukovsky much deeper than perceived on the surface, and I am very intrigued to watch you all discuss the
details of this interesting yet crucial topic.
The last thing I want is for any of you to feel uncomfortable or embarrassed to ask any questions,
so please remember that no question is a bad one, and feel free to reach out at any time, even if you
want to make a friend before the conference. I look forward to meeting you all!
Sincerely,
Max Bross
max.bross@imuna.org
Security Council A
Session II
UNSC A 4| Table of Contents Table of Contents A Note on the NHSMUN Difference 5 A Note on Research and Preparation 7 Committee History 8 Simulation9 The Situation in Ethiopia 11 Introduction12 History and Description of the Issue 13 Current Status 27 Bloc Analysis 32 Committee Mission 34 Combating West African Terrorism 35 Introduction36 History and Description of the Issue 36 Current Status 45 Bloc Analysis 52 Committee Mission 54 Research and Preparation Questions 56 Important Documents 57 Works Cited 59
UNSC A
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference |5
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference
Esteemed Faculty and Delegates,
Welcome to NHSMUN 2022! My name is Kathy Li, and I am this year’s Director-General. Thank you for choosing to attend
NHSMUN, the world’s largest and most diverse Model United Nations conference for secondary school students. We are thrilled
to welcome you to New York City in March!
As a space for collaboration, consensus, and compromise, NHSMUN strives to transform today’s brightest thinkers into
tomorrow’s leaders. Our organization provides a uniquely tailored experience for all in attendance through innovative and
accessible programming. We believe that an emphasis on education through simulation is paramount to the Model UN experience,
and this idea permeates throughout NHSMUN.
Realism and accuracy: Although a perfect simulation of the UN is never possible, we believe that one of the core educational
responsibilities of MUN conferences is to educate students about how the UN System works. Each NHSMUN committee is
a simulation of a real deliberative body so that delegates can research what their country has said in the committee. Our topics
are chosen from the issues currently on the agenda of each committee (except historical committees, which take topics from the
appropriate time period). This creates incredible opportunities for our delegates to conduct first-hand research by reading the
actual statements their country has made and the resolutions they have supported. We also strive to invite real UN, NGO, and
field experts into each committee through our committee speakers program. Furthermore, our staff arranges meetings between
students and the actual UN Permanent Mission of the country they represent. No other conference goes so far to immerse
students into the UN System so deeply.
Educational emphasis, even for awards: At the heart of NHSMUN lie education and compromise. As such, when NHSMUN
does distribute awards, we de-emphasize their importance compared to the educational value of Model UN as an activity.
NHSMUN seeks to reward students who excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. More importantly, we seek to develop
an environment where delegates can employ their critical thought processes and share ideas with their counterparts from around
the world. Part of what makes NHSMUN so special is its diverse delegate base. Given our delegates’ plurality of perspectives
and experiences, we center our programming around the values of diplomacy and teamwork. In particular, our daises look for
and promote constructive leadership that strives towards consensus, as real delegates do in the United Nations.
Debate founded on knowledge: With knowledgeable staff members and delegates from over 70 countries, NHSMUN can
facilitate an enriching experience reliant on substantively rigorous debate. To ensure this high quality of debate, our staff members
produce extremely detailed and comprehensive topic guides (like the one below) to prepare delegates for the complexities and
nuances inherent in each global issue. This process takes over six months, during which the Directors who lead our committees
develop their topics with the valuable input of expert contributors. Because these topics are always changing and evolving,
NHSMUN also produces update papers intended to bridge the gap of time between when the background guides are published
and when committee starts in March. As such, this guide is designed to be a launching point from which delegates should delve
further into their topics. The detailed knowledge that our Directors provide in this background guide through diligent research
aims to spur critical thought within delegates at NHSMUN.
Extremely engaged staff: At NHSMUN, our staffers care deeply about delegates’ experiences and what they take away from
their time at NHSMUN. Before the conference, our Directors and Assistant Directors are trained rigorously through copious
hours of workshops and exercises to provide the best conference experience possible. At the conference, delegates will have the
opportunity to meet their dais members before the first committee session, where they may engage one-on-one to discuss their
UNSC A 6| A Note on the NHSMUN Difference committees and topics. Our Directors and Assistant Directors are trained and empowered to be experts on their topics, and they are eager to share their knowledge with delegates. Our Directors and Assistant Directors read every position paper submitted to NHSMUN and provide thoughtful insight on those submitted by the feedback deadline. Our staff aims not only to tailor the committee experience to delegates’ reflections and research but also to facilitate an environment where all delegates’ thoughts can be heard. Empowering participation: The UN relies on the voices of all of its Member States to create resolutions most likely to make a meaningful impact on the world. That is our philosophy at NHSMUN as well. We believe that to properly delve into an issue and produce fruitful debate, it is crucial to focus the entire energy and attention of the room on the topic at hand. Our Rules of Procedure and our staff focus on empowering every voice in the committee, regardless of each delegate’s country assignment or skill level. Additionally, unlike many other conferences, we also emphasize delegate participation after the conference. MUN delegates are well-researched and aware of the UN’s priorities, and they can serve as the vanguard for action on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, we are proud to connect students with other action-oriented organizations to encourage further work on the topics. Focused committee time: We feel strongly that interpersonal connections during debate are critical to producing superior committee experiences and allow for the free flow of ideas. Ensuring policies based on equality and inclusion is one way in which NHSMUN guarantees that every delegate has an equal opportunity to succeed in committee. In order to allow communication and collaboration to be maximized during committee, we have a very dedicated team who work throughout the conference to type, format, and print draft resolutions and working papers. As always, we welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2022 and would be happy to discuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates. Delegates, it is our sincerest hope that your time at NHSMUN will be thought-provoking and stimulating. NHSMUN is an incredible time to learn, grow, and embrace new opportunities. We look forward to seeing you work both as students and global citizens at the conference. Best, Kathy Li Director-General
UNSC A
A Note on Research and Preparation |7
A Note on Research and Preparation
Delegate research and preparation is a critical element of attending NHSMUN and enjoying the debate experience. We have
provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your committee. We encourage and expect each
of you to critically explore the selected topics and be able to identify and analyze their intricacies upon arrival to NHSMUN in
March.
The task of preparing for the conference can be challenging, but to assist delegates, we have updated our Beginner Delegate
Guide and Advanced Delegate Guide. In particular, these guides contain more detailed instructions on how to prepare a
position paper and excellent sources that delegates can use for research. Use these resources to your advantage. They can help
transform a sometimes overwhelming task into what it should be: an engaging, interesting, and rewarding experience.
To accurately represent a country, delegates must be able to articulate its policies. Accordingly, NHSMUN requires each delegation
(the one or two delegates representing a country in a committee) to write a position paper for each topic on the committee’s
agenda. In delegations with two students, we strongly encourage each student to research each topic to ensure that they are
prepared to debate no matter which topic is selected first. More information about how to write and format position papers can
be found in the NHSMUN Research Guide. To summarize, position papers should be structured into three sections:
I: Topic Background – This section should describe the history of the topic as it would be described by the delegate’s
country. Delegates do not need to give an exhaustive account of the topic, but rather focus on the details that are most
important to the delegation’s policy and proposed solutions.
II: Country Policy – This section should discuss the delegation’s policy regarding the topic. Each paper should state the
policy in plain terms and include the relevant statements, statistics, and research that support the effectiveness of the policy.
Comparisons with other global issues are also appropriate here.
III. Proposed Solutions – This section should detail the delegation’s proposed solutions to address the topic. Descriptions
of each solution should be thorough. Each idea should clearly connect to the specific problem it aims to solve and identify
potential obstacles to implementation and how they can be avoided. The solution should be a natural extension of the
country’s policy.
Each topic’s position paper should be no more than 10 pages long double-spaced with standard margins and font size. We
recommend 3–5 pages per topic as a suitable length. The paper must be written from the perspective of the your assigned
country should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference.
Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of its papers to their committee Directors via myDais on or before March
4, 2022. If a delegate wishes to receive detailed feedback from the committee’s dais, a position must be submitted on or before
February 18, 2022. The papers received by this earlier deadline will be reviewed by the dais of each committee and returned
prior to your arrival at the conference.
Complete instructions for how to submit position papers will be sent to faculty advisers via email. If delegations are unable to
submit their position papers on time, please contact us at info@imuna.org.
Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors will be ineligible for awards.
UNSC A 8| Committee History Committee History The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) was established under Article 23 of the UN Charter, which confers the UNSC the capacity to oversee the UN security forces, maintain international peace, and pass resolutions binding to all United Nations member states.1 Holding its first session in 1946, its main purpose was to facilitate diplomacy to avoid another major world military conflict following World War II. With delegates from many major world powers present, it provides a platform for representatives to discuss conflicts before they escalate into international catastrophes. Changed in 1968 with an amendment to the mandate, membership of the Security Council involves the five permanent members and ten non-permanent members that rotate every two years.2 The five permanent members include China, France, the Russian Federation, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The non-permanent members are voted based on an equitable distribution among the various geographical areas around the world. While its mandate first and foremost emphasizes international peace and security between nations, it also has a responsibility to address human rights issues. Its main authority comes from the enforcement powers outlined and agreed upon by member states in its charter. While other committees along the United Nations provide endorsed recommendations, the Security Council is the only committee with the authority to mandate directives, threatening sanctions, diplomatic penalties, or deploying peacekeeping forces should the directive be disregarded. The main procedural difference that sets the Security Council apart from its sister organs is that the permanent members have veto power, which impacts how the Council operates, especially with issues involving one or more of the permanent members.3 The veto powers often act as a political bargaining tool for domestic agendas, causing the UNSC to fall into gridlock multiple times. This is not to say that the UNSC has been an ineffective organ of the United Nations. The Security Council often collaborates with working groups on many issues, from general sanctions to legal affairs and international tribunals. For example, the UNSC closely collaborates with the Peacekeeping Operations Working Group to address technical peacekeeping issues and to seek the views of the troop-contributing countries (TCCs). These working groups have historically been tied to peacekeeping missions and civilian protection worldwide but can also pertain to logistical and procedural issues. By virtue of its political role, the UNSC has also frequently cooperated with the United Nations Blue Helmets, often referred to as the peacekeeping branch of the UN.4 With that being said, the UNSC has recorded many achievements over its long existence. Some of them include the establishment of over 70 peacekeeping missions worldwide, such as the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), and the sanctioning of states that do not comply with international agreements and terror organizations. The Security Council has also played an integral role in holding key discussions aimed at increasing cooperation among the international community. Most notably, the UNSC has played a crucial role in mediating ceasefire procedures between Israel and the Arab States during their years of conflict.5 Overall, the Security Council is often seen as the enforcement body of the United Nations, and it has been known to focus its efforts on the world’s most conflict-torn areas to bring peace and security back to the people. 1 “Security Council,” United Nations (United Nations), accessed September 22, 2021, https://www.un.org/en/model-united-nations/ security-council. 2 “United Nations Security Council.” Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. Encyclopedia Britannica, January 2, 2020. https://www. britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Security-Council. 3 “United Nations Security Council.” Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. Encyclopedia Britannica, January 2, 2020. https://www. britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Security-Council. 4 “Working Groups Security Council,” United Nations (United Nations), accessed September 22, 2021, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/ content/repertoire/working-groups. 5 “UN Security Council,” Better World Campaign, accessed September 22, 2021, https://betterworldcampaign.org/un-101/un-security- council.
UNSC A
Simulation |9
Simulation
As delegates serving on the Security Council at NHSMUN 2022, all members will have the opportunity to put forth resolutions
aimed at addressing some of the world’s most complex international issues. These resolutions are meant to embody the work of
the UNSC and should reflect the central objective of the body: to maintain global security and stability.
The five permanent members of the Security Council, known as the P5, possess veto power on substantive issues. The ten
remaining delegations, which bring total committee membership to fifteen, do not have veto power. If there are no permanent
members voting against the resolution (i.e. vetoing the resolution), nine affirmative votes are required to pass a resolution
regardless of the number of members in attendance. The Council may, from time to time, invite non-SC states, organizations,
and/or members to participate in the proceedings. Such members may only vote on procedural matters; once the committee has
entered formal voting procedure on any resolution, the invitee is not permitted to cast their vote.
In the simulation of the SC at NHSMUN, the Director and Assistant Director will chair debate. Together, the Director and AD
are referred to as the dais. The dais is charged with the task of maintaining decorum throughout the committee session. The
dais will also assist delegates in their use of parliamentary procedure and work to ensure that all points of order are handled
appropriately. Furthermore, the Director and AD will provide directional advice, and delegates may ask the dais any questions
they have about the topics themselves and/or procedural matters.
A delegate’s first job before coming to committee is to research both topics before the committee and to feel comfortable
advocating their assigned country’s policies. It is important that even if someone does not agree personally with a country’s
policies, the delegate remains true to country policy and continues to voice these ideas to the committee, remaining cognizant
of how these policies are reflected in resolutions written during the simulation. As members on a very specialized committee,
delegates are encouraged to work together towards a viable solution, and all members should seek to collaborate with states
whose policies and opinions on the issues similar to their own.
The first task in committee will be to set the agenda. To do this, a speakers list will be established solely for this purpose.
Delegates are not allowed to substantively discuss the issues at this time, but instead, should voice their opinions on the order in
which the issues will be debated. Following the vote on the setting of the agenda, delegates are encouraged to motion to open a
new speakers list intended for substantive debate on the first issue on the agenda. Debate will move in the order of this speakers
list until a vote by the Council moves the discussion into either a moderated or unmoderated caucus. As committee progresses,
the dais might choose to introduce different debate styles (such as round robin or round table) as needed. These forms of debate
may be utilized when in the best interest of the committee and will be explained further during the first committee session. Votes
on procedural matters such as unmoderated or moderated caucuses are procedural matters and will require a simple majority
vote with any abstentions being prohibited.
The goal of this simulation is to produce well-written, comprehensive resolutions to the issues at hand. Through formal and
informal debate, delegates will begin this resolution writing process by creating a working paper, which is essentially a collection
of ideas on possible solutions. Once the dais accepts the working paper it becomes a draft resolution and may be edited,
withdrawn, or merged with another draft resolution at any time prior to formal voting procedure. When the dais accepts a
motion to close debate or the speakers list is exhausted, the committee moves into voting procedure on the draft resolutions.
Throughout committee, as the dais sees fit, shorter resolutions focused on more short-term, immediate solutions may be
accepted to be voted on more rapidly with less intense debate or amendment processes. During these times, veto power for the
P5 is active and abstentions are permitted. Draft resolutions may be passed with any nine countries voting in favor; however,
UNSC A 10|S imulation if one or more of the P5 votes negatively on the resolution it automatically does not pass. Working on the Security Council at NHSMUN is a unique, unparalleled opportunity for students to take control of their own education. Delegates’ abilities to work together, compromise, and accurately advocate the policies of the states they represent will determine the success of the committee.
UNSC A
NHSMUN 2022
Topic A:
The Situation in Ethiopia
Photo Credit: Eduardo SoterasTopic A: The Situation in Ethiopia
12|I ntroduction
Introduction
Ethiopia has been embroiled in conflict for decades. In 1935, the African country was invaded by Italy
under Benito Mussolini. This invasion and its long-term effects started the waves of political, social,
and economic unrest that persist today. For much of its history, Ethiopia was a deeply Christian country.
However, the growing influence of Islam in neighboring lands gradually impacted Ethiopians as they
converted religions and began to fight over differing beliefs.1 Whether it be religion, government, or
culture, Ethiopia’s incredible ethnic diversity has resulted in dreadful divisions that keep the country
in a near-constant state of turmoil.
The current conflict in Ethiopia’s Tigray region arguably regime’s opponents and led to Ethiopia’s worst famine. This
stems from countless instances of turmoil in Ethiopia’s past. event led the Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) to
Nevertheless, all of these instances connect to the reign of launch a war for regional autonomy.6 By 1991, the Ethiopian
former Ethiopian Emperor Haille Selassie, who was the ruler People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) gained
of Ethiopia at the time of the Italian invasion. Emperor enough power to drive President Mengistu out of Ethiopia.7
Selassie fled Ethiopia once the war was lost and lived as a ruler
Since 1994, Ethiopia has developed a federal system where
in exile until the end of World War II when he was restored
different ethnic groups have jurisdiction over the affairs of
to power. His subsequent decades of rule included the
10 regions. The TPLF was very influential in creating this
annexation of Eritrea, a neighboring former Italian colony,
system because it led a four-party coalition that governed
and a famine that claimed 200,000 of his people’s lives.2 In
Ethiopia following President Mengistu’s regime.8 Though
1974, Selassie was overthrown in a military coup before dying
Ethiopia became more stable, concerns regarding democracy
in custody a year later.3 Selassie made Ethiopians lose faith in
and human rights turned to protests that led to Abiy Ahmed
their own country, and hopelessness proved to be a disastrous
being appointed prime minister of Ethiopia in 2018.9 Prime
mixture when combined with division. Since the fall of
Minister Ahmed created the Prosperity Party before removing
Emperor Selassie, Ethiopia has endured war with Somalia and
Tigrayan leaders of the government accused of repression and
Eritrea, a genocide under a pro-Soviet military regime, more
corruption, causing Tigrayans to believe that Ahmed’s reforms
famine, regional divisions based on ethnicity, and multiple
were solely created to destroy the previous federal system and
governmental reconstructions.4
centralize power.10 In September 2020, Tigray illegally held a
Though current Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed regional election, defying the central government after it had
temporarily stabilized peace within Ethiopia, internal conflict postponed national elections due to the COVID-19 pandemic,
has been inevitable for years. After Emperor Selassie was causing the central government to suspend Tigray’s funding
deposed in 1974, Ethiopia’s government system quickly and cut ties with the region in the following month.11 In
shifted to what could be considered a dictatorship under turn, Tigray’s administration interpreted this as a declaration
Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam.5 10 years later, Mengistu of war, increasing tensions that led to Tigrayan forces being
was elected as Ethiopia’s first president after orchestrating the accused of stealing weapons and attacking army bases. To
“Red Terror” that resulted in the murders of thousands of his Prime Minister Ahmed, Tigrayans had crossed a red line that
1 “Ethiopia,” South African History Online, Accessed July 28, 2021, https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/ethiopia.
2 “Ethiopia profile - Timeline,” BBC News, October 12, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13351397.
3 BBC News, “Ethiopia profile.”
4 BBC News, “Ethiopia profile.”
5 BBC News, “Ethiopia profile.”
6 BBC News, “Ethiopia profile.”
7 BBC News, “Ethiopia profile.”
8 “Ethiopia’s Tigray war: The short, medium and long story,” BBC News, June 29, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54964378.
9 BBC News, “Ethiopia’s Tigray war.”
10 BBC News, “Ethiopia’s Tigray war.”
11 BBC News, “Ethiopia’s Tigray war.”Topic A: The Situation in Ethiopia
History and Description of the Issue |13
forced the federal government into a military confrontation led to a famine. Emperor Haile Selassie refrained from helping
that has continued today, resulting in hundreds of thousands those affected by the famine, leading to his demise.18 Ethio-
of increasing refugees, a new famine, and an estimated 10,000 Eritrean anti-government rebels and the Ethiopian military
deaths through 230 massacres as of the beginning of July junta communist governments started the Ethiopian Civil
2021.12 War in September 1974. This revolution resulted in Emperor
Haile Selassie being overthrown by Ethiopian military leader
Since the United Nations Security Council is the main body
Lieutenant Colonel Mengistu in the same year.19 The military
responsible for monitoring and acting on potential threats to
junta, also known as “the Derg,” rapidly gained power, igniting
international security and peace, the Tigray crisis warrants
increased bloodshed in the civil war. People most affected by
continued public scrutiny.13 If the Security Council does not
this conflict resided in the Tigray region, located in northern
add this crisis to its agenda, the five pathways for Antonio
Ethiopia. During this political repression campaign referred
Guterres, the Secretary-General, to use his authority to push
to as the “Red Terror,” thousands of civilians were brutally
for necessary sustained attention.14 These pathways include
murdered because they were suspected to be separatists.20 This
obstruction and attacks on medical assistance, conflict-
caused 11 men to create the Tigray People’s Liberation Front
induced famine, conflict-related sexual violence, regional
(TPLF) in February of 1975 to destabilize the oppressive and
and cross-border dimensions, and internet shutdowns and
dangerous junta.21
communications disruption.15
As the conflict in the north ensued, southeastern Ethiopia’s
Ogaden region also experienced notable discord. By the end
History and Description of the Issue of the 19th century, the Ogaden region had been claimed
by the Italian protectorate of Somaliland and Ethiopia.22
The Ethiopian Revolution and Ogaden Conflict
After Ethiopia defeated Italy in the Battle of Adwa in 1896,
Nearly 72 years after Italy gained control of Eritrea in 1880, Ethiopian Emperor Menilek II occupied the Ogaden region.23
Ethiopia regained control of the region. In 1961, Eritrean However, the region’s boundaries continued to be disputed
nationalists requested to be independent of Ethiopia, but because Italy invaded Ogaden in 1935 through its neighboring
the Ethiopian government subsequently rejected this request, Welwel oasis that Italy had occupied in the early 1930s.24 In
igniting a conflict that continues today.16 During the last 14 years 1936, the entirety of Ethiopia and the Ogaden region had
of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie’s regime, he experienced been proclaimed a part of Italian East Africa. Ethiopia was
increasing opposition as modern and traditional Ethiopian then liberated by French and British forces in 1941 and gained
forces began to clash.17 In the early 1970s, government independence by 1948.25 Somalia gained its independence in
corruption grew, impoverished citizens demanded better 1960, causing the Ogaden region to experience a new border
conditions, but a significant drought in Ethiopia’s northeast conflict when the new Somali government claimed the
12 BBC News, “Ethiopia’s Tigray war.”
13 “UN Security Council: End Inaction on Ethiopia”, Human Rights Watch, last modified July 2, 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/02/
un-security-council-end-inaction-ethiopia.
14 Human Rights Watch,“UN Security Council.”
15 Human Rights Watch,“UN Security Council.”
16 Johanna Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War,” Encyclopedia, accessed June 19, 2021, https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-
almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ethiopian-civil-war.
17 Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War.”
18 Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War.”
19 Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War.”
20 Ineke Mules, “Ethiopia: A timeline of the Tigray crisis,” Deutsche Welle, November 17, 2020, https://www.dw.com/en/ethiopia-a-timeline-
of-the-tigray-crisis/a-55632181.
21 Mules, “Ethiopia.”
22 “Ogaden,” Encyclopedia Britannica, October 29, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/place/Ogaden.
23 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Ogaden.”
24 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Ogaden.”
25 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Ogaden.”Topic A: The Situation in Ethiopia 14|H istory and Description of the Issue Somali tanks are seen entering Ethiopia as warfare erupts region.26 The group that demanded the annexation was the lived because the Soviet Union quickly shifted its support to Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF), a separatist group Ethiopia during Ethiopia’s Civil War over the Tigray region. In fighting in Ethiopia, whose people lived in the Ogaden region 1977, Mengistu Haile Mariam, leader of the Derg, fully gained and the majority ethnic Somali population. This led to the control of Ethiopia. He repressed Ethiopians and supporters second conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia in the 1970s, of the WSLF with violence, causing Ethiopia to be viewed inviting the Cold War to East Africa.27 as a Marxist state, which appealed to the Soviet Union.30 As Because Ethiopia supported the Allies during World War II, Ethiopia became a Soviet ally, the Somali government began Great Britain turned over its claim on the Ogaden and Haud providing supplies and weapons to the WSLF. The Somali regions to Ethiopia, further strengthening the bond between National Army, composed of 35,000 men and aided by Ethiopia and other Allies, like the United States.28 However, 15,000 militiamen from the WSLF, launched an invasion on during the dispute over the Ogaden region, the Soviet the Ogaden region in July of 1977.31 In response, the Soviet Union expressed its support for Somalia, signing a Treaty Union sent nearly 50 ships to the port of Assab through of Friendship and Cooperation.29 This treaty was short- the Suez Canal. It unloaded about 60,000 tons of fighter 26 Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War.” 27 Ephrem Yared, “Ethiopian-Somali War over the Ogaden Region,” Blackpast, last modified March 21, 2016, https://www.blackpast.org/ global-african-history/ethiopian-somali-war-over-ogaden-region-1977-1978/. 28 Yared, “Ethiopian-Somali War.” 29 Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War.” 30 Yared, “Ethiopian-Somali War.” 31 Yared, “Ethiopian-Somali War.”
Topic A: The Situation in Ethiopia
History and Description of the Issue |15
munitions, artillery, tanks, and aircraft to Mengistu’s army.32 disproportionately benefited, though they only account for
The Somali Army was outnumbered and defeated by Ethiopia five percent of Ethiopia’s population.39
in 1978, continuing Ethiopia’s control of the Ogaden region.
Mengistu’s military government continued to maintain close Instability Within the Ethiopian Government
ties with the Soviet Union. It launched a massive land reform
In April of 2018, Abiy Ahmed was elected as prime minister
by claiming ownership of formerly noble estates to create
of Ethiopia, just a week after the ruling coalition had
farmland, murdering those who opposed it in the process, and
nominated him to succeed Hailemariam Desalegn, the former
alienating the Ethiopian government from the United States.33
prime minister. Ahmed was the first Oromo, Ethiopia’s
By 1991, the TPLF that had been established less than two largest ethnic group, to be elected prime minister.40 Desalegn
decades earlier evolved into Ethiopia’s strongest armed had resigned in February of 2018 after months of protests
liberation movement, but this growth in power required that caused hundreds of deaths in the Amhara and Oromia
careful planning and precise tactics.34 The TPLF had steadily regions.41 These protests sparked after a master plan to
grown through the 1970s, gaining nearly 2,000 fighters expand the boundaries of Ethiopia’s capital surfaced. Many
by 1978, and by 1980, the TPLF could mobilize twice this local farmers were concerned that the capital would take their
number.35 The leaders remained cautious by downplaying land, leaving them displaced with no source of income.42 The
their supportive views on Marxism that were frowned upon protestors initially demanded that the plan be canceled, but
by the conservative Christian rural populations that initially they later demanded increased socioeconomic and political
supported the TPLF; these leaders emphasized how the rights for the Oromo people and the release of prisoners of
socialist policies of Mengistu’s regime posed a major threat to conscience. The Amhara people soon followed in protest,
regional autonomy and local traditions.36 With this increasing wanting to regain control of the land that the government
support and power, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary had taken.43 Being that the Oromo people comprised 34
Democratic Front (EPRDF), led by the TPLF, managed to percent of Ethiopia’s 100 million citizens and the Amhara
overthrow Mengistu’s regime through a march from northern people comprised 27 percent, Ethiopia declared two states
Ethiopia to the capital Addis Ababa, using guerilla fighters.37 of emergency within two years, the second being during
By August 1995, the EPRDF proclaimed the Federal Desalegn’s leadership, leading to the closure of businesses and
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia after gaining power through
crippled transportation networks.44
elections with little opposition, and Meles Zenawi, leader
of the TPLF, became the first prime minister of Ethiopia, Since Prime Minister Ahmed was from the most populous
allowing Tigrayans to control senior government ranks.38 ethnic group in Ethiopia, people predicted that he would
Before Meles died in August 2012, he introduced an ethnic change the country and instill peace. Ahmed fought against
federalism system that allowed Ethiopia’s main ethnic groups the oppressive Derg before serving in the Ethiopian National
to govern their ethnically dominant areas. However, Tigrayans Defense Forces, earning lieutenant colonel. During his
32 Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War.”
33 Granville, “Ethiopian Civil War.”
34 Mules, “Ethiopia: A timeline of the Tigray crisis.”
35 Jason Burke, “Rise and fall of Ethiopia’s TPLF - from rebels to rulers and back,” The Guardian, November 25, 2020, https://www.
theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/25/rise-and-fall-of-ethiopias-tplf-tigray-peoples-liberation-front.
36 Burke, “Rise and fall.”
37 “Timeline: Key events leading to Ethiopia’s crisis in Tigray,” Reuters, November 6, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-
conflict-timeline/timeline-key-events-leading-to-ethiopias-crisis-in-tigray-idUSKBN27M1O9.
38 Reuters, “Timeline.”
39 Reuters, “Timeline.”
40 “Abiy Ahmed sworn in as Ethiopia’s prime minister,” Al Jazeera, April 2, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/4/2/abiy-ahmed-
sworn-in-as-ethiopias-prime-minister.
41 Al Jazeera, “Abiy Ahmed sworn in as Ethiopia’s prime minister.”
42 Jillian Kestler-D’Amours, “Ethiopia: Mass protests ‘rooted in country’s history,’” Al Jazeera, February 20, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/
news/2018/2/20/ethiopia-mass-protests-rooted-in-countrys-history.
43 Kestler-D’Amours, “Ethiopia.”
44 Al Jazeera, “Abiy Ahmed sworn in as Ethiopia’s prime minister.”Topic A: The Situation in Ethiopia
16|H istory and Description of the Issue
time in the military, he received a bachelor’s degree from Ethiopia and Eritrea following a border war.47 In October
Ethiopia’s Microlink Information Technology College in of 2019, after many of these reforms yielded positive results
2001, majoring in computer engineering.45 By 2007, he was for Ethiopia, Ahmed was given the Nobel Peace Prize for his
appointed the head of Ethiopia’s cybersecurity agency, the reforms to unite Ethiopia. However, not all Ethiopian citizens
Information Network Security Agency, before being elected agreed with Ahmed’s reforms and believed that he further
to the House of Peoples’ Representatives in 2010. Ahmed divided the country by supporting specific Ethiopian ethnic
became the minister of science and technology in 2016 and groups. An assassination attempt made on Ahmed caused a
eventually became the head of the secretariat in the Oromo deadly explosion in the capital during a large rally, and the
People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO) in 2017.46 As military chief of Ethiopia was shot and killed by his own
the government began to welcome opinions from opposing bodyguard during a failed attempt to overthrow the Amhara
groups in 2018, Desalegn’s resignation elevated Ahmed,
regional government by anti-government protesters.48
leading to his appointment as prime minister. Ahmed made
groundbreaking reforms by vowing to open the political space During the fiscal year from 2018 to 2019, Ahmed recognized
to hold fair elections, welcome previously exiled opposition the dangers that fueled instability in Ethiopia after stating
leaders, release political prisoners, and achieve peace between that 34 economic saboteurs, 48 terror suspects, 51 human
Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed gives his acceptance speech as Ethiopia’s fourth prime minister
45 Amy McKenna, “Abiy Ahmed,” Encyclopedia Britannica, September 8, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abiy-Ahmed.
46 McKenna, “Abiy Ahmed.”
47 Rodney Muhumuza, “Timeline: Ethiopia’s Nobel Peace Prize to brink of civil war,” Associated Press, November 10, 2020, https://apnews.com/article/
virus-outbreak-hailemariam-desalegn-abiy-ahmed-africa-ethiopia-23fd9d467b15b3df187ecf25bef98c76.
48 Muhumuza, “Timeline.”Topic A: The Situation in Ethiopia
History and Description of the Issue |17
traffickers, and 799 corrupt officials were arrested.49 He decided increasing polarization of the country.54 Seeing that the Tigray
to blame droughts, floods, climate change, and extremist People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) controlled a majority of
ideas for the displacement of millions of Ethiopian citizens the previous EPRDF coalition, even though it was an ethnic
without recognizing that his post-reform period paralleled the minority, Tigrayans expressed outrage at the dismantling of
displacement of 1.1 million people.50 Though his reforms and the EPRDF. Following this drastic change in politics and
the displacement of Ethiopian citizens may not have a direct power, TPLF leaders fled to their homes in the Tigray region.55
correlation, Ahmed’s attempt to purge corruption further The TPLF felt significantly marginalized by Ahmed’s reforms,
drove a wedge between himself and opposing Ethiopian and creating the PP was not an agreeable action among the
parties. Ahmed claims that purging corruption was at the Tigrayan people, causing them to defy federal government
center of his political and economic reform to stabilize the laws by holding an election in their region and leading to both
economy while making it market-led. Though his leadership governments regarding each other as illegal.56 Tigray officials
did help Ethiopia reach double-digit growth in the economy, warned the Ethiopian federal government that intervening
Ahmed wound up creating a seemingly irremovable oligarchy. would result in a declaration of war, so the federal government
Ethiopian citizens, specifically those in the Tigray region, were responded by diverting funding for the Tigray region to local
unwilling to be controlled because the region has remained at administrations instead of its regional government, further
the center of national politics for decades.51 outraging the TPLF.57 In November of 2020, Prime Minister
Ahmed accused the TPLF of committing a deadly attack on
Having dismantled the EPRDF, Ethiopia’s former ruling
a federal military base and ordered the Ethiopian military to
party that ran the country for nearly 30 years, in December
approach Tigray’s well-armed regional government.58
of 2019, Ahmed seemingly made a fair and effective decision
for Ethiopians.52 Led by Prime Minister Ahmed himself, a
Unwarranted Civilian Attacks
new party replaced the EPRDF called the Prosperity Party
(PP). This new form of government was based on civic Since the Ethiopian Revolution of the 1970s, the lives of
nationalism and was run under an elected House of Peoples’ innocent bystanders seem to be irrelevant to opposing
Representatives. However, it removed the ethnic coalition forces within Ethiopia and in neighboring counties. After
structure of the EPRDF, which consisted of the Amhara Mengistu Haile Mariam gained political power in Ethiopia
National Democratic Movement, the Oromo People’s in 1977, the “Red Terror” that followed has proven how
Democratic Organization, the Southern Ethiopian People’s monstrous humans can be to one another without regard for
Democratic Movement, and the Tigrayan Peoples’ Liberation human life. Because the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary
Front.53 The PP was intended to protect Ethiopians from Party (EPRP) opposed Mengistu’s military government, his
divisive ethnic politics, enshrining ethnic federalism, a forces felt it necessary to retaliate by ensuing state-sponsored
federal system of national government where federated units violence.59 During the beginning of the revolution, in 1974,
are segregated by ethnicity. Nonetheless, it resulted in the unnecessary violence sparked through the execution of 61
49 Addis Tadesse, “Extremism, corruption fueling instability: Ethiopian PM,” Anadolu Agency, July 1, 2019, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/extremism-
corruption-fueling-instability-ethiopian-pm/1520186.
50 Tadesse, “Extremism.”
51 Morris Kiruga, “Ethiopia arrests government officials over corruption,” The Africa Report, April 18, 2019, https://www.theafricareport.com/12027/
ethiopia-arrests-government-officials-over-corruption/.
52 Eyder Peralta, “What To Know About Ethiopia’s Tigray Conflict,” NPR, November 13, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/11/13/934241830/what-to-
know-about-ethiopias-tigray-conflict.
53 Tom Gardner, “Will Abiy Ahmed’s Bet on Ethiopia’s Political Future Pay Off ?” Foreign Policy, January 21, 2020, https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/01/21/
will-abiy-ahmed-eprdf-bet-ethiopia-political-future-pay-off/.
54 Gardner, “Will Abiy Ahmed’s Bet on Ethiopia’s Political Future Pay Off ?”
55 Peralta, “What To Know About Ethiopia’s Tigray Conflict.”
56 Muhumuza, “Timeline.”
57 Muhumuza, “Timeline.”
58 Muhumuza, “Timeline.”
59 World Peace Foundation, “Ethiopia: Red Terror and Famine,” Mass Atrocity Endings, accessed June 21, 2021, https://sites.tufts.edu/
atrocityendings/2015/08/07/ethiopia/.Topic A: The Situation in Ethiopia
18|H istory and Description of the Issue
former officials that worked with the Imperial government.60 Ethiopian military service regulations and international law.
On a larger scale, civilians who supported the EPRP started These children were taken anywhere from school to the
to be targeted in September 1976, igniting the Red Terror’s market and given unsophisticated training before being sent to
first phase. This violence rapidly increased when Mengistu battle against highly-trained adult guerilla fighters.66 In 1988,
used his newfound power to execute moderate competitors Mengistu conducted a bombing campaign using air raids,
in his military regime. After house searches began in March which instilled fear among opponents of his regime. One
of 1977, mass killings followed in April, with thousands target located outside of Ethiopia, in neighboring Eritrea, was
of people being slaughtered in their homes in under two the port of Massawa. These raids began in February 1988,
months without any justification.61 The Red Terror continued, days after the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF)
impacting the Tigray region worse than other parts of the captured the port. These bombs, which continued until June
county. The military regime sought to gain control over the of that year, were not aimed at military troops or sites for
entire region by dismantling the economic and social base of warfare training—rather, areas for food relief, significant port
the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF), going as far as installations, and civilians were targeted, causing the death of
targeting teachers for imprisonment. In just one example of over 100 civilians.67 Unfortunately, Massawa was not the only
many, in July 1977, the military regime randomly murdered targeted region. Other regions of Eritrea and the Ethiopian
178 peasants because they lived in an area where people provinces of Wollega, Gondar, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray
supported the TPLF.62 On account of the African Human were heavily bombed daily. A single raid in a Tigrayan market
Rights Memorial, innocent prisoners were hung by their arms, town in June of 1988 led to the deaths of over 1,000 innocent
flogged, burned, and tortured. A 15-year-old prisoner named civilians.68
Kiflu Ketema recalled watching guards attach newspapers to
the backs of prisoners before setting them on fire.63 Ketema Assuming that the end of Mengistu’s horrific military regime in
saw humans being whipped as he heard gunshots to complete 1991 equates to the end of civilian casualties in Ethiopia would
executions before bodies were thrown on the street and knew sadly be naive. Under Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, elected in
children younger than 13 who were killed.64 2018, the temporary stability in Ethiopia was precisely such:
temporary. Ethiopia has been a country engulfed in turmoil
Though the attacks on civilians decreased throughout the
for decades. Reforms that remove power from powerful
1980s as the regime lost power and control over Ethiopia, the
forces, such as the TPLF, have and will continue to lead to
Red Terror was not the final instance of Ethiopian corruption
conflict, and civilians somehow always end up being punished
leading to innocent bloodshed.
with their lives. On November 9, 2020, Ethiopian citizens in
In response to 1989 uprisings by rebel forces led by the the town of Mai Kadra, located in the Tigray region, were
Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), gruesomely attacked with knives and machetes by the TPLF,
the coalition created by the TPLF, the government resorted who were hunting anyone who was not Tigrayan. Before
to the use of inhumane tactics that it used in the 1950s, like fleeing, following the Ethiopian government’s capture of the
indiscriminate bombing.65 This struggling regime also enlisted Tigray capital, TPLF forces managed to murder about 600
thousands of teenagers as young as 13 years old, violating innocent people.69 Survivors of the attack describe themselves
60 World Peace Foundation, “Ethiopia.”
61 World Peace Foundation, “Ethiopia.”
62 World Peace Foundation, “Ethiopia.”
63 Tom McGhee, “Red Terror in Ethiopia killed thousands between 1976 and 1978,” The Denver Post, July 11, 2013, https://www.denverpost.
com/2013/07/11/red-terror-in-ethiopia-killed-thousands-between-1976-and-1978/.
64 McGhee, “Red Terror in Ethiopia killed thousands between 1976 and 1978.”
65 “Human Rights Watch World Report 1990 - Ethiopia,” Human Rights Watch, January 1, 1991, https://www.refworld.org/
docid/467fca2712.html.
66 Human Rights Watch, “Human Rights Watch World Report 1990.”
67 “Mengistu has Decided to Burn Us like Wood,” Human Rights Watch, July 24, 1990, https://www.hrw.org/reports/archives/africa/ETHIOPIA907.
htm.
68 Human Rights Watch, “Mengistu has Decided to Burn Us like Wood.”
69 Zecharias Zelalem, “Survivors recount horrific details of Mai Kadra massacre,” Al Jazeera, December 12, 2020, https://www.aljazeera.Topic A: The Situation in Ethiopia
History and Description of the Issue |19
People protesting after civilians were murdered in northern Ethiopia
as being covered in blood and seeing dead bodies with gaping where they could expect a similar fate.72 The fear of being
wounds piled in the town center.70 Though it was significantly unable to escape death, regardless of how hard someone
larger than the others, the Mai Kadra massacre was just one fights or how fast someone runs, has been a fear far too well
of 21 massacres that resulted from the Tigray conflict in the known in Ethiopia.
final days of November 2020. However, the TPLF was not
the only group slaughtering innocent people at the start of Eritrean Conflicts
this conflict. Ethiopian and Eritrean forces seem to be killing
During Italy’s 1935 invasion of Abyssinia, now known as
for sport in the instance of the Zalambessa massacre from
November 13 to 17, 2020. A Tigrayan eyewitness claims Ethiopia, Abyssinian Emperor Haile Selassie was forced
to have seen Eritrean and Ethiopian soldiers break into a into exile, which ignored the protests made by the League
mother’s house and kill her five children, yet cruelly allowing of Nations.73 This allowed Benito Mussolini, the fascist
her to live.71 Furthermore, on November 17, 2020, the Shire prime minister of Italy, to proclaim an Italian empire in East
massacre perpetrated by the Eritrean Defense Forces (EDF), Africa because of the previous 19th-century conquests of
which is not directly associated with the TPLF, resulted in over Italian Somaliland and Eritrea.74 Due to the early success of
200 Tigrayan civilian deaths. Many of which were targeted Germany during World War II, its Italian ally felt secure in
refugees with no homes. People fled to close cities like Axum, declaring war on Britain in 1940, threatening Britain’s control
com/news/2020/12/12/survivors-recount-horrific-details-of-mai-kadra-massacre.
70 “Ethiopia: Investigation reveals evidence that scores of civilians were killed in massacre in Tigray state,” Amnesty International, November
12, 2020, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/11/ethiopia-investigation-reveals-evidence-that-scores-of-civilians-were-killed-
in-massacre-in-tigray-state/.
71 Desta Hagos, “Massacre in Zalambessa,” Tghat, last modified December 10, 2020, https://www.tghat.com/2020/12/10/zalambessa-
massacres/.
72 “Ethiopia: Eritrean Forces Massacre Tigray Civilians,” Human Rights Watch, March 5, 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/05/
ethiopia-eritrean-forces-massacre-tigray-civilians.
73 “How Italy Was Defeated in East Africa in 1941,” Imperial War Museums, Accessed June 25, 2021, https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/
how-italy-was-defeated-in-east-africa-in-1941.
74 Imperial War Museums, “How Italy Was Defeated in East Africa in 1941.”You can also read
