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NOx UK AVIATION AND AIR QUALITY An information paper: Our contribution, the challenges and opportunities www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
Sustainable Aviation would like to thank the following members for leading the contribution to this document: ADS Airbus Airport Operators Association Birmingham Airport Bristol Airport British Airways Gatwick Airport Glasgow Airport Heathrow Airport Luton Airport Manchester Airports Group Newcastle Airport Rolls-Royce TUI Group Virgin Atlantic 2 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
UK AVIATION AND AIR QUALITY An information paper: Our contribution, the challenges and opportunities www.sustainableaviation.co.uk UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 3
Foreword I am delighted to share this new Sustainable Aviation (SA) paper with you. It explores the effect of UK aviation on local air quality, illustrating the range of activities currently underway throughout the industry to minimise emissions. We also consider new opportunities to further reduce aviation emissions that affect local air quality. This paper is a substantial body of work and I for renewable transport fuels to 2030. I am wish to thank the SA Air Quality Working Group encouraged that the policy sets out a framework and particularly the individuals, organisations to 2030, providing much needed certainty in this and companies that took part in preparing it. area, and urge Government to embody this in UK statute to encourage inward investment. I am excited by the diverse and extensive range of activities already underway throughout the Beyond this, SA believes there are further UK aviation industry to address our direct and opportunities to review and improve policy in indirect emissions. The range of innovative this important area so that in partnership we projects currently in progress also gives longer reduce aviation emissions further. I look forward term confidence that significant improvements to developing the opportunities highlighted in are feasible. The challenge will be how we all this paper with Government in the coming years. work together to realise these. I look forward to working with Government Ian Jopson and other stakeholders to realise opportunities Chair, Sustainable Aviation to reduce UK aviation’s contribution to local air quality. I welcome Government’s recent consultation outlining their plans to incorporate aviation fuels within the existing incentive regime 4 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
Advisory Board Comment The Sustainable Aviation (SA) Advisory Board works with Sustainable Aviation consortium to provide independent advice and feedback. It provides rigorous challenge to the SA Council in order to enable it to reach its cleaner, quieter, smarter goals effectively and efficiently. The Advisory Board welcomes this paper As the first SA report on air quality, this paper by SA on how the industry both contributes sets out the range of current industry-led to and seeks to minimise poor air quality actions and commitments. Moving forward it around airports. After 10 years of SA action will be important to seek the adoption of these to strengthen the UK aviation industry’s actions across all airports and to innovate to sustainability, it is appropriate to take stock of maintain the positive trend. Specifically, having what the sector is doing on air quality and can defined four valid areas for future attention - do going forward. surface access emissions, airport specialist fleet performance, promoting adoption of sustainable This paper makes clear the wide range of alternative fuels and expanding research - SA activities that are being taken by the aviation should consider setting goals for airport and industry nationwide to combat air pollution. wider sector emissions improvement. It will be Progressively over the years, this has moved important to drive these and other initiatives from locally initiated actions that arose from forward, working with Government and local discussions with local authorities to a more authorities, both at the SA and member levels so systematic sector wide approach to identify and that the industry plays its full part in improving implement best practice. From being a lower air quality. This paper makes clear that the priority topic for many airports, it is clear that UK aviation industry has established a good air quality improvement is now embedded with platform from which to progress that journey to all airports both as part of their sustainability cleaner, quieter and smarter aviation in the UK. strategy and community engagement work. Engine manufacturers have long been focused upon pollution reduction and that trend continues Roger Gardner but, despite a gradually improving air quality Sustainable Aviation Advisory Board situation around airports, there remains a strong health-based imperative to maintain and increase that push. Good progress has been made with aircraft ground operational emissions reduction alongside flight operational procedures on take- off and approach. UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 5
Executive Summary For 10 years Sustainable Aviation (SA) has brought together all parts of the UK aviation industry. By working together we are stronger and we aim to build a more sustainable future for our industry. Aviation playing a full part in improving air quality around airports is one of our seven strategic goals. With society increasingly concerned about the just one top ten UK airport is located within health impacts of poor air quality, and the issues any of these. The pollutants of most concern increasingly under the media spotlight, this paper are small particulate matter (PM) and oxides of is a significant contribution to the air quality nitrogen (NOX), in particular nitrogen dioxide debate. Using an objective and evidence-based (NO2). Both are associated with combustion approach, we set out the emissions from aviation activities. Road transport is the emission source and how they impact air quality at and around of greatest concern, contributing directly to airports. We also consider how the industry poor air quality, particularly in congested urban is responding to the challenge of minimising areas where more people are exposed to poorer emissions. As Government continues to refine and air quality. improve its policy framework, we hope that this Emissions at airports contribute only a very paper will provide a valuable input. small proportion of overall UK emissions, with Nationally, emissions of key air pollutants are aircraft contributing 1% of UK NOX emissions falling and are below Government’s legally and 0.1% of UK PM10 emissions. At airports, binding emission ‘ceilings’, however much remains which are generally located outside of cities, to be done. Air quality is an important issue, aircraft operations are the most significant across the UK over 600 locations have been source of emissions, with support vehicles and identified by local authorities where health-based equipment, as well as vehicles accessing the air quality objectives are not being met – airport also contributing. 6 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
The UK aviation industry has already delivered in NOX emissions from new aircraft by 2050. In a wide range of emission reduction initiatives. addition, SA members are working to ensure These include changes to the way we operate, UK airspace is used more efficiently and that which can often deliver consequential benefits the wide range of real-time flight information is in other areas such as noise reduction or carbon used intelligently to reduce delays, improving saving. The UK is at the leading edge of aviation passenger experience and reducing emissions. technology, manufacturers and airlines have To deliver these improvements we will need introduced new aircraft with engines that to continue to work collaboratively across all generate fewer emissions by burning cleaner, parts of the aviation industry. SA provides and airports have promoted public transport as us with the platform to do so. We also need an alternative to the car. to work closely with other stakeholders, Sustainable Aviation believes that it is important particularly Government. We ask Government to focus on aggressively reducing emissions to work with us in overcoming current barriers to improve air quality where it matters most. to cutting emissions which affect air quality. We welcome the focus Government places on These include: reducing road transport emissions, and believe • Focussing on road transport and helping to this is key to reducing overall UK emissions as improve surface access to airports; well as those from road access to and from airports. A Government framework for well- • Expanding low emission vehicle policy connected airports, with high-quality 24-hour support to specialist airport vehicles; public transport opportunities, will reduce • Providing policy certainty so that the private emissions and improve journeys for passengers sector will invest in alternative aviation fuels and staff. We also welcome Government’s policy (including the extension of the Renewable support for ‘off the shelf’ ultra-low emission Transport Fuel Obligation to jet fuel); and, road vehicles, if this support were extended to specialist airport vehicles and equipment, such • Ensuring that research and development as electric aircraft push back tugs, it could help programmes continue to be supported to further reduce emissions at airports. during and after the process of the UK leaving the European Union to continue the Current aerospace research and technology excellent work we have underway. goals are ambitious, targeting a 90% reduction UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 7
Contents Useful terms 10 Useful acronyms 12 1. Introduction 14 1.1 Sustainable Aviation 15 1.2 Air quality 15 1.3 Pollutants of concern 16 2. Context 18 2.1 Framework for reducing emissions and improving air quality 18 2.2 UK air quality 19 3. Air emission sources at and near to airports 20 3.1 Air emissions at airports 20 3.2 Reducing air emissions at airports 23 3.3 The contribution of road transport to emissions near to airports 24 3.4 Reducing surface access emissions 25 4. Air quality near to airports 26 4.1 Air quality 26 4.2 Air quality monitoring 28 4.3 Sharing information about air quality at and near to airports 29 4.4 Air quality action plans 30 5. Initiatives to reduce air quality emissions 31 5.1 Industry collaboration to improve air quality 31 5.2 Environmental co-benefits 40 5.3 Future opportunities 41 6. Realising the opportunities by working together 45 6.1 Sustainable Aviation’s commitment 45 6.2 Opportunities to work together 46 6.3 Identifying the next steps 46 6.4 Further discussion 47 References 48 Appendices 49 Appendix A – Important air pollutants in the UK 49 Appendix B – Science-based air quality objectives 50 Appendix C – Airport air quality monitoring 52 Appendix D – Air quality monitoring results 53 UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 9
Useful terms Additive layer Additive manufacturing (sometimes also known as 3D printing) is a modern manufacturing fabrication process that can use a range of materials to create three- dimensional parts that are built up layer by layer. This way of building parts offers great flexibility and opportunities for creating new products at low cost, whilst reducing the carbon footprint associated with manufacturing. Air quality action plan Air quality action plans are required to ensure that air quality objectives in a particular area where exceedances are occurring are met as quickly as possible. Air quality limits Limit values are legally binding parameters that must not be exceeded, and are set for individual pollutants. They are made up of a concentration value, an averaging time over which it is to be measured, the number of exceedances allowed per year, if any, and a date by which it must be achieved. Some pollutants have more than one limit value covering different endpoints or averaging times. Air quality If a local authority finds any locations where air quality objectives are not management area likely to be achieved, it must declare this as an air quality management area and draft an air quality action plan to achieve objectives as soon as possible. Air quality strategy The national strategy sets out a framework to achieve cleaner air that will bring health and social benefits, and identifies the key measures that are required and identifies where further work is needed. Air quality objectives The air quality objectives set targets for levels of certain pollutants in air and dates by which these must be met. Air traffic movement A single arrival or departure of an aircraft. Airport consultative In order for airports to communicate openly and effectively with their local committee communities and users of the airport about the impact of their operations, airport consultative committees have become a well-established way in which airports engage with key stakeholders in the local area and beyond. Alternatively fuelled Fuelled by a non-fossil-based fuel. Co-benefits Benefits obtained in other areas, above those expected in a target area. Combustion plant Engines, boilers or other plant where fuel is burned to provide power or heat. Combustion process The process by which a fuel (fossil or non-fossil) is burnt to provide some form of energy. Concentrations of The mass of a pollutant that exists in a specified volume of the ambient air. pollutants Consolidation centre Centres where deliveries are received, security screened and stored prior to being bundled together with other deliveries into as few deliveries as possible to airport sites. 10 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
Distributed propulsion Distributed propulsion fully integrates the propulsion system within the airframe so that the aircraft experiences the full benefits of coupling airframe aerodynamics and the propulsion system. This aim is for larger aircraft to be powered by a large number of electric motors. Emissions A substance that is released into the environment – in this paper, from a man-made source affecting air quality. Emissions ceiling The total amount of a substance that is allowed to be released into the air over a given time period. Emissions inventory A summary of emissions by type (e.g. pollutant) and source. Flightpath 2050 The EU’s vision for aviation in 2050, which details how and where the European research priorities should be set to preserve EU growth and competitiveness worldwide, whilst meeting market needs as well as energy and environmental challenges. Fossil fuels Fuels derived from fossil sources such as petroleum and coal. Ground level air quality Ambient air quality as measured at nominal adult head-height. Hybrid Uses two or more distinct types of power, such as an internal combustion engine and an electric motor. Interdependencies The influence that changes to one environmental impact has on another. These can either be positive-positive (i.e. win-win), or positive-negative, where trade-offs may need to be considered. Internationally agreed Aircraft engine emissions standards, agreed by the International engine standards Civil Aviation Organisation’s Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection. Local air quality In the context of this paper, ambient air quality near to the airport. Reduced thrust Airlines have implemented take-off procedures involving a reduction in take-off engine thrust settings to the minimum level required to take off based on the aircraft take-off weight, weather conditions and the length of the runway available. Stakeholders Individuals, groups or organisations that are interested in the activity of aviation or airports. Surface access Methods of access to the airport, not by aircraft, for passengers, staff and goods. Sustainable aviation Fuel used by aircraft that has a lower carbon footprint than fossil-based fuel kerosene and that meets other sustainability criteria. Sustainable fuels Fuel that has a lower carbon footprint than those derived from fossil sources Syn-gas Syn-gas is an abbreviation for synthesis gas, which is a mixture comprising of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. The syn-gas is produced by gasification of a carbon containing fuel, such as woodchip, to a gaseous product that has some heating value. UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 11
Useful acronyms ACARE Advisory Council for Aviation Research and innovation in Europe A-CDM Airport collaborative decision making APU Auxiliary power unit AQAP Air quality action plan AQG Air quality guideline(s) recommended by the World Health Organisation AQMA Air quality management area AQO Air quality objective AURN Automatic urban and rural network (national air quality monitoring) AVGAS Aviation gasolene CAD Computer aided design CDM Collaborative decision making CEM Collaborative environmental management CHP Combined heat and power CO Carbon monoxide CO2 Carbon dioxide COMEAP Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants CVP Clean vehicle partnership DEAP Distributed electrical aerospace propulsion Defra UK Government Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs DfT UK Government Department for Transport DP Distributed propulsion EU European Union FEGP Fixed electrical ground power HGV Heavy goods vehicle ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation IT Information technology iTEC Interoperability through European collaboration 12 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
LAQM Local air quality management LTO Cycle ICAO Reference Landing and Take-off Cycle NAQS National Air Quality Strategy NATS National Air Traffic Services NO Nitric oxide NO2 Nitrogen dioxide NOX Oxides of nitrogen O3 Ozone OLEV UK Government Office for Low Emissions Vehicles PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PCA Pre-conditioned air PM Particulate matter PM10 Particulate matter smaller than 10 micrometres in diameter PM2.5 Particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometres in diameter R&D Research and development RET Reduced engine taxiing RTFO Renewable transport fuel obligation S106 Section 106 planning agreement (contains planning conditions) SA Sustainable Aviation SAFED Safe and fuel efficient driving SESAR Single European sky air traffic movement research SO2 Sulphur dioxide TEOM Tapered element oscillating microbalance (type of PM monitoring equipment) UFP Ultra-fine particles UK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland VOC Volatile organic compounds WHO World Health Organisation UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 13
1. Introduction For 10 years Sustainable Aviation has brought the UK aviation industry together, to work towards a sustainable future for UK aviation. The Government’s Air Quality Strategy shows an Members of Sustainable Aviation manage and improving picture regarding air quality generally improve local air quality, often in collaboration but poor air quality still exists at some locations, with local authorities and other stakeholders. predominately in busy urban areas, mostly as The Sustainable Aviation Advisory Board has a result of road traffic. The Strategy identifies provided independent rigorous challenge to our the key air pollutants of concern – at airports work, and has overseen to the production of nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter are this paper. considered most relevant. MEMBERS SIGNATORIES 14 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
1.1 Sustainable Aviation Launched in 2005, Sustainable Aviation (SA) brings together the main aviation players – from SA Local Air Quality Strategic Goal UK airlines and airports, manufacturers and Industry to play its full part in improving air air navigation service providers – to set out a quality around airports. collective and long-term strategy to ensure a sustainable future for UK aviation. For the last ten years, SA has been entirely focused on finding Through its Progress Reports, SA has regularly collaborative ways of improving environmental reported on the work carried out throughout the performance and ensuring sustainable growth. UK aviation industry to reduce emissions that affect air quality. These Reports are available on The SA work programme is focused around the SA website. This work is broad-ranging and seven strategic goals. Since 2005, SA has will be explored throughout the rest of this paper. recognised the importance of improving air quality around airports by reducing emissions The members and signatories of SA represent and ensuring that aviation’s contributions are over 90% of the UK aviation industry, with many effectively monitored and managed. having a global reach. 1.2 Air quality The last UK Air Quality Strategy (Defra, 2007) A number of studies have reviewed the impact painted a positive picture, reporting progress of emissions from aviation at all levels, including and improving air quality over recent decades. emissions from aircraft at cruise level and Air in the UK is now cleaner in overall terms also locally to airports. The United Nations than at any time since the industrial revolution. International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) However, this does not negate the fact that has identified that emissions from aircraft poor air quality does still exist in some areas operations are only a ground-level air quality with potentially serious adverse effects, both to concern when they occur below 1,000 feet human health and ecology. above the ground (ICAO, 2011) – typically within a few miles of an airport. However, it is Government estimates that air pollution customary for airport emission inventories to reduces the life expectancy of every person in consider the emissions from aircraft operations the UK by an average of 7-8 months. In recent on the ground and in the air up to 3,000 feet or months the Committee on the Medical Effects 1,000 metres above ground level. of Air Pollutants (COMEAP), who advise the Government on the health effects of air pollution, Although the industry is working collectively has concluded that evidence associating to reduce emissions in all phases of flight, the nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with health effects has management of air quality is a local matter strengthened in recent years (Public Health overseen by airports – in partnership with England, 2016). The Department for Environment, other stakeholders including local authorities. Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) have identified Supporting the principles of Government’s impacts of poor air quality upon animals, plants, Aviation Policy Framework (DfT, 2013), this biodiversity and crop yields (Defra, 2013). approach is consistent with the aviation industry’s ambition to implement local solutions Like many nations, the UK is facing difficulties in to local challenges, as well as with the scope of meeting air quality objectives for concentrations aviation’s impact in terms of air quality. of NO2 alongside some of the UK’s busiest roads (Defra, 2015). As a result, much of the interest in Within that context, this paper sets out UK air quality has centred on urban areas where the current understanding of air quality poor air quality has been driven predominantly issues related to airports in the UK, how by road traffic. Interest in air quality has recently air pollution is measured and actions being heightened, with considerable media attention taken by the industry to reduce emissions of focusing on vehicle emission testing scandals potential pollutants. The paper also highlights and legal challenges regarding the Government’s opportunities to deliver further emission approach to air quality objectives. reductions in the future. UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 15
1.3 Pollutants of concern Historic air pollution, such as smoke and sulphur of pollutants in particular. NO2 is the principal dioxide (SO2), resulted from the use of fossil pollutant of concern, with further considerable fuels for industrial and domestic purposes. interest also in particulate matter (PM). This The impact of these has, however, declined is the result of some locations in the UK not with improving technology. Currently the currently meeting objectives for NO2 and/or main sources of local air pollution are exhaust PM (specifically PM10 – particles smaller than 10 emissions from petrol and diesel vehicles, as well micrometres in diameter). as emissions from housing and industry, which Both NO2 and PM10 are considered relevant to generate a range of emissions to air. Appendix air quality at and near to airports, principally A highlights a number of pollutants identified as because both result from airport activities. important by Government within its Air Quality Other air pollutants identified within the Air Strategy (Defra, 2007). Quality Strategy, are less relevant. As such, Despite significant improvements in air quality, this paper focuses on NO2 and PM10 at and concerns remain regarding a small number around airports. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Particulate matter (PM) Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are created by PM is made up of a variety of materials combustion processes, particularly cars and arising from different sources. It can be lorries and, as such, are a key pollutant to formed directly from combustion process consider at airports in relation to surface and indirectly from chemical reactions in access, with the main UK source being the air. PM is a mix of human-made and road transport. Aircraft engines, boilers natural sources (such as Saharan dust). PM and backup generators also produce NOx. is categorised on the basis of particle size: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO) PM10 refers to particles with a diameter of are both oxides of nitrogen and together are less than 10 micrometres; and, PM2.5 particles referred to as NOx. with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres. 16 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 17
2. Context Air quality legislation is based on air quality guidelines recommended by the World Health Organization on the basis of research into the impacts of pollutants on health. The guidelines are based on research into the effect pollutants have on people’s health and are intended to help governments set air-quality standards that should apply in their countries. Government has established legally binding are not expected to be met. There are currently emission ‘ceilings’ that limit total emissions 604 air quality management areas AQMAs in of four main air pollutants, including nitrogen the UK. These are typically in busy urban areas, oxides (NOX). Other targets aim to improve air reflecting the principal source of concern, which quality by limiting concentrations of certain air is road transport. pollutants. The UK Government regularly reports Local authorities must develop air quality action on progress made in improving air quality and plans, which aim to improve air quality and has identified difficulty in meeting objectives for meet objectives. Airports which are members nitrogen dioxide (NO2). of Sustainable Aviation actively contribute to By law, local authorities must review air quality such plans, often through strategies which in their area and designate an air quality are developed and implemented by individual management area where air quality objectives airports. 2.1 Framework for reducing emissions and improving air quality Air quality is an important issue, challenging Legally binding targets have been set to both policymakers in both developed and developing reduce total emissions of key pollutants, and nations. International research has led to the to limit their concentrations in air within the development of air quality guidelines by the World UK (National Emission Ceilings Regulations, Health Organisation (WHO). Poor air quality is 2002) and other European countries (European recognised to increase the number of people who Directive 2001/81/EC, 2001). suffer from, and severity of, respiratory and other The framework for managing air quality in the illnesses. These guidelines, have been specifically UK is provided as Appendix B, and summarised developed to protect both people’s health and the in Figure 2.1. natural environment and provide the framework for UK and European air quality policies. 18 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
Air quality guidelines The World Health Organisation has set these research-based guidelines to protect people's health. EU Air Quality Directives These Directives, based on the World Health Organisation’s air quality guidelines, set limits for eight air pollutants. UK Air Quality Regulations These regulations incorporate EU air quality directives into UK law, and introduce air quality objectives. Under the UK Air Quality Regulations, Government must keep within limits set by EU Air Quality Directives for eight pollutants, and must report results to the European Commission. Environment Act 1995 Under the Environment Act 1995, local authorities must review air quality. If they find that the air quality objectives in a particular area are not expected to be met, they must designate that area as an air quality management area. Air quality action plans Each local authority must develop an air quality action plan setting out measures to improve air quality and meet the air quality objectives in any air quality management area. Figure 2.1 Air quality management framework 2.2 UK air quality For nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter Defra produces an annual report on air pollution in (PM10), UK air quality objectives (AQOs) are the UK (Defra, 2015). This outlines the challenges aligned with limit values driven by the European the UK is facing in meeting air quality objectives Air Quality Directive. Government has ultimate for concentrations of NO2 and PM10, principally responsibility for achieving European air quality within urban areas as a result of emissions from limits and has tasked local authorities with road transport. Local Authorities have designated reporting local air quality to the Department for a total of 604 AQMAs where NO2 AQOs are Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). exceeded, compared to 95 for PM10 and 7 for Where AQOs (Figure 2.2) are not met, local sulphur dioxide (SO2) (Defra, 2016). Only one of authorities are required to declare an air quality these AQMAs contains a top ten UK airport. management area (AQMA) and develop an air quality action plan (AQAP). Pollutant Annual objective Short term objective (mean limit) (max events per annum) NO2 40 18 hours > 200 PM10 40 35 days > 50 PM2.5 25 N/A Figure 2.2 UK Air Quality Strategy objectives, micrograms per cubic metre (Defra, 2007) UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 19
3. Air emission sources at and near to airports Emissions at an airport contribute only a small proportion of overall UK emissions. A range of activities contribute to air emissions within the airport boundary. Aircraft operations are the most significant source of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter emissions at an airport, with other emissions from support vehicles and equipment, as well as vehicles accessing the airport. Road transport is a major national source of both members work collectively to develop new nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Due to technologies and implement more efficient the mobile nature of air pollutants, both airport- operating procedures. At a local level, airports related and non-airport-related road traffic both have delivered a range of initiatives to reduce contribute to emissions around airports. emissions, including developing sustainable surface access options for passengers, staff and Sustainable Aviation has a 10-year history of local communities alike. delivering environmental improvements. Our 3.1 Air emissions at airports The principal sources of airport-related A number of Sustainable Aviation (SA) member emissions include aircraft, ground service airports periodically produce air quality equipment such as power units and vehicles emission inventories. Emissions inventories at the airport or using airport approach roads. aim to quantify emissions by source across an Of these, the largest share of total airport- airport, to support air quality management and related emissions is from aircraft operations on mitigation planning. Using data from two of the the ground (such as on-stand power, taxiing, most recent emission inventories – prepared by and take-off) and in the air below 3,000 feet Gatwick and Heathrow airports – it is possible or 1,000 metres above ground level, unless to provide a broad overview of on-airport otherwise stated. emission sources for oxides of nitrogen (NOX) and particulate matter (PM10). 20 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
Fixed plant Airport roads 2% Ground Fixed plant 8.5% equipment 3% Airport car parks 15% 0.5% Airport Ground equipment car parks 5.5% 1% Aircraft in the air 12% Airport Aircraft on ground NOx roads 39% PM10 30.5% Aircraft Aircraft in the air on ground 53% 30% Figure 3.1 On-airport emission sources for oxides of nitrogen (NOX, left) and particulate matter (PM10, right), based on emission inventories for Gatwick (2010) and Heathrow (2013) airports The estimation of aircraft emissions is aircraft contribute around 1% to total UK NOX particularly difficult, especially as emissions take emissions and 0.1% to total UK PM10 emissions place above ground level and they therefore (National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory, represent a three-dimensional source. The 2014). Total on-airport emissions are, however, International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) slightly higher, as they include emissions from provides information about emissions from other sources such as ground equipment as specific engine models, within a reference well as airport roads and car parks. Despite this landing and take-off cycle (LTO cycle), which increase in scope, emissions from Heathrow and are necessary to compare different engine Gatwick Airports (the two largest UK airports) technologies for certification. However, these come to around 1% of UK NOX and 1% of UK emissions figures do not reflect day-to-day PM10 emissions. Aviation therefore makes a very conditions, such as weather and the wide range small, but still important, contribution to UK of operational techniques SA members employ. emissions. The ICAO Airport Air Quality Manual (ICAO, Industry is delivering a wide range of emission 2011) provides a number of methodologies, from reduction programmes, implemented simple to sophisticated, for estimating aircraft successfully through its collaborative approach. emissions – the more advanced methods being Sustainable Aviation (SA) is at the heart of this more accurate, but requiring progressively cross-industry approach, our members not only more detailed information as input. In general, co-ordinate operational improvements but also both the ICAO “Simple” and “Advanced” develop cleaner aircraft and engines for the methods, result in levels that are likely to future. Many of these actions, outlined in Figure overestimate actual emissions and, for the 3.2, are overseen locally by SA member airports “Simple” method, this can be quite significant. who work consistently to deliver proactive local Government is committed to reducing absolute emission reduction strategies. Airport-level emissions, including those of NOX. The UK partnerships, involving airlines, handling agents has met its targets to do so for all pollutants and other service partners deliver best practice, every year since 2010. To put airport emissions reducing emissions through more efficient in perspective, the Government’s national operating procedures and technology. emission inventories report that emissions from UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 21
Collaborative environmental management at Manchester Airport Working with Eurocontrol, Manchester Airport and the demonstration of ‘perfect’ flights. developed and implemented the European Collaborative Environmental Management specification for Collaborative Environmental provides a range of environmental benefits, Management (CEM). Bringing airport teams including reducing emissions that affect air together with airlines, air traffic control and quality, and has become a requirement at other handling agents, CEM provides a platform for European airports. environmental improvement. Manchester’s approach to CEM assisted the The Group has improved uptake of the SA implementation of reduced engine taxiing Arrivals and Departures Codes of Practice and procedures for aircraft arriving at and departing implemented a number of local improvement from the airport. projects. These have included the development of reduced engine taxiing (RET) procedures Image: Manchester Airport 22 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
3.2 Reducing air emissions at airports We are making great progress in developing sustainable fuels that can reduce particulate emissions by 60-90% compared with fossil fuels. Improved coordination of aircraft movements reduces delays and emissions from taxiing aircraft. Airports are training staff to drive more efficiently, reducing emissions and Where available, parked improving passenger comfort. aircraft use electrical power and conditioned air from airport terminals to reduce emissions and noise. More aircraft are now taxiing to and from the runways without using all their engines, reducing emissions and noise. wer s ad just porld , pilot al-wo s. fe to do soased on re d emission n s a ff, b e an Whe ch take-o duce nois for ea tions to re condi Renewable energy Cleaner or zero Airlines are now flying technologies and emission aircraft a new generation of more efficient handling equipment efficient aircraft, with boilers reduce and airport vehicles manufacturers already emissions from are being introduced developing the next. operating airports. to replace diesel versions. Figure 3.2 SA member led initiatives to reduce aviation emissions at airports UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 23
3.3 The contribution of road transport to emissions near airports Nationally, road transport contributed 32% of and Gatwick Airports, airport-related traffic NOX and 18% of PM10 emissions in 2013 (National contributes around 9% of airport NOX emissions Atmospheric Emissions Inventory, 2014). Some and around 38% of PM10 emissions. Airports UK airports are located outside city boundaries work closely with local and highways authorities with few major roads or motorways in the vicinity to manage airport approach roads, minimising while others are located in busy urban settings congestion to reduce delays and emissions for that include extensive road and motorway both airport-related and non-airport-related networks. Emissions from non-airport-related traffic. road traffic, driven by the proximity of an airport Promoting sustainable transport is an important to major road networks, is therefore an additional priority for airports, both for staff and passenger issue to be considered. surface access. Airports invest significantly in Depending on location, emissions of non-airport- public transport infrastructure and facilities, related road traffic near to airports vary greatly including: rail and light rail; bus and coach; – for example at Gatwick, non-airport road traffic electric vehicle charging points; cycle routes and accounts for about 14% of NOX emissions in the facilities; and, consolidated airport goods and vicinity of the airport, but 27% at Heathrow. cargo delivery centres. Figure 3.3 details actions taken by SA members to reduce surface access Airport-related traffic, such as cars, buses and emissions. delivery vehicles, also contribute. At Heathrow 24 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
3.4 Reducing surface access emissions Retail deliveries are bulked up at consolidation centres DELIVERIES reducing the number of HGV journeys into airports. Airports are supporting ultra-low emission vehicles, introducing electric vehicle charging points and hydrogen fuelling too. Airports are investing significantly in public transport to make access for passengers and staff easier and more sustainable. Airport staff are reducing emissions from commuting through flexible working, Communities near airports also car sharing and zero- benefit from enhanced public emission options such as transport, reducing emissions walking or cycling. from non-airport journeys too. Figure 3.3 SA member initiatives to reduce emissions from accessing airports UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 25
4. Air quality near to airports Air emissions are mobile, with air quality near to an airport impacted by emissions from both the airport itself and also, importantly, other emission sources. As a result, the impact of airport-related emissions reduces significantly once outside the boundary of the airport. Airports have wide-ranging air quality Local authorities are required to designate an monitoring programmes, often designed air quality management area where air quality and implemented in partnership with local does not meet national objectives. Of the top authorities. Results of these monitoring exercises ten UK airports only one is within an air quality are shared with stakeholders and are available management area, with four near to air quality online – many airports also share real-time air management areas. quality monitoring results. 4.1 Air quality Air quality is a measure of the concentration of in terms of air quality, and are used by local air pollutants at a given location. Air emissions authorities when they declare air quality are mobile and trans-boundary, therefore management areas (AQMAs). local air quality is impacted by emissions at a The contribution airport-related emissions make given location, and those from further afield – to local air quality reduces substantially with principally due to weather and wind moving air increasing distance from the airport boundary, pollutants from their emission point. Computer dropping by around a factor of four by a models enable the impact of emissions from kilometre away. aviation and other sources to be predicted 26 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
Modelling air quality at Heathrow Airport While it is possible to measure concentrations passing by. Air quality modelling supports of pollutants, it is impractical to have enough action planning, helping to understand whether monitors to provide a full picture of local air proposed measures are likely to be effective and quality at all locations. Therefore, computerised cost-effective in improving air quality. dispersion modelling is used to provide a The latest Heathrow air quality study showed complete picture of air quality. that aircraft make a dominant contribution A modelling study has several benefits. to emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) at the Firstly, modelling fills in the gaps between airport, however these emissions do not exert monitors, allowing air quality to be assessed a strong effect on concentrations outside of at all locations of interest (for example, the the airport perimeter. Road traffic emissions concentrations at individual properties can are a more important source in determining be predicted). concentrations at properties in the vicinity of the airport: just 1 kilometre from Heathrow Airport, It is also possible through modelling to see how airport related NOX emissions (which include much individual emission sources contribute those from road traffic travelling to or from the to air quality at a given location. Modelling airport) contribute 13-16% to local air quality. also enables forecasting future air quality – for example, to take into account infrastructure Information about the air quality modelling projects or changes in the number and types methods used by Heathrow Airport is available of aircraft using the airport, or road vehicles on the website www.heathrowairwatch.org.uk. For exact locations of the monitoring stations see www.heathrowairwatch.org.uk/latest All data from 2013 Air quality monitoring sites Non-airport related emissions % of total NOx Airport related emissions % of total NOx around Heathrow 60 Measured as 3 NO2 mg/m 50 16% 6% M4 48% M25 94% 84% 40 EU limit value 15% 11% 23% 13% 22% 9% 31% 13% 89% 87% 30% 91% 30 85% 78% 87% Non-airport traffic along the M4 77% dominates NOx emissions 69% 52% 70% 20 48 Heathrow 10 47 53 38 37 37 38 39 35 34 36 37 Hayes Hillingdon Harlington Harmondsworth Sipson Cranford Oxford Avenue Hatton Cross Oaks Road Green Gates Colnbrook 0 2km 1km Approximate distance from Heathrow 0km 1km Image: SourcesHeathrow Airport of Heathrow’s NOx: ground-based, airport- related activities We’re concentrating our emission-reduction efforts on our four major ground-based sources of NOx. This graphic shows the proportion of total NOx generated by each airport source. Aircraft activity Airport traffic Airside vehicles Energy 70% 17.6% 8.4% 4% Emissions from all ground-based aircraft Emissions from vehicles carrying passengers, Emissions from vehicles and specialist equipment, Emissions from on-site generation of activity, including take-offs, landings staff and goods to, from and around Heathrow, such as catering vehicles, aircraft tugs and heat and electricity to power the airport. and taxiing, in which aircraft wheels occurring within an 11×11km grid centred on baggage loaders, operating on the airfield. are in contact with the ground. the airport in line with agreed upon air quality modelling methods. UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 27
4.2 Air quality monitoring The Sustainable Aviation (SA) Air Quality Airports undertake air quality monitoring in a Working Group includes representation from number of fixed locations to enable comparative the ten busiest UK airports. All of these airports monitoring and reporting. Typical locations include: undertake regular monitoring of air quality. • On the airfield, at the end of runways where, Government guidance (Defra, 2016) supports depending on wind direction, aircraft are several methods of monitoring air quality. The landing or taking off; selection of the most appropriate monitoring • At on-airport or near-airport locations with method is usually determined by an airport in significant airport-related ground vehicle consultation with its local authority. An airport’s traffic; location, size, surroundings, proximity to other emission sources and the anticipated duration of • In adjacent residential areas. air quality monitoring are considerations when deciding the most appropriate monitoring method. Monitoring methods and sites deployed by SA Airport-specific air quality guidance is also provided Air Quality Working Group member airports are by the International Civil Aviation Organisation listed in Appendix C, and results presented as (ICAO) in its Airport Air Quality Manual (ICAO, 2011). Appendix D. Air quality monitoring methods Automatic monitoring These monitors produce real-time measurements of pollutant concentrations. Automatic analysers provide continuous data, with service personnel typically checking them monthly and servicing required biannually. These monitors are more complex to install and sustain, but are very useful for measuring concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter (PM) at locations where detailed monitoring is required and power and communications are available. Automatic monitors are helpful to improve and validate the accuracy of modelling data. Airports are also working with the manufacturers of automatic monitors to support the Automatic air quality monitoring station development of innovative new monitors. Image: Heathrow Airport Non-automatic monitoring These methods measure average concentration levels over longer exposure periods, typically weekly or monthly, and involve sample collections using a diffusion tube or filter. These methods are used to monitor NO2 and also for hydrocarbons such as benzene. Diffusion methods collect pollutants by molecular diffusion along the tube to an absorbent material which, after exposure for a specified time, is chemically analysed to produce concentrations. Diffusion tubes are quick and easy to deploy compared to automated air quality monitoring and are particularly useful for monitoring long term trends. Nitrogen dioxide diffusion tube Image: Manchester Airport 28 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
4.3 Sharing information about air quality at and near to airports 4.3.1 Air quality working groups and partnerships All of our member airports host airport groups on specific issues. Several SA member consultative committees, which typically have an airports discuss annual air quality data, trends independent chair and representation from local and initiatives with their airport consultative authorities and local public interest groups. The committee or its environment or air quality purpose of these committees is to facilitate open sub-group. and effective communication between airports Further working groups exist between many and local communities and airport users about airports and their respective local authorities. the impact of airport operations. Consultative This type of partnership approach ensures committees typically meet quarterly, and airport and local plans deliver air quality may have a steering group as well as sub- improvements consistently. 4.3.2 Air quality reporting Members of SA believe it is important to share discussion of long-term trend analysis. Shorter information about air quality at airports. That summary documents are usually also produced; is why member airports share the results of air and summary data and analysis also included in quality monitoring with the public and their local airport sustainability reports. Published reports authorities. The types of reporting and forums typically include annual average NO2 and PM10 used to do so vary by airport, reflecting local concentrations, whether Government’s annual stakeholder requirements. mean air quality objectives have been exceeded and the number of exceedances per year of the Most of our members produce – or co-produce short-term objectives. with their local authorities – air quality reports which are published online. These reports are In addition, several of our member airports also often technical in nature and very lengthy – share real-time air quality monitoring information presenting the results of monitoring as well as on the internet. A partnership approach to air quality at Birmingham Airport Birmingham Airport discusses air quality and The Birmingham Airport Health Group enables monitoring data regularly with its Airport the airport to embed the consideration of Consultative Committee, on a quarterly basis. community health issues and opportunities The airport hosts the only automatic air quality into airport operation and development. With monitoring site in the Solihull Metropolitan a particular focus on health, the group reviews Borough Council area and shares monitoring air quality and monitors the effectiveness results online in near real-time. As the airport of the mitigation and community support grows it is working increasingly closely with initiatives in partnership with public health partners to provide information about air teams from the Solihull Metropolitan Borough quality. Council and Birmingham City Council. UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 29
4.4 Air quality action plans An AQMA is designated by a local authority Local authority air quality action plans where locations fail to meet air quality (AQAPs) are important regional strategies, objectives. Figure 4.1 shows the location of primarily working to improve air quality but AQMAs, which are focussed on urban areas and, offering a range of secondary benefits – at a local level, generally follow motorways and such as improvements to public transport main roads. The figure also shows the location and support for green spaces. Airports are of the ten busiest UK airports, which collectively important contributors to local policies, working handle 85% of UK passengers and 90% of UK air alongside local authorities to support AQAPs by cargo (Civil Aviation Authority, 2016). Of these introducing measures to reduce emissions at the airports only one, Heathrow, is within an AQMA – airport – often delivered through airport’s own with four (Birmingham, Edinburgh, Gatwick and emission reduction strategies. Manchester) near to AQMAs. Heathrow Airport is located within the Hillingdon AQMA, declared for NO2. Birmingham Airport is located within 1 kilometre of the Birmingham AQMA, declared for NO2 and PM10. Edinburgh, Gatwick and Manchester airports are Not near to an air quality respectively located within 1 kilometre of managment area the Glasgow Road, Horley and Greater Within 1 kilometre of an air Manchester AQMAs, declared for NO2. quality management area Within an air quality managment area Air Quality Management Area Edinburgh Glasgow Airport Airport Newcastle International Airport Manchester Airport Birmingham Airport London Luton Stansted Airport Airport Heathrow Bristol Airport Airport Gatwick Airport Figure 4.1 Air quality management areas (Defra, 2016) and top ten UK airports 30 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
5. Initiatives to reduce air quality emissions Sustainable Aviation Members are committed to reducing emissions and driving air quality improvements. Achieved by collaborative work through Sustainable Aviation, and with local stakeholders, airports have implemented a range of policies that support the introduction of sustainable surface access and the development of low emission infrastructure. Manufacturers have delivered new, more generation of aircraft, powered by sustainable efficient and lower-emission engines and aircraft and cleaner fuels which will operate within – and are working to introduce sustainable and more efficient airspace. Current aerospace cleaner fuels which provide further air quality research and technology goals are targeting benefits. Airports and airlines have also invested a 90% reduction in emissions of nitrogen in low emission equipment, enabling a switch oxides from new aircraft by 2050 (Advisory from fossil fuels to electrical power. Council for Aviation Research and Innovation in Europe). Continued industry and Government A wide range of operational controls have also support towards these goals as well as been implemented, providing air quality benefits delivering airspace modernisation, improving as well as other environmental gains such as surface access to airports and introducing reduced noise and carbon dioxide emissions. low emission aircraft fuel and ground vehicles Looking to the future, Sustainable Aviation will be critical to realising the sustainable members are leading the way on research development of UK aviation. and development – bringing forward the next 5.1 Industry collaboration to improve air quality Building on many years of progress in reducing members take to working collectively, and has environmental impact, for the last ten years been implemented through a number of industry Sustainable Aviation (SA) members have worked working groups. For example, members of the to deliver environmental improvement across Sustainable Aviation Operational Improvement the UK aviation industry. An overview is included Group – consisting of manufacturers, airlines, in the report “A Decade of Progress 2005 – airports and air traffic controllers – work 2015” (Sustainable Aviation, 2015). This has consistently to deliver, implement and quantify been achieved through the unique approach our efficiency opportunities. UK Aviation and Air Quality Report 31
2014 SA Continuous 2014 Descent SA Operation 2013 Sustainable campaign SA holds Fuels launched 2013 Aviation Road-Map SA 4th Environmental published Progress Research 2012 Report Symposium SA updated published 2011 CO2 2015 2015 2010 SA 3rd Road-Map SA receives SA’s 10th SA Aircraft Progress published award for Anniversary 2006 Cabin Waste Report 2013 Continuous 2nd edition of 2008 Recycling published 2013 Aerospace Descent UK Aviation SA first CO2 Guide SA Noise Technology Institute Operation ‘Noise from Road-Map launched 2012 Road-Map (ATI) launched as campaign from arriving published Aerospace published part of the AGP. Business in the aircraft’ code Growth £2bn of Government Community of practice 2012 Partnership and industry funding launched UK Aviation (AGP) over 7 years to 2010 Departures launched, with support a long-term, Code of Government and targeted technology 2009 SA discussion Practice industry working strategy for UK paper on 2006 SA 2nd Interdependencies launched together to aerospace SA 1st Progress secure the future between aviation 2005 Progress Report CO2, NOx and of UK Aerospace Report published SA strategy noise launched established published with clear goals for achieving sustainable growth Figure 5.1 Sustainable Aviation, ten years of progress The progress made in reducing emissions is the Airbus A350, an aircraft which is made evident at all stages of a passenger’s journey, from 53% lightweight carbon fibre and 70% even before they reach the airport for a flight: advanced materials. • Since 2006, 11 million extra passengers are • Airports have introduced supplies of using public transport to access 8 major UK electricity to power aircraft parked at the airports (over a 5% increase). terminal, reducing aircraft emissions in these areas substantially (e.g. 47% since 2008/09 at • Birmingham and several other airports have Heathrow). introduced electric vehicle charging stations and the industry is encouraging staff to • More efficient operating procedures are being commute sustainably – at Stansted, 45% of adopted by airlines. By taking actual aircraft staff now do this. weight, runway length and current weather conditions into account Thomson Airways are • At Bristol Airport driver training is reducing reducing emissions by cutting take-off thrust emissions from airport buses by 12%, and by up to 33%. alternatively fuelled vehicles eliminating these from other vehicles. In addition to the infographics contained in Chapter 3, a range of case studies are presented • Rolls-Royce has introduced the Trent XWB – the below. world’s most efficient aircraft engine – to power 32 www.sustainableaviation.co.uk
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