TITLE PAGE - 2020 AGRIEDUCATE ESSAY COMPILATION
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Title Page 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 1
contents Foreword 3 Science Category 4 First Place | Juliet Garland | The Potential for Upcycling Brewers’ Spent Grain as a Functional Food Ingredient in Human Foodstuff: The Importance of the Role of Food Science in Overcoming Food Insecurity 5 Second Place | Josie Clarke | Water woes: producing more with less 9 Third Place | Lianna Sliwczynski | Kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) integration with wheat crops in Victoria 12 Technology, Engineering & Maths Category 16 First Place | James Elphick | Machinery maintenance and the right to repair 17 Second Place | Dylan Sanusi-Goh | Optimising analytical imaging and sensing techniques to improve viticulture outcomes across the Australian Wine industry 20 Third Place | Cameron Leckie | Agriculture in a liquid fuel constrained world 23 Law, Arts, Social Sciences, Extension & Education Category 27 First Place | Jemima Morgan | The development of agri-funding models in Australia and the utilisation of the personal property securities register as a mechanism of securing loans 28 Second Place | Jack Redman | How education can help combat the effects of agricultural fake news 32 Third Place | Courtney Nelson | Creating trust in agriculture 35 Economics, Commerce & Business Category 37 First Place | Molly Young | Importance and Role of Strategic Business Decisions in Ensuring Success in the Food and Agribusiness Sector 38 Second Place | Kate Smith | Australian agriculture and the constraints of water law in the Murray Darling Basin 43 Third Place | Mounika Naramdasu | Challenges of Agriculture and Food Security in Victoria 47 The AgriEducate Essay Competition Team 51 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 2
foreword
In 2020, the AgriEducate Essay Competition opened for the third year driving engagement with
students of all disciplines and agriculture, helping solve some of the industry’s biggest challenges.
In the tremendously tough year that has been 2020, the essay question incorporated the
importance of the agricultural system highlighted by the pandemic.
Agriculture and food security around the world is consistently challenged by a
range of factors; be they climatic, social, economic, workforce,
geopolitical, technological, or consumer and public perception.
Yet the global pandemic has highlighted the importance of agriculture
and the food supply chain globally, demonstrating the importance of farmers,
agribusiness professionals, researchers and service providers
associated with this essential industry.
In this context, identify one major issue affecting agriculture or food security
in your region, and tell us how your discipline could be contributing to overcome
this issue.
This year we received entries from 12 universities across Western Australia, South Australia,
Victoria, New South Wales and the ACT. Tertiary students from all disciplines from business to
biology, education to engineering, and health to humanities offered their perspectives, and came
forth with insight and practical solutions to the problems that impact all of our futures.
It was with great excitement that on National Agriculture Day we announced the winners of the
2020 AgriEducate Essay Competition! We congratulate all the winners for their diversity of ideas
and interests that help make Australian agriculture the vibrant, successful industry that it is.
We thank the 2020 competition sponsors Ag Institute Australia, Bailiwick Legal, Rural Affinity,
and SwarmFarm, and Career Conversations Partner Crawford Fund.
We hope you enjoy reading this compilation of fascinating essays on critical issues facing
Australian agriculture, particularly in spite of all the challenges that the pandemic has created.
2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 3
Science Category PROUDLY SPONSORED BY 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 4
First Place | Juliet Garland | The Potential for Upcycling Brewers’ Spent Grain as a Functional Food Ingredient in Human Foodstuff: The Importance of the Role of Food Science in Overcoming Food Insecurity Introduction By 2050, the global population is expected to reach 10 billion (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2017). As a result, the demand upon agriculture to produce enough nutritious food to feed the population sustainably will increase considerably. Adding further pressure to this is the current global pandemic, COVID-19, and the issues it has created regarding global food security. However, the ability to feed the population of the future is compromised due to factors such as climate change, pressure on natural resources, underinvestment in agriculture and technology gaps. To combat this, it is crucial to develop a sustainable and innovative food system that increases productivity and efficiency, but also future-proofs the global population against food insecurity in the case of future pandemics. As stated by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, “the key to sustainable agricultural growth is more efficient use of land, labour and other inputs through technological progress, social innovation and new business models.” In response to this, there has been increasing interest in food science in the upcycling of agri-industrial waste products (CSIRO, 2017; Fărcaş et al., 2017; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2017). Brewers’ Spent Grain (BSG) is the most significant waste product of beer brewing, representing approximately 85% of the total waste produced during brewing. It is estimated that for every 100 L of beer, 20 kg of wet BSG is produced, which equates to approximately 29 million tonnes being produced globally per year (Arranz et al., 2018; Combest and Warren, 2019; Fărcaş et al., 2017; Ikram et al., 2017; Ktenioudaki et al., 2012; Lynch et al., 2016). It is an insoluble material comprised of the seed coat-pericarp-husk fragments of the original barley grain that is obtained during the brewing process after mashing and filtration of the wort. Due to its abundance, BSG is of low market value, and thus it is most commonly used for livestock feed. If not used for livestock, breweries will discard BSG to landfill, creating significant environmental damage. However, research on BSG has created a significant argument for its use as a functional food ingredient in human foodstuff due to its nutritional properties and beneficial effects it has on the prevention and treatment of disease (Combest and Warren, 2019; Fărcaş et al., 2017; Ikram et al., 2017; Ktenioudaki et al., 2012; Lynch et al., 2016; McCarthy et al., 2013; Mussatto et al., 2006; Olawoye et al., 2017; Steiner et al., 2015). Thus, it can be proposed that the upcycling of BSG may be a sustainable way for food science to meaningfully contribute to global food security through aiding in the prevention of hidden hunger and nutrient deficiencies. Nutritional Benefits of Brewers’ Spent Grain BSG is a lignocellulosic material comprised of 20% protein and has been proven to significantly increase the protein content of human foodstuff (Ktenioudaki et al., 2012; Lynch et al., 2016; Petrovic et al., 2017). BSG is a valuable source of both essential and non-essential amino acids, with approximately 30% of the total protein content in BSG being comprised of essential amino acids (Fărcaş et al., 2017; Ikram et al., 2017; Lynch et al., 2016; McCarthy et al., 2013; Mussatto et al., 2006). The most abundant essential amino acid in BSG is lysine, which is often not present in other cereal grains. Protein is an essential macronutrient needed in the human diet, and population growth is driving demand for protein (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2017). This demand must be met to avoid the effects of macronutrient deficiencies. Climate change is making it imperative to find alternative and sustainable protein sources, as diminishing natural resources and available land are placing considerable constrains 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 5
on meat production (CSIRO, 2017; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2017). However, this creates a significant opportunity within food science to exploit BSG as a resource to increase the protein content of human foodstuff, and thus contribute to fighting food insecurity. BSG is also comprised of approximately 70% fibre, the main forms being arabinoxylans and β- glucans (Fărcaş et al., 2017; Ikram et al., 2017). Interest in novel low-cost sources of dietary fibre has facilitated a new wave of research within food science, and this research has found BSG to significantly increase the dietary fibre content in human foodstuff (CSIRO, 2017; Ikram et al., 2017; Ktenioudaki et al., 2012; Lynch et al., 2016; Petrovic et al., 2017). In a study on breadsticks, the addition of 15 % BSG more than doubled dietary fibre in comparison to the control (Ktenioudaki et al., 2012). The importance of dietary fibre is increasingly prevalent worldwide due to increasing rates of obesity and non-communicable diseases. In Australia, most adults and children do not reach their recommended daily dietary fibre intake (Fayet-Moore et al., 2018). Thus, improving the dietary fibre content of human foodstuff through upcycling BSG is potentially a viable method to increase dietary fibre intake and contribute The dietary fibre compounds in BSG are also considered as functional fibre due to their prebiotic potential (Lynch et al., 2016; Reis et al., 2014). Upon fermentation of the fibre, the gastrointestinal microbiota produces short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), which are beneficial to human health as they protect against pathogens, induce immune responses, reduce cholesterol synthesis, stimulate colonic blood flow, enhance muscular contractions, and protect against colon cancer (Carlson et al., 2017; Davani-Davari et al., 2019; Reis et al., 2014). Research evaluating the prebiotics in BSG confirmed they caused a beneficial modulation of gut microbiota and the production of SCFA (Reis et al., 2014). The consumption of prebiotics is a new area of research in food science as they have been proven to offer greater nutrition within food products (CSIRO, 2017). Therefore, upon reviewing current research, it can be concluded that there is significant prebiotic potential within BSG, and considering its high availability and low economic cost, BSG positions itself as an invaluable source of prebiotics. Potential Products to Upcycle Brewers’ Spent Grain into as a Functional Food Ingredient When considering potential food products to incorporate BSG into, it is important to consider products that are already well recognised and accepted by consumers (Combest and Warren, 2019). Additionally, it is important that sensory attributes, such as taste and texture, are not significantly affected, as most consumers will not compromise on these factors for health. At current, BSG addition has occurred mainly in bakery snacks, such as cookies and bread, where the BSG is milled into flour. There has also been investigation into the use of BSG in extruded and ready-to-eat snacks, breadsticks, and frankfurters (Fărcaş et al., 2017; Ikram et al., 2017; Lynch et al., 2016; Mussatto et al., 2006; Olawoye et al., 2017; Petrovic et al., 2017). Within the Australian market, the ‘healthy snack’ category, which includes products such as muesli bars and rice crackers, has been the packaged snack food category to experience the biggest growth over the past decade (Roy Morgan, 2020). Research on the consumption of packaged snack foods has shown that 54.7 % of Australians aged 18+ eat snacks from the ‘healthy snacks’ category at least once per week. Granola and muesli bars allow for the addition of other ingredients, such as nuts, seeds and dried fruit, and this may aid in improving the negative sensory attributes caused by BSG. Therefore, investigating the use of BSG in muesli bars as a functional food ingredient may be a potential avenue to increase the nutritional value of a popular food choice, and as a result, aid in overcoming food insecurity and hidden hunger. 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 6
Challenges to Upcycling Brewers’ Spent Grain as a Functional Food Ingredient While there is potential to upcycle BSG as a functional food ingredient into human foodstuff, there are significant challenges that will need to be overcome if BSG is to be successfully upcycled. Firstly, BSG incorporation causes negative effects to sensory parameters, particularly texture, colour and final consumer acceptance (Fărcaş et al., 2017; Ikram et al., 2017; Ktenioudaki et al., 2012; Lynch et al., 2016; McCarthy et al., 2013; Petrovic et al., 2017). Additionally, BSG has also been found to impact upon taste and aroma. In the study researching perceptions of BSG, the participants noticed a lingering after taste, which may be caused by compounds such as 2- butyl-1-octanol, 3-methyl-butanol, 2-heptane, butanal, benzene and 2,3-butanedione, as these compounds have been associated with unpleasant aromas and flavours in BSG. Therefore, for the successful application of BSG, further product development must be done to ensure sensory parameters are not significantly affected (Combest and Warren, 2019; Fărcaş et al., 2017). The high moisture content of BSG also presents itself as a significant issue for the use of BSG, particularly in terms of transportation and storage (Arranz et al., 2018; Fărcaş et al., 2017; Ikram et al., 2017; Lynch et al., 2016; Mussatto et al., 2006; Petrovic et al., 2017). Transporting wet BSG can pose itself as a costly endeavour, as it must be removed from the brewery as fast as possible, otherwise, there is a high risk of spoilage. If the BSG spoils, it must be disposed of in landfill, which creates a multitude of environmental problems. Spoilage is another challenge caused by the high moisture content of BSG, which is further exacerbated by its high protein and polysaccharide content (Ikram et al., 2017; Lynch et al., 2016; Mussatto et al., 2006; Petrovic et al., 2017). For BSG to be successfully exploited by the food manufacturing industry, it must be stored, and moisture content reduced to approximately 10 % (Lynch et al., 2016; Fărcaş et al., 2017). Thus, for BSG to be successfully incorporated as a functional food ingredient in human food, efficient and low-energy intensive methods of drying BSG must be developed. Conclusion To feed the population of the future without compromising on nutrition, a sustainable and innovative food system must be developed (CSIRO, 2017; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2017; Mussatto et al., 2006). Climate change, pressure on natural resources, underinvestment in agriculture and technology gaps all pose as barriers to this goal, but upcycling of agri-industrial waste products is a potential way to overcome these challenges and should be a key area of research for food science (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2017; CSIRO, 2017; Mussatto et al., 2006; Petrovic et al., 2017). Considering the research reviewed in this essay, it can be concluded that BSG has considerable potential to be upcycled and used as a functional food ingredient in human foodstuff to aid in combatting food insecurity and hidden hunger. However, the food science sector still needs to continue research to improve sensory attributes and consumer acceptability of products with BSG, as well as to overcome the challenges posed by its high moisture content and unfamiliarity. References Arranz, J., Miranda, T., Sepúlveda Justo, F., Montero, I., Rojas, C., 2018. Analysis of drying of brewers’ spent grain. Proceedings 2, 1467. Carlson, J.L., Erickson, J.M., Hess, J.M., Gould, T.J., Slavin, J.L., 2017. Prebiotic dietary fiber and gut health: comparing the in vitro fermentations of beta-glucan, inulin and xylooligosaccharide. Nutrients 9, 1361. Combest, S., Warren, C., 2019. Perceptions of college students in consuming whole grain foods made with brewers' spent grain. Food. Sci. Nutr. 7, 225-237. Costell, E., Tárrega, A., Bayarri, S., 2010. Food acceptance: the role of consumer perception and attitudes. Chemosens. Percept. 3, 42-50. 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 7
CSIRO, 2017. Food and agribusiness - a roadmap for unlocking value-adding growth opportunities for Australia Davani-Davari, D., Negahdaripour, M., Karimzadeh, I., Seifan, M., Mohkam, M., Masoumi, S.J., Berenjian, A., Ghasemi, Y., 2019. Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications. Foods 8, 92. Dias, N.A.A., Lara, S.B., Miranda, L.S., Pires, I.S.C., Pires, C.V., Halboth, N.V., 2012. Influence of color on acceptance and identification of flavor of foods by adults. Food Sci. Technol. 32, 296-301. Fărcaş, A., Socaci, S., Mudura, E., Francisc, D., Vodnar, D., Tofana, M., Salanta, L.-C., 2017. Exploitation of brewing industry wastes to produce functional ingredients. Brewing Technology. InTech. Fayet-Moore, F., Cassettari, T., Tuck, K., McConnell, A., Petocz, P., 2018. Dietary fibre intake in Australia. paper I: associations with demographic, socio-economic, and anthropometric factors. Nutrients 10, 599. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2017. The future of food and agriculture - trends and challenges. Rome. Ikram, S., Huang, L., Zhang, H., Wang, J., Yin, M., 2017. Composition and nutrient value proposition of brewers spent grain. Food Sci. 82, 2232-2242. Ktenioudaki, A., Chaurin, V., Reis, S.F., Gallagher, E., 2012. Brewer’s spent grain as a functional ingredient for breadsticks. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 47, 1765-1771. Lynch, K.M., Steffen, E.J., Arendt, E.K., 2016. Brewers' spent grain: a review with an emphasis on food and health. J. Inst. Brew. 122, 553-568. Maurya, N.K., Kushwaha, R., 2019. Novel protein foods: alternative sources of protein for human consumption. Research Trends in Food Technology and Nutrition. Akinik Publications, New Delhi, pp. 129- 142. McCarthy, A.L., O'Callaghan, Y.C., Piggott, C.O., FitzGerald, R.J., O'Brien, N.M., 2013. Brewers' spent grain; bioactivity of phenolic component, its role in animal nutrition and potential for incorporation in functional foods: a review. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 72, 117-125. Mussatto, S.I., Dragone, G., Roberto, I.C., 2006. Brewers' spent grain: generation, characteristics and potential applications. J. Cereal Sci. 43, 1-14. Ohra-aho, T., Niemi, P., Aura, A.-M., Orlandi, M., Poutanen, K., Buchert, J., Tamminen, T., 2016. Structure of brewer’s spent grain lignin and its interactions with gut microbiota in vitro. J. Agric. Food Chem. 64, 812- 820. Olawoye, B., Kadiri, O., Adeniyi, D., Oyekunle, A., Samson, O., 2017. Economic evaluation of cookie made from blend of brewers’ spent grain (BSG), groundnut cake and sorghum flour. Open Agric. 2, 401-410. Petrovic, J., Pajin, B., Tanackov-Kocic, S., Pejin, J., Fistes, A., Bojanic, N., Lončarević, I., 2017. Quality properties of cookies supplemented with fresh brewer's spent grain. Food Feed Res. 44, 57-63. Reis, S.F., Gullon, B., Gullon, P., Ferreira, S., Maia, C.J., Alonso, J.L., Domingues, F.C., Abu-Ghannam, N., 2014. Evaluation of the prebiotic potential of arabinoxylans from brewer's spent grain. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 98, 9365-9373. Roy Morgan, 2020. Nearly 9 in 10 Australian adults eat packaged snacks in an average week. Roy Morgan, Melbourne, Australia. Steiner, J., Procopio, S., Becker, T., 2015. Brewer’s spent grain: source of value-added polysaccharides for the food industry in reference to the health claims. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 241, 303-315. Xiros, C., Christakopoulos, P., 2012. Biotechnological potential of brewers spent grain and its recent applications. Waste Biomass Valorization 3, 213-232. 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 8
Second Place | Josie Clarke | Water woes: producing more with less Two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen atom, some like to call it water, however, in the agricultural industry it’s increasingly become valued as liquid gold. Australia’s recent drought in 2019/2020 which has caused major economic and societal impacts, highlights the extremes of the Australian climate and the importance of water. A trend of media hysteria and climate debate enter mass discussion when such events occur. One such industry that often comes under scrutiny during water shortages and drought is the Australian grains and fibre plant industry. The progress these industries have made in creating more water efficient and productive crops is typically not highlighted in mainstream media, nor is the investment in research and breeding programs that are currently undertaken to improve water use efficiency. So to those who are concerned about water use in the Australian agricultural industry: can we ask ourselves, outside of water policy, why is agricultural water use controversial? How can we redirect negative debates into proactive and progressive discussion about this topic? And what is the Australian government and agricultural research industry doing to improve water use efficiency? Addressing water use in a reactive agricultural industry “Thirsty crops” has become a simplistic term often used to antagonise and cause debate in plant industries that use irrigation. The Australian Cotton industry, where 79% of the industry requires irrigation [1], has become heavily scrutinised for its water use, despite increasing its water use efficiency by 40% over the past decade and being three times higher in its water use efficiency per kg/mm/ha of cotton compared to international standards [1]. This negative debate of Australian crop and fibre plant industries that require irrigation has resulted in often non-factual social media attacks calling for bans of such industries. However, the retaliation of industry bodies to these claims has resulted in the use of ineffective tactics such as media releases attacking opponents and vague social media statements like “other crops use about the same or even more water”. Currently on Cotton Australia’s fact sheet on industry myths it states “the plant uses about the same amount of water per hectare as fruit trees and other crops such as soybeans and maize” [2]. The intention may be to provide a perspective of Cotton water use for consumers, however this “but almonds use 107 litres of water to make 1 litre of almond milk” concept has been used so often that it’s perceived as a justification for not making progress, fuelling further negative debate. The comparison of water use between crops, doesn’t provide justification for water use in an individual industry, it highlights the need to further improve water use efficiency across all industries. A defensive reaction is no longer, nor has ever been, an effective solution to create positive and proactive conversations about water use in the Agricultural industry. In order to move forward plant industries need to acknowledge that there is an inherent need to use water to grow plants, but importantly implement and effectively advertise a plan of advocacy, research and education about how their crop effectively uses water. The demand for developing water efficient crops Water use efficiency is the ability to produce higher yields with less water. With increasing populations and predictions of sporadic climates with more intense droughts [3, 4] the urgency to maximise water use efficiency of crops to minimise productivity losses under water limited conditions, has come to the forefront of interest in crop industries. From a financial standpoint, the ability to achieve higher productivity with less input, such as water, with an average cost of $735-776 per ML in the Murray Darling Basin under dry conditions [5], is economically advantageous for a grower and industry. The importance of water use efficiency and sustainable agriculture is reflected in investment schemes implemented by the Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, whereby the grains industry alone obtained a budget of $199,004,000 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 9
allocated for sustainable management of natural resources in 2019-20 [6]. Additionally, the total budget for improving the sustainability, efficiency and productivity of water resources for 2019- 20 was $604,653,000[6]. Sustainable agriculture has understandably become a new marketing strategy for corporate agriculture and a major recipient of research funding, whereby water use efficiency is a major determinant. So, through research and industry, how are we using such investments to develop more water efficient plants? Industry progress and prospects Plant breeding has been one of the most effective solutions in its outputs of producing cultivars with higher productivity for specific production regions across Australia. This is achieved by an intensive and long-term screening process incorporating traits such as disease resistance, heat tolerance, and drought tolerance from various wild and cultivated varieties [7]. Whilst breeding programs are highly effective, the required time from the start of a breeding program to the release of a new cultivar requires a minimum of 9-12 years depending on the crop species and breeding methods [7]. The emergence of new breeding strategies such as Speed Breeding aim to reduce this time to approximately 5 years [8], however a long term wait is still required. Agronomic research outputs have improved irrigation systems, defined optimal planting windows, determined effective crop rotations and improved post-harvest management practices, aiding more efficient water use in the industry. However, there is a gap in industry research; outside of breeding practices and agronomic management, is there potential for new innovative short-term solutions to further improve water use efficiency? Is it time to prime? A growing area of research in agriculture and plant science is epigenetics and epigenetic priming. The epigenome is the control centre for gene expression via processes called epigenetic modifications (such as DNA methylation and histone modification) [9]. These epigenetic modifications are like the device that controls lighting in your home, DNA methylation (switches) has the ability to turn gene pathways on or off, whilst histone modifications (knobs) can dull or enhance gene activity [9]. Under stress responses, such as water stress, epigenetic changes occur so a plant can reduce the impact of the stress, such as activating gene pathways that result in higher water use efficiency or encouraging root growth to search for stored soil water [9]. Transgenerational plasticity is the concept that these epigenetic modifications, thus gene expression patterns, are heritable to the next generation. By principle, progeny seed would obtain gene expression patterns primed or activated for tolerance to water stress prior to experiencing the stress. Such cases have already been identified in Clover [10] Mustard [11] and Barley [12], whereby progeny from parents that experienced drought stress were better able to cope with water stress. Whilst this concept has been used to identify epialleles associated with plant stress responses in model plants and bring attention to the importance of epigenetic diversity in plant breeding [13, 14], there’s an inherent failure of research to translate such concepts into an applied industry based setting. In its very basic principle, seed companies could produce parent seed under drought stress conditions, and the seed provided to growers from this could be pre- emptively primed for drought stress. In the research of such novel ideas, whilst positive responses to drought stress may be found, there is the potential of maladaptive trade-offs, which are those that whilst improving one aspect of plant responses could negatively impact others, such as yield and quality parameters. In the field of epigenetic priming, one such example was identified in Mustard where the progeny seed exhibited increased drought tolerance but obtained lower levels of glucosinolate compounds, which are important properties for mustard dispersal [11]. These trade-offs are currently unknown for epigenetic priming for water stress in major grain and fibre crops. Extension of research into 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 10
this novel topic would answer such questions and allow the development of an effective short- term process that could enhance current cultivars water use efficiency complementary to breeding programs and agronomic practices. Conclusion Water use efficiency and sustainability have become increasingly important topics of debate and investment in Australian agriculture. Whilst there has been major progress in improving water use efficiency in Australian agricultural crops, an industry attitude shift needs to occur from a reactive and defensive view to a proactive stance in response to these topics in order to educate others and improve the sustainability of the industry beyond what has already been achieved. The support of government funding has allowed Australian research to improve water use efficiency with breeding programs and developed agronomic practices, however there is room for investment in innovative ideas such as epigenetic priming. A combination of these approaches contributes to the interdisciplinary and multifaceted goal of creating a more sustainable and water efficient agricultural industry with the ultimate goal of producing more with less. References 1. Cotton Research and Development Corporation, Australian Grow Cotton Sustainability Report, Australian Government, 2014, p. 76. 2. Cotton Australia (2020) Myth Buster. https://cottonaustralia.com.au/myth-buster (accessed 12/08/2020). 3. Alexander, L.V. and Arblaster, J.M. (2009) Assessing trends in observed and modelled climate extremes over Australia in relation to future projections. International Journal of Climatology: A Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 29 (3), 417-435. 4. Bureau of Meterology, Special Climate Statement 66-an abnormally dry period in eastern Australia, Bureau of Meterology Australian Government, 2018, pp. 1-31. 5. Westwood, T. et al. Water market outlook, Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and Environment ABARES, 2020. 6. Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, Budget 2019-20 Agriculture and Water Resources Portfolio, Commonwealth of Australia, 2019. 7. Chahal, G. and Gosal, S. (2002) Principles and procedures of plant breeding: Biotechnological and conventional approaches, Alpha Science Int'l Ltd. 8. Watson, A. et al. (2018) Speed breeding is a powerful tool to accelerate crop research and breeding. Nature plants 4 (1), 23-29. 9. Herman, J.J. and Sultan, S.E. (2011) Adaptive transgenerational plasticity in plants: case studies, mechanisms, and implications for natural populations. Frontiers in plant science 2, 102. 10. González, A. et al. (2017) The role of transgenerational effects in adaptation of clonal offspring of white clover (Trifolium repens) to drought and herbivory. Evolutionary Ecology 31 (3), 345-361. 11. Alsdurf, J. et al. (2016) Epigenetics of drought-induced trans-generational plasticity: consequences for range limit development. AoB Plants 8. 12. Nosalewicz, A. et al. (2016) Transgenerational effects of temporal drought stress on spring barley morphology and functioning. Environmental and Experimental Botany 131, 120-127. 13. Rajnović, T. et al. (2020) Epigenetics in plant breeding. Journal of Central European Agriculture 21 (1), 56-61. 14. Suter, L. and Widmer, A. (2013) Phenotypic effects of salt and heat stress over three generations in Arabidopsis thaliana. PloS one 8 (11). 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 11
Third Place | Lianna Sliwczynski | Kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) integration with wheat crops in Victoria There are myriad of challenges affecting food security globally. While international approaches are required to address many of these issues, such as supply chains, geopolitical challenges and climate shift, regional responses are equally as valuable in responding to these challenges. This paper considers some environmental, economic and health benefits from integrating kangaroo grass into current large-scale crops, particularly wheat. This can be done within Victoria and broader Australia. Integration can increase food security, reduce crop irrigation, improve nutrition and diversify plant biproducts. In the past 5 years, Victoria winter wheat crop production generated a total gross value of $1.85 billion, 15 per cent of the national total. It required the use of 3.45 million hectares of land and 500-800mL of water per hectare, annually. In 2019, wheat exports grew 54% to $802 million1. Wheat production is forecast to increase by 85% in 2019–20 to 3.6 million tonnes, due to >10% increase in rainfall since 20152,3. The Victorian wheat varieties grow up to 1.2m tall and have 10cm by 15cm narrow heads with spikes containing dry mature edible seeds4. There main wheat varieties used in food production, with varying awn lengths are: Triticum aestivum, T. durum, T. compactum and T. vulgare.5 Spring and winter wheat cultivars have less yield and less fertility as their awn length increases.11 Wheat cultivars are chosen for specific height, pathogen resistance, maturity rate and head type, lodging, soil tolerance and sprouting. Kangaroo grass has versatile seeds. It grows up to 1.5m tall. This tufted grass has green bluish leaves of 2.5cm wide and 50cm long. The blue-green seed-heads are fanned and are 10-30mm long. They change to yellow-red then black when mature.6 The awns are 10-45mm long and can sense soil moisture. This helps seeds to migrate towards higher humidity for easy reseeding and optimal sprouting conditions7. The seeds require rainfalls of 500-2000 mm per year, without extra irrigation after establishment in the first two months.8 Crop management of Kangaroo grass is beneficial compared to wheat cultivars and naturally mitigates the risks of climate shift. It has evolved with Australia’s indigenous six seasons (cf the four European wheat seasons). The perennial grass flowers during summer, autumn and winter, ripens quicker and remains fertile at temperatures of 35-45˚C, unlike wheat cultivars that experience sterility. Kangaroo grass has a deep root structure, tolerant to diverse soil types9. This reduces soil erosion and compactions during grazing and rotational spelling8. Conveniently, the hyperspectral analysis via drones can detect the colour change when the green heads begin to ripen to red, black and yellow. The wheat hoppers can harvest the native grain, which can yield around 2-5 tonne per hectare, bringing economic return for less effort. The wet green kangaroo grass stems can be tilled, returning nitrogen and potassium as a natural fertiliser. Remarkably, Kangaroo grass has no known major pests or diseases. This is unlike wheat cultivars that are susceptible to pathogens such as leaf and stem rust, yellow leaf spot, crown and root rot10. Kangaroo grass requires no fertiliser for seedling establishment. However, a moderate level of 50kg nitrogen per hectare increases growth9. The Kangaroo grass has greater nutritional values compared to wheat. The crude protein is greater at 13.2% compared to 10.3% in wheat. The non-digestible and digestible fibre total is at 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 12
70% of the dry matter and wheat is at 54.5%. The metabolisable energy is equal at 8.7MJ/Kg11. The sweet taste has more complex carbohydrates than wheat and mitigates diabetes, cholesterol and heart disease12 with higher antioxidant properties. Arguably, all kangaroo grass varieties produce four times higher seed yield in drought- and heat- stressed tetraploid plants compared to common wheat varieties13. Recent scientific research genetically analysed 80,000 wheat accessions and identified genetic mutations associated with physical characteristics important for breeding wheat14. There are 30 themeda species of kangaroo grasses found internationally. Five varieties are found in Australia: T.triandra (syn. T. australis) such as Burrill, Tangara and Mingo.15 Kangaroo grass can have either two (diploid) or four (polyploid) sets of chromosomes, compared to wheat which has six sets of chromosomes (hexaploidy)16. The genetic diversity of disease resistance and heat tolerance traits of kangaroo grass, could be aligned with wheat genomes to improve estimated breeding values and create hardier crops. Aside from its cultivating benefits, integrating kangaroo grass into wheat production has community and social benefits. Communities take pride in cross cultural connections when linked to sharing, spirituality and country 17. The ancient knowledge and skills complement the health benefits that the 30000-60000-year-old Aboriginal Agriculture has to offer. Recent scientific research has investigated seed processing, cooking methods, bread structure and taste profiles of different flour preparations of kangaroo grass18,19. The flavour is described as sweet pea and nutty20. Modified ancient land management can be beneficial to complement wheat crops by integrating Kangaroo grass. This Aboriginal Agriculture approach looks at layers of connections of environmental systems. The development of long-term partnerships and sharing knowledge could benefit industries of both crops. The current wheat crops could be supported and protected by having alternating rows or blocks and boarders of kangaroo grass, mitigating climate effects and diseases. Controlled fire and smoke treatments are common for inactivate seed dormancy, influence sprouting, increase fertility and seed yield of Aboriginal food crops. Heat can separate seeds20. This is different to the decades of natural resource and land management practices. Temperatures of 40–45° C breaks dormancy in kangaroo grass21, this renders wheat sterile. The biproducts of kangaroo grass through current technologies require more investigation but are promising. The green stems that remain after harvest have multiple uses as natural fertiliser, feeding livestock, woven for rope and nets15. If left to fallow, kangaroo grass self- seeds and has quicker maturity times in warmer temperatures, producing 3-4 crops annually. This allows growers more opportunity to experiment with current technologies that process the stems and seed chaff. Some biproducts may include biofuels and cellulose-based biodegradable plastics that could substitute petrochemicals. This may further mitigate the causes and effects of climate change, while decreasing the biodegrading life of plastic waste products. This paves the way for a more sustainable environment and healthier options for humanity moving forward into the future. In conclusion, the continuing use of kangaroo grass and its integration in crop cultivation warrants further research and investigation. 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 13
References 1 “Grains and other crops”, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources. ISBN 978-ISSN 1-925734-32-4. August 2018. https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/crops-and-horticulture/grains- pulses-and-cereals/grains-and-other-crops 2 “Irrigated Wheat: Achievable yields for irrigated wheat” GDRC publication, 4 March 2013. https://qrdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/all- publications/factssheets/2013/03/gdrc-fs- irriqatedwheat-achieveableyields 3 “Australian crop report”, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences No. 192, December 2019. 4 Etienne et al "Global Wheat Head Detection (GWHD) Dataset: A Large and Diverse Dataset of High- Resolution RGB-Labelled Images to Develop and Benchmark Wheat Head Detection Methods", Plant Phenomics, vol. 2020, https://doi.org/10.34133/2020/3521852. 5 “Durum wheat”, Edited and Published by Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., February 29, 2016. https://www.britannica.com/plant/durum-wheat. 6 “Grader grass” Brisbane city council weed identification tool. https://weeds.brisbane.qld.gov.au/weeds/grader-grass. 7 Godfree Bob, Cavanagh Annette, CSIRO https://blog.csiro.au/kangaroo-grass-seeds-hopping- towards-climate-change. 8 “Kangaroo grass”, Dr. Walter Scattini, October 2008 Pastures Australia collaboration with AWI, GRDC, MLA, RIRDC and Dairy Australia https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/pastures/Html/Kangaroo_grass.htm 9 “Themeda triandra” Australian native plants society Australia. November 2016 http://anpsa.org.au/t- tri.html 10 “GRDC report wheat, The Winter Crop Summary” by Agriculture Victoria with investment from the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC), ISSN 1835-5978 Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources 2018, Editors: Johanna Couchman Production. https://grdc.com.au 11 Natural Resources SA Arid Lands “Upper North Farming Systems: Native Grass Nutrition Fact Sheet – spring samples”, “Dichanthium – summer sample”, “Outback Lakes Group Final Report – average for reproductive samples and nutrition testing”, https://www.naturalresources.sa.gov.au/files/sharedassets/sa_arid_lands/plants_and_animals/2018 0117_nutritional_grasses_fs.pdf 12 Fahnestock, J. T. (1998). Vegetation responses to herbivory and resource supplementation in the pryor mountain wild horse range (Order No. 9834992). Available from ProQuest One Academic. (304425269). Retrieved from http://ez.library.latrobe.edu.au/login?url=https://www-proquest- com.ez.library.latrobe.edu.au/docview/304425269?accountid=12001 13 Godfree, R. C., Marshall, D. J., Young, A. G., Miller, C. H., & Mathews, S. (2017). Empirical evidence of fixed and homeostatic patterns of polyploid advantage in a keystone grass exposed to drought and heat stress. Royal Society open science, 4(11), 170934. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170934 14 Sansaloni, C., Franco, J., Santos, B. et al. Diversity analysis of 80,000 wheat accessions reveals consequences and opportunities of selection footprints. Nat Commun 11, 4572 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18404-w 15 Tothill, J.C. and Hacker, J. B. (1983) The Grasses of Southern Queensland. St Lucia: University of Queensland Press 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 14
16 Stevens, A. V., A. B. Nicotra, R. C. Godfree, and L. K. Guja. "Polyploidy Affects the Seed, Dormancy and Seedling Characteristics of a Perennial Grass, Conferring an Advantage in Stressful Climates." Plant Biology 22.3 (2020): 500-13. 17 Gracey (1996:187). 18 Kate Howell, Melbourne University Press, 2019. https://fvas.unimelb.edu.au/data/assets/pdf_file/0007/2930875/Research-Week-Poster- HOWELL.pdf. 19 “Annual Report for October 1 - September 30: 1936/37 through 1947/48; thereafter by calendar year: 1949-1963.” By the ”, Department of Agriculture for His Majesty's Stationery Office. London, England. 20 Fieldhouse Rachel “Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass” September 28, 2018 https://ps.org.au/search?q=themeda%20triandra 21 “Information about native flora, growing Australian native plants ‘Themeda triandra’” Australian National Botanic Gardens and Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, Canberra. 2012. 24 September, 2018 © https://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/interns- 2004/themeda- triandra.html 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 15
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First Place | James Elphick | Machinery maintenance and the right to repair
Agricultural farming operations are finance-driven businesses that live or die by the ability to
generate sustainable profits. Despite the efficiency advantages, the advent of computer-
controlled machines such as tractors has increased the difficulty and cost of maintenance
substantially. Securing our food production in Australia depends on reliable equipment that can
complete tasks with minimal interruption and provide the ability to complete on-site repairs
without dealership intervention. Engineering repairable machinery has the potential to reduce
overhead costs and maximise productivity by preventing the chances of complete shutdowns
during peak season.
Arguably the most significant cost-reduction development in the history of agriculture was the
invention of the traction engine. While implementation was slow in early years, tractors and
other ICE-powered machines (combines, loaders etc.) became critical in maximising production
efficiency and hence profitability. These machines brought in a new era in agricultural history
that phased out the use of animal-drawn implements and intensive manual labour. In due
course, crops could be grown by farmers on such a large scale that was previously unimaginable
by even the most advanced agricultural businesses in earlier times.
As agricultural businesses adapted to growing crops on a large scale, the reliance on tractors and
other machinery grew substantially. Tractors in the early 20 century were designed to be highly
th
simplified, robust and could be repaired with basic farm tools to reduce the chances of costly
breakdowns. Manufacturers knew that the businesses and often livelihoods of thousands of
farmers were at the mercy of their equipment. If a tractor were to break down in the field, low
cost of repairs played a major role in encouraging a productive growing season and keeping
farming businesses from going bankrupt.
Fast forwarding to the current day, the new developments in technology and push for efficiency
of agricultural machinery have been unrelenting. The last 50 years has given way to a staggering
array of positioning sensor equipment, computer-controlled engine and transmission
management systems, and ancillary pollution restrictions such as exhaust-gas recirculation and
particulate filters. Just like a modern car, the array of tractor sensors and systems are controlled
and monitored by an onboard Controller Area Network Bus (CANBUS). Today, tractors are so
advanced that even the air suspension seat that the driver sits on is an integral part of the
CANBUS.
The problem with this trend is that it is physically impossible to increase the part count of a
system without the corresponding side effects:
● Increased cost of manufacturing
● Increased number of failure points
● Low availability and increased cost of replacement parts
● Diagnosis and repairs require OEM support
Despite the efficiency advantages of computer-governed systems, they present a new
predicament for farmers. If the tractor computer detects a faulty or broken sensor, the onboard
computer enters a limp mode and can shut down the entire tractor (Wiens, 2015). Manufacturers
pre-program this behaviour and commonly lock down their software to prevent “unauthorised
repairs” and protect their intellectual property (Koebler, 2017). Even if the faulty component is
part of a hydraulic system that is never used, a farmer with a John Deere or Case tractor is forced
2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 17to leave their field fallow until a specialist technician replaces the faulty component. In accordance with manufacturer agreements, any third-party repairs are illegal. Within the last decade, the restrictions imposed by manufacturer have sparked debates in regard to a key aspect of machinery ownership: The Right to Repair. A farmer may already have the ability to purchase a tractor and have full ownership of the physical machine, however this ultimately means little when the machine is rendered inoperable by a range of possible system faults (Motherboard, 2018). When the manufacturer does not grant access to the diagnostic tools and software, the physical machine is no longer useable unless repaired by manufacturer- approved technicians. This turns a relatively simple repair into a significant expense for the farmer, as the manufacturer ultimately has a monopoly on repairs and has the ability to increase repair costs dramatically without losing business. Manufacturers typically establish an ecosystem of official parts for their products. For example, farmers who own John Deere tractors can purchase a John Deere branded GPS receiver. To discourage the use of third-party components, plug-in components often use electronic serial numbers that allow the onboard computer to detect whether an OEM-approved component is being used and disable the system if there is a discrepancy. It is also at the discernment of the manufacturer to discontinue support of their own branded components. This creates situations where an older but functional unit is refused servicing and the farmer has no option but to purchase a new unit at their own expense. A 2012 NSW Department of Primary Industries study found that a new Case IH Magnum 305 tractor in Australia typically costs $250,000 (NSW DPI, 2012). During a one-year period of 1000 hours total usage, standard maintenance was calculated at $11,270 not including labour and repair costs at $5,140. According to Edwards (2015), the annual repair cost for a four-wheel drive tractor after 5,000 hours of use is 3% the initial dealership cost, or $7,500 in this scenario. Newer equipment tends to require less maintenance, while a tractor with 10,000 hours can be expected to cost double this amount due to increased repairs as the machine ages. These numbers are based on historical repair data where the farm operators likely performed most repairs and maintenance themselves. If machinery were taken to the dealership for each repair, it is likely the expenditure would increase substantially. On top of the cost of parts and consumables, repair shops typically charge over $150 per hour for tractor repairs. This is based on the assumption that the tractor has been loaded onto a truck and transported to the facility. For a standard 100km two-way transport by road for a 10-tonne tractor, this is over $1500 in additional costs. If a tractor is rendered inoperable during work in the field, which is often when this occurs, any work progress must be abandoned and the fields lie fallow until the tractor repair is completed. It is reasonable to expect that a breakdown and dealership repair can cost a farmer $3000 or more and cause two or more days of lost productivity. While the upfront cost of dealership repair is substantial, the downtime lost due to inoperable machinery is the most significant factor affecting agriculture. Often the window of opportunity for farmers to plant, fertilise and perform other operations can be surprisingly narrow. Sub- optimal weather events such as heavy rain can hamper any farming operation and reduce the available optimal timeframe for action. If a tractor is broken down for a few days, a narrow window of opportunity can be missed altogether and adds to the existing stress level by requiring a substitute at the last minute. This means that the crop yield as a whole can depend heavily on machine reliability, not just capability, and breakdowns can become the reason for a failed crop season. 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 18
Engineering reliable and cost-effective machinery is an absolutely essential practice that enables
Australian and international farmers to produce agricultural products sustainably. Overcoming
this issue requires an engineering design approach by machinery manufacturers that allows
diagnostics to be performed independently and without specialist equipment. It is
recommended that:
1. If a faulty sensor is detected and is part of a non-critical system, the onboard computer
must be engineered to prioritise the continued operation of the tractor and only
command a complete shutdown for high-risk failures.
2. Owners must have the ability to access diagnostics via onboard interfaces and/or
inexpensive laptop programs that do not incur additional costs. The diagnosing abilities
must be comprehensive to easily identify the cause of common failures.
3. The number of proprietary components (particularly electrical) and software by design
must be kept to a minimum to prevent future incompatibilities.
4. Manufacturers must also release service bulletins that alert owners to discontinued
components. Discontinued components in functional condition should also be replaced
at no cost with an equivalent supported component where possible.
These changes allow a farmer to continue work without interruption until repairs can be made
once the job is completed, and the ability to perform simple repairs without dealership
intervention. Additional benefits from these changes include reduced depreciation of tractors
during ownership and increased useful machine life that can provide substantial reductions in the
cost of machine ownership. Farmers currently have no choice but to upgrade to new equipment
to avoid excessive breakdowns, as it is well known that reliability decreases with the age of a
modern tractor. This has implications for environmental conservation, since the cycle of
disposing and upgrading every 10 years is highly wasteful in resources and discourages repairs
that would otherwise allow a machine to continue operating for longer. Maintenance and the
Right-To-Repair movement will play a significant role in agriculture efficiency and is therefore is
an important avenue to consider for securing our future food resources in Australia.
References
Edwards, W 2015, ‘Estimating Farm Machinery Costs’, Iowa State University, 8 August, viewed 25 August
2020, .
Guide To Tractor And Implement Costs 2012, NSW Government Department of Primary Industries,
viewed 29 August 2020, .
Koebler, J 2017, ‘Why American Farmers Are Hacking Their Tractors With Ukrainian Firmware’, Vice Media
Group, 22 March, viewed 25 August 2020, .
Motherboard 2018, Tractor Hacking: The Farmers Breaking Big Tech’s Repair Monopoly, online video,
viewed 23 August 2020, .
Wiens, K 2015, ‘New High-Tech Farm Equipment Is a Nightmare for Farmers’, Wired, viewed 23 August
2020, .
2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 19Second Place | Dylan Sanusi-Goh | Optimising analytical imaging and sensing techniques to improve viticulture outcomes across the Australian Wine industry Australia holds one of the worlds most significant wine industries. Not only is there a $3.5 billion domestic market for Australian Wines, but they are a significant contributor to the wine industry worldwide. Australia annually exports approximately 800 million out of the 1.2 to 1.3 billion litres produced. However, despite its current success, expansion of the Australian Wine sector currently faces labour intensive and error prone manual processes and inefficiencies in viticulture. The future of viticulture will require applied research and development in software, mechanical, electrical, and mechatronics engineering. Collecting greater amounts of data through imaging and sensing techniques in a non-destructive manner can improve scalability, accuracy, and yield in wine growing processes. Researchers and service providers are developing advanced analytical imaging techniques for the Australian Wine sector to improve data accuracy, prediction, productivity, and error rates for farmers and agribusiness professionals. This data driven decision making will ultimately lead to significantly improved outcomes for the wine industry in Australia, highlighting the importance of viticulture and agriculture in production, employment, export, and tourism. Yield Estimation Estimating yield is a critical activity for Winegrape production. Due to the current scale of Australian Wine operations, the Australian Government has noticed that the quality and reliability of supply must continually improve to stay competitive with international markets. Reduced fluctuations in the volume of grape intake and more accurate estimates of intrinsic grape compositions can lead to cost savings and increased revenue. For example, one variety of grape can observe a ten-fold price difference depending on its quality. This demonstrates the importance of accurate yield estimation on Wine supply chains. Yield estimates are commonly performed by vineyard managers, through labour intensive processes with errors of up to 30%. If fruit quality and condition can be objective assessed prior to Winegrape harvesting and transport, yield estimation can be optimised. This presents greater opportunities for more accurate Winegrape production, economic stability and growth, and positive interactions between farmers and agribusiness professionals. CSIRO Agriculture and Food completed research in July 2020 attempting to solve this issue. Using videos, stereo images, and low-power radar, researchers were able to develop algorithms to perform yield estimation by analysing visual, audio, and depth data. Not only is this technology non-invasive and non-destructive, but the hyperspectral data analysis methods enabled accurate identification of sugar content and organic acids across various Winegrape varieties and development stages. The accurate quantification of fruit maturity and quality metrics is critical for improving yield estimation, and the diverse use of imaging techniques in combination with data analytics can solve problems current manual yield estimation processes provide. Canopy Metrics The grapevine canopy plays a critical role as photosynthesis processes produce energy for Winegrape growth, production, and winter care. Furthermore, the size and structure of a canopy can impact winemaking value by influencing growth environments and grape compositions. Viticulturalists do not currently have accurate or objective assessment tools to evaluate the size or structure of their canopies, leading to inefficiencies in yield and spray wastage due to a poor 2020 AgriEducate Essay Compilation Page 20
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