Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana - Purdue extension AY-328
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Purdue Extension
United States Department of Agriculture
AY-328
Management-Intensive
Grazing in Indiana
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
Contributors Ed Heckman
Purdue Extension Educator, Retired
Susannah Hinds
USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Northwest Indiana Grazing Land Specialist
Keith Johnson
Purdue Extension Forage Crops Specialist
Jerry Perkins
USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Northeast Indiana Grazing Land Specialist
Victor Shelton
USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Southwest Indiana Grazing Land Specialist/Agronomist
Robert Zupancic
USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Southeast Indiana Grazing Land Specialist
All photos in this guide courtesy of the contributors.
Reference to products in this publication is not intended to be
an endorsement to the exclusion of others that may be similar.
Persons using such products assume responsibility for their use
in accordance with current directions of the manufacturer.
The USDA-Natural Resouces Conservation Service’s
Grazing Lands Conservation Initiative (GLCI) is a
nationwide collaborative process of individuals and
organizations working together to maintain and
improve the management, productivity, and health
of the nation's privately owned grazing land.
For more information, visit www.in.nrcs.usda.
gov/programs/GLCI/glcihomepage.html
2
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Getting Started 4 Table of
Chapter 1:
Chapter 2:
Improving Pasture by Management . ............................................... 5
Would Your Pasture Make the Grade?.............................................. 8
Contents
Physical Components of a Grazing System 13
Chapter 3: Laying Out Your Paddocks ............................................................ 13
Chapter 4: Providing Water to Your Livestock ................................................ 15
Chapter 5: Planning Your Fencing.................................................................... 17
Chapter 6: Maintaining Fertile Soils................................................................. 21
Chapter 7: Determining the Right Forage Species to Grow.............................. 26
Grazing Management Considerations 30
Chapter 8: Determining Length of Stay in Paddocks . ..................................... 30
Chapter 9: Using Stockpiled Perennial Forages to Your Advantage . ............... 36
Chapter 10: A Plan for Streamside Grazing . ..................................................... 37
Chapter 11: The Question of Woodland Grazing ............................................... 39
Chapter 12: Livestock Grazing Behavior ........................................................... 41
Chapter 13: Potential Forage-Induced Animal Disorders .................................. 42
Indiana Graziers’ Experiences 44
Chapter 14: One Acre Pasture Provides Forage for Boer Goats ........................ 44
Chapter 15: Multi-Species Grazing Offers Greater Efficiency and Diversity........ 45
Chapter 16: Low Inputs Help Sheep Farm Do More than Survive...................... 47
Chapter 17: Longtime Beef Cattle Graziers Embrace Changes........................... 48
Chapter 18: The Dairy Perspective of Management-Intensive Grazing . ............ 49
Glossary of Terms 51
Additional Reading and Information 57
3
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
Getting Started W elcome to management-intensive grazing. This manual
will help improve your understanding of basic grazing
concepts. The information here should be applicable to any
Hoosier grazier of any livestock species.
Grazing systems management is a combination of art and
science. You will have to master the art as it relates to your
farm, but this manual will get you started on the science.
The first section, “Getting Started,” outlines the basics of
grazing systems management. It includes chapters on why
you should consider grazing systems management and how
to assess your pasture’s performance.
The second section, “Physical Components of a Grazing
System,” discusses the main elements that go into any graz-
ing management system. This includes laying out paddocks,
providing adequate water, establishing fencing, ensuring soil
fertility, and selecting the right forage for your operation.
Section three, “Grazing Management Considerations,” ex-
amines other issues you’ll encounter in your grazing system.
This includes chapters on determining how long to keep
livestock in each paddock, stockpiling forages, streamside
and woodland grazing, grazing behavior, and potential for-
age-induced disorders.
The fourth section shares the experiences of Indiana gra-
ziers who have implemented grazing systems management.
Written by producers who have implemented and managed
these systems, these accounts explain how and why they feel
their rotational grazing system has been successful.
The last two sections of this manual are a glossary of basic
terms and a list of additional resources.
Happy reading and happy grazing.
4
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Improving Pasture Rotational systems can allow pastures to
rest and regrow, distribute manure more
u Chapter 1
by Management evenly, and increase forage production.
Traditionally, livestock producers However, the costs for establishing such
have focused more attention on their a system (water distribution and fenc-
animals than on the forages the animals ing) are higher than for a continuous
eat. However, successful pasture-based grazing system.
production systems rely on producers
Management-Intensive Grazing
who understand the connection be-
tween livestock and forages, and main- Management-intensive grazing is
taining a healthy balance between the a system that divides large fields into
two. Mismanage the forage crop, and smaller paddocks. In this system,
your livestock may develop nutrition animals are moved frequently at high
stocking rates. Management-intensive Rotational systems can allow
deficiencies. Mismanage the livestock,
systems can provide the highest forage pastures to rest and regrow,
and your pasture may not produce the distribute manure more evenly, and
quality and quantity of forage your graz- production and use per acre, control
increase forage production.
ing livestock need, nor will the pasture weeds and brush naturally, provide the
be environmentally sustainable. most even manure distribution, give
more forage options, and allow pad-
One way to keep livestock and forages
docks to rest and regrow completely.
in balance is to think of ourselves as for-
However, such systems require careful
age farmers; we raise the forages and the
monitoring and greater startup costs for
livestock harvest it for us. This change
water distribution and fencing.
in thinking requires that we spend more
time on forage management than we This manual focuses on rotational and
may have done in the past. management-intensive grazing systems.
The most important aspect of such sys-
Types of Grazing Systems tems is an understanding of rest.
There are almost as many ways to
graze as there are graziers. But there are
Give the Forages a Rest and Your
three basic kinds of grazing practices Forages Will Take Care of You
you should understand. Like all plants, forages undergo
photosynthesis to store energy and
Continuous Grazing
grow. Photosynthesis, of course, cannot
Continuous grazing is a system in occur without energy from the sun. The
which livestock graze in a single large vegetative parts of a plant (primarily
area for an entire season. This may be the leaves and stems) capture that solar
simple for the grazier in terms of costs energy and convert it into digestible
and labor. In the long run, however, material. The greater the surface area
continuous grazing has many draw- of the leaves, the more energy they can
backs, including lower forage quality capture, which results in more digest-
and yield, lower stocking rate, overgraz- ible material for the livestock as well as
ing, and uneven manure distribution. greater survivability for the plant.
Rotational Grazing Because perennial grasses and le-
Rotational grazing is a system that gumes can recover from mowing and
uses more than one pasture. In such grazing quickly, they are extremely
a system, livestock are moved from valuable for forage and soil protection.
one pasture to another based on their But removing too many leaves through
feed requirements and forage growth. overgrazing retards forage production
and reduces the plant’s root system. For
5
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
that reason, the more residual forage paddocks so that each one can be prop-
that is left in a paddock, the quicker the erly rested before the livestock graze in
paddock will produce new growth and them again.
be ready to graze the next time.
Better Forage Means
If allowed to do so, livestock will eat
Better Nutrition
forages down to the ground. When
that happens (and it frequently does in Managing your paddocks provides
continuous grazing systems), the forages many benefits. One of the most im-
cannot capture as much solar energy, so portant is an improvement in livestock
they must draw upon their root reserves nutrition. Managing your forages allows
just to survive. Generally, root growth you to produce a higher quality and
is unaffected when up to 50 percent of quantity of feed than you would be able
the plant is grazed. But if animals graze to produce on the same acreage under
60 to 90 percent of the leaves, then root continuous grazing. That’s because
growth drops by 50 to 100 percent. managed paddocks allow you to keep
Overgrazing will slow new growth, and the forage growing and vegetative.
plants may die, especially if there are Vegetative forage is higher in available
other stresses present. Even if the forage protein, energy, and essential nutrients
survives, it will be less vigorous and than forage that has to draw on root
healthy because stress has weakened the reserves just to survive. Vegetative for-
roots. age is also better than fully mature grass,
Root growth is very important. Not because grasses tend to build up thicker
only do roots deliver essential moisture cell walls once they mature, mean-
and nutrients to the leaves, perennial ing there are fewer nutrients available
plants store food in their roots, stolons, for the livestock. You want to keep the
corms, and rhizomes after seasonal forage in this growing state as long as
growth. Forages draw on these reserves possible.
to survive dormancy, to make the first Rotating livestock into paddocks with
new growth the next spring, and to start vegetative forage means better nutri-
new growth after green leaves and stems tion, and that means improved animal
are closely grazed or mown. performance and more profit.
If livestock continually graze in just Better Management
one pasture, animals are free to graze
whatever and wherever they like. That’s
Requires Fewer Inputs
why it’s important to have more than Animal health and profitability go
one paddock in your pasture man- hand in hand. Another benefit of man-
agement system to allow time for the aged grazing is the ability to extend the
forages to rest and regrow before being grazing season with less labor. Let the
grazed again. As the livestock feed in animals do as much work for themselves
one paddock, the other paddocks are as possible. Why carry all that feed to
resting, giving time for the plants to them? They have four legs and are mo-
grow, build new root reserves, and bile. They often go some places that we
maintain vigor. don’t even want to travel, especially on
foot and impossible with some equip-
The number of paddocks you have in
ment. But more importantly, if they are
your pasture, of course, will depend on
working, then most likely, you are not. If
many factors and your particular goals.
they are grazing, you are spending much
But in the end, you want to have enough
less money to feed them.
6
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Not only do you have to work less, Better Management Makes
you’ll spend less on fuel. If a wheel is Livestock (and Producers)
turning, then you’re spending money.
So, the less a tire has to turn by hauling More Sociable
hay around on a tractor, the better. Most Managed grazing provides social
people see increased profitability as they benefits to livestock and producers alike.
extend the grazing season and start cut- The social needs of livestock are very
ting back on the amount of hay they are important. Social stress can affect pro-
feeding. ductivity and performance, so the way
we handle animals affects everything
Better Management from their disposition to the quality of
Improves the Environment the meat. Animals quickly get used to
If you’re not burning fuel, you’re not being moved and know that the next
just saving money, you’re not emitting stop is going to be a paddock with better
exhaust. Managed grazing also offers forage.
a number of environmental benefits, Many graziers testify that changing to
including: a grazing system would have been worth
• Less rain runoff because of better it just for the change in the way animals
water-soil infiltration. behave and react. They say things like,
“They are not the same cows,” and “I
• Better water quality because growing can move them within a couple minutes
forages trap sediment and nutrients. without a bucket and without help.”
• Improved animal waste distribution There are also social benefits for pro-
because waste is more evenly spread ducers. The public typically perceives a
over several paddocks. good grazing system to be more aes-
• Less erosion because dense, thick, thetically and environmentally pleasing.
vigorous forages reduce runoff. Consumers like to know that the prod-
ucts they are buying, especially when
Better Management they are coming straight from you,
Improves Livestock Health are being produced by a more holistic
Livestock have evolved to graze for- method. Many producers are cashing in
ages and stand on sod. Therefore, they on this perspective and marketing their
are happiest and healthiest on lush, products as “grass fed.”
productive pastures. The direct benefits But there is still more to it than that.
of improved forage grazing management Grazing management seems to offer to
include: consumers a more wholesome, family-
• Reduced foot and hoof problems. friendly operation with a more laidback,
slower-paced lifestyle that many wish
• Increased calving percentage.
they could experience.
• Reduced parasite problems.
So, why should you divide up your
• Reduced incidences of displaced pasture?
abomasums.
To take better control of your forages,
• Reduced somatic cell counts and your livestock, and your farm.
instances of mastitis.
• Reduced fly problems.
7
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
u Chapter 2 Would Your Pasture ate a current pasture’s productivity and
the stability of its plant community, soil,
Make the Grade? and water resources. The scoring sheet
In well-managed pastures, produc- should also help you identify weaknesses
tivity is optimized for both the plants and alternatives to improve pasture
and the animals (which could include management.
livestock and wildlife). Furthermore, Each indicator is given a score of one
well-managed pastures should not nega- to five, according to what is seen in the
tively affect soil, water, and air quality. field. Each condition ranges from very
Poor plant growth, high weed popula- poor to excellent. Each is also given a
tions, soil erosion, increased runoff, weighted value according to its impor-
poor animal performance, and impaired tance. The indicators included on the
water quality are all signs that indicate sheet are described below.
Dense forage stands indicate
proper grazing and results in high
problems within a pasture.
forage intake and high sunlight
Desirable Plants
Before you begin any grazing manage-
interception. ment program, it’s important to get a The desirable plants indicator mea-
good, objective assessment of how your sures the percentage of plants in a
pastures measure up. One method of pasture (by weight) that livestock will
evaluating pasture management is to eat and meet their nutritional needs. A
use a pasture condition score sheet. You desirable species is readily consumed,
can use the sheets on pages 11 and 12 persistent, and provides high yielding,
to give your pasture’s an overall “grade.” quality forage for most of the growing
In addition to an initial assessment, it season. Undesirable species (such as
is usually a good idea to keep track of woody invaders, noxious weeds, and
your pastures’ health by completing a toxic plants) typically are not eaten by
score sheet every year. Pasture condi- livestock, cause undesirable side effects,
tion is useful to help you decide when or are likely to crowd out more desirable
to move livestock or plan other manage- species. You want to estimate visually
ment actions. It also indicates improve- the proportion of the desirable species
ments that are most likely to improve present by weight and score accordingly.
your pastures’ condition and livestock’s Remember, the percentage is by weight.
performance. Just because there is a lot of short blue-
grass in an orchardgrass stand does not
While you can evaluate your own
mean the short bluegrass is 50 percent
pastures, it is usually a good idea to find
of the stand — by weight, it is probably
someone else to do it and allow them
only 20 percent or less.
to be honest with you. Chances are, you
will be less objective with your own Live Plant Cover
pastures than someone who doesn’t see The live plant cover indicator mea-
the same things you do every day. Also, sures the percentage of the soil surface
when you walk or drive over the same that is covered by plants. This is an
ground day after day, you sometimes important factor for pasture produc-
overlook or just stop noticing little tion, as well as soil and water protection.
changes. Dense stands indicate proper grazing,
The pasture condition scoring sheet high animal intake, and high sunlight
at the end of this chapter involves the interception. Plant cover also highly in-
visual evaluation of 10 indicators. The fluences water runoff and water infiltra-
purpose of the scoring sheet is to evalu- tion, which can be especially important
during dry years.
8
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Plant Diversity Percent Legume
The plant diversity indicator measures The percent legume indicator is im-
the number of different forage plants portant because legumes are a source of
that are well represented in the pasture. nitrogen critical for pastures. Legumes
Each species should make up at least also improve the forage quality of a pas-
20 percent of the sward. Ideally, you ture mix, especially protein content and
want to see at least three species and dry matter consumption when they are
include at least two functional groups. at least 20 percent of the stand. Thirty
Functional groups include cool-season percent is a good legume goal. Some
grasses, legumes, warm-season grasses, legumes can cause bloat, so consider us-
and annual forages. ing nonbloating legumes when appro-
priate (see table on pages 28 and 29 for
Plant Residue
nonbolating legumes).
The plant residue indicator measures
the amount of plant material in vari- Uniformity of Use
ous states of decay. Residue, of course, The uniformity of use indicator re-
provides additional surface cover and cords observed animal grazing patterns.
organic matter to the soil; however, too Grazing is considered uniform when all
much residue reduces the feed value of species (including desirable and inter-
the forages consumed and animal in- mediate ones) are grazed to a similar
take, and can inhibit new plant growth. height. Grazing is considered uneven if
Residue left over winter, however, can you observe “clump syndrome,” or when
be very beneficial in the early spring to some plants are eaten to the ground
help balance out the grazing animals’ and others are in full seed head. You
rumens while they are consuming high- can usually correct uneven grazing by
protein, highly digestible, high-moisture increasing the stocking density, using
forages. smaller paddocks, and maintaining
shorter grazing periods.
Plant Vigor
The plant vigor indicator measures Livestock Concentration Areas
how many of the desired forage species The livestock concentration areas
are healthy and growing at their poten- indicator accounts for places in pastures
tial. Plant color, size, rate of regrowth, where livestock return frequently and
and productivity all help determine vig- linger to be near water, feed, minerals,
or. Fertility is very important for good shelter, or just to be in shade. Typically,
plant vigor and should be adequate well-worn trails lead to these preferred
but not excessive. Close, frequent, or areas. Depending on their locations,
continuous grazing, such as the shaved these trails can direct sediment, nutri-
lawn mower look, often causes loss of ents, and bacteria toward nearby water
vigor, reducing yields and ground cover. bodies.
Low plant vigor makes weed problems
Soil Compaction
more likely. Occasionally, the climate
or soil is not appropriate for the species The soil compaction indicator ac-
being grown, such as perennial ryegrass counts for water infiltration rates and
on a droughty soil. Weather, insects, and runoff. The lack of water infiltration
disease can also influence plant vigor. decreases water availability in the soil
for plant growth, potentially lowering
production or sometimes survivability.
Instead, water runs off, increasing chan-
9
Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
nel erosion downstream, and carries
Find out more contaminants such as nutrients from the
site, reducing water quality. Compac-
For more information, tion can be detected in the field using a
see, Guide to Pasture soil probe, metal rod, or knife. As these
Condition Scoring by tools are pushed into the soil, com-
Dennis Cosgrove, Dan pacted soil layers interrupt their ease of
penetration. Compare in-field resistance
Undersander, and James
to penetration with areas such as the
Cropper, www.glti.nrcs. fence lines where animals are not able to
usda.gov/technical/ graze.
publications/
Erosion
A PDF version of
The erosion indicator measures the
the pasture condition
amount of soil loss in a pasture. Sheet
scoring sheet on pages and rill erosion increase as ground cover
11 and 12 is available decreases. Erosion also occurs along
at www.in.nrcs.usda. streambanks, and in areas of high-water
gov/technical. concentration, resulting in gullies. Fre-
quency of use, livestock traffic patterns,
and the attractiveness of some sites
to livestock (including sunning, dust-
ing, travel lanes, watering, and rubbing
areas) can heighten erosion problems if
left unchecked.
10Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Pasture Condition Score Sheet
Standard for Midwest Cool-Season Grass/Legume Mixed Pastures
30- to 45-Inch Rainfall Zone
Cooperator: Date:
Evaluator: Pasture Number:
Evaluate the site and rate each indicator based on your observations. Write that number in the Points column, then multiply by the Weight, and enter
that number in the Weighted Points (Wtd. Pts.) column. Scores for each indicator may range from 1 to 5. Add the indicator scores to determine overall Score
pasture condition score. If an indicator does not apply, enter a 5.
Wtd.
Indicator 1 Point 2 Points 3 Points 4 Points 5 Points Points Weight Pts.
Desirable species 40- Desirable forage
Desirable species 20- Desirable species
Desirable species 60% of stand. Un- species 60-80% of
40% of stand. Mostly exceed 80% of plant
90%.
Canopy=70-80%. Canopy=80-90%. Forages are
Most forages are
Live Plant Cover Canopy 75% of one functional
from one functional dominant functional least one being a
DM wt.). Or, more group (each 20%
Plant Diversity group with differing group (>75% of DM legume (each 20%
than five forage DM wt.). None
(evaluate as a complete growth habitats (>75% wt.). At least one of DM wt. and total
species (all 75% of DM wt.).
from one dominant forage species
10% of overall score evenly grazed, poorly permitting presence Well intermixed,
functional group, not each from two
distributed. (e.g., of mature seed compatible growth
evenly grazed, poorly functional groups,
jointed grasses and stalks. Species in habit, and compa-
distributed. both supply 25-
nonjointed grasses). patches. rable palatability.
50% of DM wt.
Ground cover=10- Ground cover=20- Ground cover=30-
Ground cover 1 inch). 0.5-1 inch thick. slight thatch buildup thatch present. buildup.
(Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
Evaluate the site and rate each indicator based on your observations. Write that number in the Points column, then multiply by the Weight, and enter
that number in the Weighted Points (Wtd. Pts.) column. Scores for each indicator may range from 1 to 5. Add the indicator scores to determine overall Score
pasture condition score. If an indicator does not apply, enter a 5.
Wtd.
Indicator 1 Point 2 Points 3 Points 4 Points 5 Points Points Weight Pts.
Some livestock
trails and one or No untreated live-
Livestock concentra-
Cover >10% of the two small con- stock concentration
tion areas and trails
pasture or concen- Isolated livestock centration areas areas in the pasture
Livestock Concentration cover 5-10% of
trated areas convey concentrated areas coverManagement-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Physical Components of a Grazing System
When it comes to spending money, a careful consideration of the expected financial returns from
any investment is crucial to farm profitability. Always evaluate the expected returns from any invest-
ment opportunity.
With grazing management, there are four major investment categories: fencing, water distribu-
tion, lime and fertilizer, and seed selection. Each category is unique in its payback potential, and each
category is unique to the needs of every individual farm and grazier.
The first chapter in this section discusses the basics of paddock layout. The remaining chapters
focus on each of the investment categories, offering you practical information you can use to assess
investment values.
streams, laying out the paddocks can be
Laying Out Your Paddocks very challenging. Piping in water will u Chapter 3
probably make layout easier and more
Rotational grazing and management- reliable in quantity and quality.
intensive grazing systems depend on
paddocks: smaller, fenced-in units Match Paddocks to Landscape
within a larger pasture. Paddocks de- The next consideration is topography.
crease the amount of area that animals It is important that animals be able to
can roam and give previously grazed see the water. That can be much more
forage in other paddocks more time to difficult in hilly areas than it is in flat
rest and regrow. fields. By constructing paddocks to
Laying out a paddock system can be match the different topographies in your
as simple as dividing an existing field field (hillsides versus flat areas), you will
in two, or as complex as systematically have more consistent grazing.
dividing a field into multiple paddocks, For example, if a paddock contains
complete with travel lanes to get animals both bottomland and hillsides, then
back and forth to working areas, distant the two landscapes are typically grazed
paddocks, or the milk parlor. However, differently because of their differences
there are a few basics to consider as you in topography, fertility, water availabil-
think about laying out your paddocks, ity, and so on. You certainly would not Construct paddocks to match the
including water, topography, soil types, want to mix a flat creek bottom with a different topographies in your fields
shape, and frequency of animal move- very steep hill if you are grazing cows, (hillsides versus flat areas) and to
ment. because the cows would prefer grazing make the watering locations visible
the lowland (which they would tend to throughout the whole paddock.
Water Must Be Close and Visible
overgraze) and avoid the high ground
Water location is of primary (which they would undergraze). If you
importance in rotational or graze sheep or goats in the same situa-
management-intensive grazing systems. tion, then they will probably prefer the
Water should always be close (so slopes and not the lower, potentially
animals don’t have to walk far to get wetter ground. Thus, it is almost always
it) and visible (so animals will drink better to split paddocks based on topog-
individually rather than as a group). raphy and soil type.
It is optimal to have water within 400
to 500 feet for dairy cows and 800 feet Understand Soil
for beef cattle. If you will be using Productivity, Drainage
natural water sources, such as ponds or Topographical variations are directly
13Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
related to changes in soils and pro- regarding paddock layout is the size,
ductivity. Lighter or sandier soils can based on how often you want to move
provide more desirable areas to sacrifice the animals. This depends on the num-
during rain events, but they produce less ber of days the forage in each paddock
annual growth. Heavier soils, or soils will need to rest after being grazed and,
that tend to stay wet, can often provide of course, the amount of dry matter
ample grazing during droughty periods, available (plants) and forage needs of
but may require restricted access during the animals present. In general, you
wetter periods. should move animals from one paddock
Rule of Thumb Of course, matching forages that are to another at least twice per week. Any
Square paddocks can be best adapted to your soil conditions, is less frequently and animals will tend to
grazed more evenly and of the utmost importance. Ideally, each regraze certain areas and weaken the
efficiently than rectangular or paddock should have similar soil types plants. Frequent rotation is beneficial
pie-shaped paddocks. Keep and forages. Whenever possible, you because it can increase the percentage of
should seed specific forages in unique the available forage actually consumed
pastures as near to square as
areas, such as frequently flooded or (grazing efficiency).
possible to help reduce fencing
costs and use land better. extremely droughty areas, then manage The table below provides suggested
Long, thin paddocks tend to these areas as separate paddocks. ranges for optimal grazing periods.
These recommendations are based on
encourage livestock to graze Keep Paddocks average forage production.
nearest to water, minerals, or
as Square as Possible
shade, and animals tend to Other Considerations
avoid grazing in the far end. Water sources, topography, soil types,
and natural barriers can sometimes Other paddock layout considerations
A square paddock that’s 210 are tied to specific needs. For example,
restrict a paddock’s shape. Whenever
feet on each side requires 840 lanes are important when you need to
possible, however, the first choice
linear feet of fence (44,100 move animals regularly to a milking or
should be to make your paddocks as
square feet). A paddock that square as possible; the second choice working area. When setting up lanes,
has the same square footage would be to make rectangular paddocks be sure to adjust locations to avoid
but that’s twice as long on one with a maximum side to end ratio of climbing hills to help minimize erosion
side (420 feet) requires 1,050 3:1; and the choice of last resort would problems.
linear feet of fence. be a pie-shaped paddock. The paddock Putting all these factors together
shape may also need to be varied based will enable you to set up a system of
210 feet on the type of livestock. For example, paddocks that not only provides your
horses, llamas, alpacas, and emus prefer forage plants with the environment
210 feet
longer, more rectangular paddocks. they need for maximum growth and
persistence, it also helps maximize the
Move Animals Twice or
productive potential of the livestock by
More per Week offering forage that is higher in quantity
The last decision you’ll need to make and quality.
105 feet
The table below provides suggested ranges for optimal grazing periods.
420 feet These recommendations are based on average forage production.
Time Spent in a Paddock Before
Livestock Operation Moving to Next Paddock
Cow/Calf 3-7 days
Stocker 1-3 days
Dairy 1/2-1 day
Ewe/Lamb 2-5 days
Feeder Lamb 1-3 days
Horse 5-7 days
14Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Providing Water u Chapter 4
to Your Livestock
Water is the most important ingredi- easy to find the best location. But in real
ent in any living creature’s diet. We can life, more goes into that decision.
survive for weeks without food, but only
For example, it makes economic sense
days without water. Plentiful water in
to locate water so it can service mul-
the paddock is essential for good animal
tiple paddocks (whenever possible). In
performance and grazing efficiency.
general, you should always try to locate
When establishing your paddocks and
water so that it will be visible to animals
determining your water needs, there
from any location within the paddock.
are four major considerations: distance
That way, you’ll be able to use a smaller
animals have to travel to water, loca-
tank since animals will tend to come to
tion of water, size of water tank, and the
drink individually if they have shorter
amount of water to be delivered to the
distances to walk rather than make
paddock.
drinking a social event if they have to
Keep Water Close walk farther. Tank size depends on the amount
of water you have available. A tank
Studies show that providing easy Keep the Water Fresh should refill faster than your animals
access to water improves animal per-
Tank size is primarily about the can drink it.
formance. For example, providing
quality and quantity of water you can
adequate, high-quality, accessible water
provide. Of course, you want to have a
for mother and calf has been shown to
sufficient quantity of water so that your
increase the weaning weight of calves by
water tank refills faster than animals can
more than 50 pounds. Logic tells us that
drink it. But you should also size your
restricting the availability of the cheap-
tank so that the water turns over every
Rule of Thumb
est component of the grazing system To calculate optimum water
one or two hours to ensure it is cool and
just does not make economic sense. tank size, use this formula:
fresh. The longer water sits in a tank, the
Distance from water is an important warmer and more stale it becomes. This number of animals
factor. The table below shows the far- makes it less desirable to the animals
thest distances grazing animals should and, ultimately, they have to drink it to x
have to travel within a given paddock benefit from it. gallons per animal per day
to get water. Making sure that animals ÷
Assuming your water tank has proper
have access to water within these dis- 24 hours
visibility within the paddock and that
tances maximizes animal performance
you have a full-flow tank valve to =
and ensures even grazing in the pad-
provide rapid refill, an easy formula for
dock. When water is farther than these optimum tank size
calculating the optimum tank size is:
distances, animals tend to focus more of (in gallons)
their energies acquiring water and less number of animals x gallons per
on their main purpose of harvesting for- animal per day ÷ 24 hours = optimum
age and producing meat or milk. When tank size (in gallons).
establishing your paddocks, keep these There are other considerations when
distances to water in mind. it comes to tank size, including the
Make Water Visible
Water Should Be No
The next major consideration when Grazing Animal
Farther Than
putting adequate water in the paddock Lactating Dairy and Goats 400-500 feet
is finding a suitable location. If all pad- All Other Ruminants 800 feet
docks were flat and square, it would be
15Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
Livestock Watering Systems, Energy Source, Costs, and Capability
Estimated Cost
(2007 Dollars)
Energy
System Water Supply Capability Watering Additional Information
Source Initial Pump
System and
System
Pump
Existing well Electric or Ground Depends on Already in $700+ Very reliable. Low cost.
fuel water, etc. well and pump Place Suitable for intensive
size grazing.
Gravity fed Gravity Spring, Depends on N/A $700+ Low cost. Airlock
(change in drainage tile, water source problems are possible.
elevation) cistern, pond Requires elevation
survey. Overflow
management at water
source and/or tank may
be required. Can restrict
tank location and
placement.
Nose pump Livestock Shallow water 20-30 head, 23- $350 $400 Foot valve must be kept
(mechanical) sources foot lift or 126- clean. Suitable for small
foot distance herds. Low cost and
maintenance. Must keep
livestock within 600 feet
of nose pump or you
may limit water intake.
Only one animal at a
time can drink.
Hydraulic ram pump Falling water Stream, 10-30 foot lift $300- $1,000 $1,000+ Requires waterfall
spring per 1-foot fall or a good slope.
depending on Detailed installation
model. requirements.
Continuous pumping
system. Overflow
management at pump
and tank.
Sling pump Flowing River, lake 800-4,000 $1,000- $1,700+ Requires sufficient water
water (or gallons/day, $1,700 speed. Continuous
wind) 26-82 foot lift pumping system.
(water powered Overflow management
models) at tank.
Solar-powered pump Sun Any Depends on $1,500 + $2,200+ Requires technical skills
design for installation and
maintenance. Requires
energy storage (battery
or reservoir).
Wind-powered pump, air- Wind Pond, shallow 20-foot lift or $1,100+ $1,800+ Requires some skills
activated well, etc. over a 980 foot for installation.
distance Requires water storage.
Continuous pumping
system. Overflow
management at tank or
reservoir.
Mobile (on wheels) water tank Electric or Any Depends on $0+ $1,100+ Labor intensive. Suitable
fuel tank capacity or about for intensive grazing.
$0.01/gal Requires good water
source for timely fill up,
and a tractor or truck for
delivery.
Gas- or battery-powered pump Fuel or Any Depends on $200- $900 $900+ Labor intensive.
batteries model Requires water storage.
Requires good water
source for fill up. Not
always practical.
16Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
amount of watering space and size of 200-pound ewes are 1 AU and should
the water line. Watering space at the receive 30 gallons of water per day. A Coarse Ag Lime (2"-4")
tank is especially important if your 1,500-pound cow is 1.5 animal units and No. 2 or 53
animals have to walk more than 1,200 should receive 45 gallons of water per crushed stone (6")
feet to get to it. The greater the distance day.
animals must travel, the greater the There are many paddocks that can
Geotextile fabric over
likelihood that the whole herd will come soil surface
pose challenges for a variety of factors,
as a group. That means you will need to such as the distance from the water
provide more drinking space to ensure Heavy Use Area Protection (HUAP)
source. Even when a situation is less constructions like this can help
that all animals get a drink before they than ideal, an economical and practical
head back to pasture. reduce erosion and other problems
solution can generally be found. Con- around permanent water sites.
The water supply line’s size plays an tracting an experienced planner can
important role in determining how provide long-term satisfaction with the
quickly the tank can refill. The smaller outcome and increase profitability.
the line, the longer it takes for a tank to
refill. In other words, the smaller your Provide Erosion Protection Find out more
water line, the larger the tank you will for Watering Sites
For details about
probably need. To help avoid the problems associated designing a geotextile/
with bare soils around permanent wa- gravel pad, see Purdue
Provide 30 Gallons
tering sites, producers should consider
per Animal Unit Extension publication
using geotextile fabric with rock or con-
The exact amount of water each ani- crete. Geotextile fabrics are porous, so AED-45, Using All-
mal needs is determined by its physical water and moisture pass through them Weather Geotextile Lanes
characteristics (type, size, lactation/ while the rock is held in place. Recom- and Pads.
gestation stage, and metabolism rate) as mendations are for 6 inches of coarse, To order, visit the Purdue
well as environmental conditions (tem- crushed limestone (typically Number 2 Extension Education
perature, humidity, wind, and forage or Number 53 stone) topped with 2 to Store at www.ces.purdue.
moisture). The standard rule in Indiana 3 inches of a finer material like ag lime.
edu/new
is to provide 30 gallons of water per The area protected by geotextile fabric
day per animal unit (AU). One AU is and gravel or concrete should extend a
1,000 pounds of live animal weight. For minimum of 8 feet from water troughs,
example, two 500-pound heifers or five tanks, and other equipment.
Planning Your Fencing The rest of this chapter looks at u Chapter 5
common external and internal fencing
Fences are a very important part of options, as well as special considerations
any grazing system. In most grazing sys- for electric fencing.
tems, you’ll need to consider both exter-
nal (or perimeter) fencing and internal External Fences
(or divisional) fencing. External fences Make Good Neighbors
keep your livestock from wandering off
The old saying, “Good fences make
your property — and help keep other
good neighbors” holds true in grazing,
animals out. Internal fences keep live-
since it is wise to keep your livestock
stock confined to a specific area, such as
where they are supposed to be.
a paddock within a larger pasture. These
fences are key to good pasture manage- That’s where external (or perimeter)
ment because they allow you to control fences come in. Since external fences External fences must be sound
where your livestock graze, giving time must keep your livestock within the enough to effectively keep your
for forage in other paddocks to rest and boundaries of your property, they need livestock on your property.
regrow. to be sound enough to effectively retain
17Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
your livestock. The Indiana state fence Woven Wire
law describes such a fence as “a straight Woven wire easily controls most
board and wire fence, a straight wire types of livestock with little effort, and
fence, a straight board fence, or a picket high-tensile versions are also available.
fence four (4) feet high . . . sufficiently Woven wire is usually more expensive
tight and strong enough to hold cattle, than high-tensile wire and is much more
hogs, mules, and sheep.”
Find out more Having sound perimeter fences that
difficult to repair if damaged. Woven
wire fences can be topped with barbed
For more information will hold back your livestock won’t just wire or one or two strands of electrified
about fence laws, see help you sleep better at night, they are high-tensile wire.
Purdue Extension the law. Although many different kinds Wood posts are usually the best op-
Publication EC-657, of fences are allowed, Indiana law makes tion for woven wire fences, although
Indiana Farm Fence it clear that external fences must be tight steel “T” posts can be used for part of
Laws, www.ces.purdue. and strong enough to hold livestock. the line posts.
edu/extmedia/EC/ So while you have certainly seen
Barbed Wire
EC-657.pdf one-wire external fences with 3/8-inch
steel rod posts, such fences are not re- Barbed wire is an old fencing standby.
ally physical barriers, but psychological But if you have ever had to tear down an
barriers. For both practical and legal old barbed wire fence and try and roll
reasons, such perimeter fences are inef- it up to dispose of or move it, then you
fective. know why many producers don’t like it.
Like high-tensile wire, barbed wire fenc-
When it comes to selecting fencing es are made of four to six wires attached
materials and construction, you need to posts. They can also be mixed with
to consider the livestock you want to other types of fencing. Do not electrify
control. barbed wire because it can be a hazard
High-Tensile Wire for children and young livestock. Barbed
High-tensile wire is probably the wire fencing is usually inexpensive and
Rule of Thumb most versatile perimeter fence material. versatile. It is best when it is mixed with
Line posts for interior Typically, high-tensile wire is extremely other types of fencing. For example, a
fences may be placed up to flexible (making it useful for turns and strand of barbed wire near the ground
on land with major elevation changes) can help reduce predatory animals from
50 feet apart on flat terrain.
and easy to repair (usually only requir- digging underneath it.
ing the replacement of a few staples and Barbed wire is very versatile and can
retightening). Fences made with such be used with several different types of
materials are made from any number posts, wood and steel “T” posts being
of wires stretched horizontally and at- most common.
tached to posts. The wires are spaced
according to the livestock you wish to Internal Fences
control. A minimum of two to three Aid Paddock Management
wires should be electrified to help con- Good internal (or divisional) fences
trol the livestock. can be a great help for managing
Wood or heavy fiberglass posts are paddocks. The goal of an internal fence
the best option with high-tensile wire. is to keep livestock in the paddock
If the fence is electrified, steel posts can where you want them to graze and
drain voltage, shorts are more likely, and out of the other paddocks you want to
they may not stay in place in areas with rest. Internal fences can be simple or
abrupt elevation changes (especially as rugged as your best external fence.
dips).
18Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
Your decision should be based on the Temporary fencing allows you to
livestock you have and how much make frequent changes in forage al-
control you want. You also want to location based on animal needs, which
decide whether internal fences need to is particularly important with growing
be permanent or temporary. animals and dairy operations. Because
you can quickly take down temporary
Permanent Internal Fences
fencing, it also can make haying or clip-
Permanent internal fences are typi- ping easier because you can work on a
cally made from the same materials as single large area instead of several small
external fences, but don’t necessarily paddocks. Rule of Thumb
need to be as rugged. For example, a
The type of temporary fencing you For one-wire fences, place
single strand of high-tensile wire at a
height of 30 inches will probably be all use also varies according to the livestock the wire so it is 2/3 the
you need for most cows and will keep you want to control. For example, for shoulder height of the
the majority of the calves in place. Plac- most cattle and horses, a single strand of grazing animal.
ing a second wire at about 18 inches will poly-wire or poly-tape works quite well.
do a good job of controlling calves. You This type of fence can be installed and
can use wood or fiberglass posts as far as moved quickly with a reel for the wire
50 feet apart on reasonably flat ground. and quality step-in posts.
To control smaller ruminants, you can For dairy operations in particular,
use more wires and posts. In general, temporary fencing is an extremely
however, reduced wire fences should be important asset for providing breaks for
electrified to be effective. the milking herd. Breaks are important
As with external fences, woven wire to ensure efficient pasture use and aid
offers more small ruminant control. A in grazing the paddock evenly while
shorter high-tensile woven wire fence reducing waste and labor.
(28, 32, or 36 inches tall) with one or Electrified netting is a great tool for
two strands of electrified wire on top controlling small ruminants and for
is an excellent internal fence option for training calves to poly-wire. Most elec-
smaller animals. trified netting comes in sections of 75 to
Regardless of the material you use, 160 feet. These fences take a little more
all permanent internal fences must be labor to move, but are very effective at
placed so they can be used long-term. In deterring livestock and predators.
some circumstances, these permanent Only use a low impedance-type
internal fences can double as laneway energizer with poly-wire and tape; solid-
fences that help direct and move live- state energizers will melt the plastic.
stock across large areas, providing ac-
cess to multiple paddocks along the way. Electric Fences
These are especially handy for moving Require Extra Attention
and managing individual animals. Electric fencing, of course, involves
Temporary Internal Fences additional equipment and installation
considerations. One of those consider-
As the name suggests, use temporary ations is what kind of energizer to use.
fencing where you only want a fence To understand your energizer needs, it’s
for a very short period and need a lot of important to know a few basic electrical
flexibility. Temporary fencing is great for
terms: wattage, voltage, and amperage.
subdividing larger permanent paddocks
into smaller units and for strip grazing. Watts are the basic unit of measure-
ment of electric power. The higher the
19Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
number of watts, the greater the amount Set Up Your Energizer Correctly
of energy you use. Wattage is to electri- When it comes to energizers, the most
cally powered devices as horsepower important thing is to set it up properly.
is to engines. A joule also is a unit of That includes using the correct wire,
measurement for electricity that is equal grounding everything, and installing
to the amount of energy required to protective devices.
produce one watt for one second.
Never use household wiring on your
A rule of thumb with electric fenc- electric fence — it is usually rated for
ing: use one joule per mile of electrified only 600 volts and you will have 4,000 or
fence wire. So if you have five miles of more running through your fence. Al-
electric wire, use a five-joule energizer.
Rule of Thumb ways use double insulated high-tensile
A volt is a unit that measures the po- wire made especially for the purpose.
For energizers, figure on tential energy or pressure. In a way, volt- Running an electrical wire through
needing one joule per mile age is similar to measuring the amount a schedule 40 PVC pipe or conduit
of electrified fence wire. So, of pressure in a water line — the higher provides extra protection where heavy
five miles of electric wire will the pressure, the faster water can pass traffic is expected.
need a 5-joule energizer. through. In an electric fence, this is For an electric fence system to work
the amount of energy that is flowing properly, it must be grounded. Make
through the wire at any given moment. sure to ground the energizer correctly
Voltage is important to get the electric according to the manufacturer’s instruc-
shock through the animal’s hair. The tions. If the manufacturer says you
thicker the hair or wool, the higher the need to use three rods, then use three
voltage you’ll need. rods. The grounding system should be
An amp measures the amount of en- directed out toward the center of the
ergy you pull from the line. Amperage, energized system. Keep everything in
not voltage, causes the greatest amount the grounding system of the same mate-
of discomfort. Energy will keep flow- rial (that is, use all copper, or all brass,
ing through a closed circuit, so circuit or all steel). Rods should be about 1/2 to
breakers and fuses are used to prevent 3/4 inch in diameter and 6 to 8 feet long.
excessive energy flow and to keep the Connecting wire should be 9-gauge.
Rule of Thumb fence from heating up and melting or Burying rods, clamps, and wires
causing other damage. underground will help ensure good soil
For electric fencing, 4,000
to 6,000 volts is generally When determining which energizer to contact, but more important, it will help
adequate for cattle and install, remember that there is no really keep the system from being damaged
horses. Sheep and goats will good way to compare one brand of en- by livestock and equipment. Remember,
probably require 6,000 to ergizer to another. Low impedance en- the grounding system should be head-
ergizers deliver large amounts of energy ing out toward the center of the pasture
8,000 volts, especially when
with very little resistance and are prob- system, not installed inside a building.
training them to the fences.
ably the best buys. These low impedance The grounding system needs moisture
energizers are high amperage and high to work correctly. The grounding sys-
voltage, and deliver an extremely short, tem is probably better described as an
0.0003-second shock. The “shock” is a “earth return” and acts as the energizer’s
lot more powerful with the high amper- antenna. Spend the money on a good
age than older energizers, and the short
duration shocks animals and people but
releases them more quickly.
20Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension
energizer and grounding system because switches near the energizer and at new
without it, the rest of the fence will have fence breaks are handy because they’ll
a hard time doing its job. allow you to switch off sections of fence
Be sure to protect your energizer as needed for repairs, to locate shorts, or
investment by installing a lightning to reduce unused electrical load. Cut-off switches are handy because
arrestor and surge protector. Cut-off they allow you to turn off sections
of the fence for repairs and to
locate shorts.
Maintaining Fertile Soils mendations either under apply or over
u Chapter 6
apply nutrients. The effort you take to
Like any crop, forages require suf- sample soils properly, interpret the test
ficient soil nutrients to grow and thrive. results carefully, and apply the recom-
To make sure your pasture is healthy mended nutrients intelligently, will pay
and productive you need to know the big dividends.
nutrients in your soil and whether they
are sufficient for growing the desired When you send your soil to a lab, be
forages. Soil nutrient deficiencies are a sure to request, at a minimum, that the
leading cause of seedling failures and results show:
poor yields, so it is in your interest to • Soil pH (a measure of soil acidity).
test your soil. This chapter examines the
• Buffer pH.
importance of soil testing, shows you
Soil nutrient deficiencies are a leading
how to accurately sample soils, and pro- • Phosphorus (P) and potassium
cause of seedling failures and poor
vides recommendations for lime, nitro- (K) levels.
yields, so it is in your best interest
gen (N) phosphorus (P), and potassium • Organic matter. to test your soil regularly and apply
(K) for grass or grass-legume pastures amendments accordingly.
based on soil test results. • Cation exchange capacity (CEC).
You may also want to consider
Get Your Soil Tested requesting the soil’s magnesium (Mg)
Soil tests will determine precisely how levels because low Mg levels may induce
much lime and fertilizer your soil needs.
Such precision affects your bottom line.
grass tetany.
Find a Soil
Guess and apply too little, and yields Collect Good Samples Testing Lab
will suffer; guess and apply too much, An accurate soil test begins with good Purdue Agronomy
and you not only have an unnecessary samples. To take soil samples for test-
Extension maintains an
expense, you can also cause unintended ing, you will need a sampling tube, an
plant growth, animal health, or envi- auger or spade, and a clean plastic pail. online list of certified soil
ronmental problems. Soil test at least six Obtain soil sample containers and field laboratories in Indiana at
months before seeding pastures. For es- and cropping information sheets from a www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/
tablished pastures, test soils every three commercial soil testing service. You will soiltest.html
to four years to determine the need for use the field and cropping information
additional lime and fertilizer. sheets to show the areas where you took
Find a good, reputable soil testing the samples, and to indicate the field’s
laboratory and follow their recommen- past cropping and fertility practices. In
dations. You should never tolerate over- general, you should take soil samples the
simplified fertilizer recommendations same time each year. Sampling from late
like, “Apply 300 pounds of a blended spring to late summer usually provides
12-12-12 fertilizer” because such recom- a more accurate K soil-value assessment.
21Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328
For the best sampling results: In the table on page 23, the liming
1. Divide the pasture into areas (10 rates for maintaining established
acres maximum) that are uniform in pastures are about half of what’s
soil color and texture, and that have recommended for pasture establishment,
similar land use and management because established pastures aren’t tilled
histories. Producers who have pas- before limestone is applied.
tures subdivided into paddocks may Most limestone recommendations
consider sampling soil from each are based on a 9-inch plowing depth. If
paddock (provided the soil types, you have mineral soils and the soil pH
Rule of Thumb and use and management histories is more than 6.0 on established grass
Animals excrete at within the paddock are similar). pastures or more than 6.6 on grass-
least 85 percent of the 2. Sample each area separately by draw- legume pastures, you do not need to
ing 15 random soil cores. In estab- apply limestone. The SMP buffer pH (or
phosphorus (P) and 50
lished pastures, draw the cores from “lime index,” as it is commonly called in
percent of the potassium
2 to 3 inches deep. For new pastures soil test reports), measures how readily
(K) they consume. The
to be seeded, draw cores to the depth a soil’s pH will change after a limestone
goal of effective grazing application. Highly buffered soils (that
management is to distribute of tillage (6-8 inches).
is, soils with a high cation exchange
these nutrients from 3. Do not sample within 200 feet of a capacity, or CEC) have lower lime index
manure evenly throughout gravel road, along field borders or values and require more limestone than
the pasture. other distinctly different areas, such soils with a low CEC.
as sandy ridges, eroded spots, or
areas where hay or silage have been If the soil test results recommend a
fed. You can, however, sample these limestone application and indicate that
areas separately if you want soil test soil Mg is less than 150 pounds per acre,
information about them. consider applying dolomitic limestone
because it contains up to 22.6 percent
4. If the soil cores are wet, let them dry magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). Apply-
on clean paper. Once dry, place the ing dolomitic limestone may help you
15 random cores from each area in a resolve two issues at once: low soil pH
plastic pail and mix them thoroughly. and Mg levels.
Put each sample in a separate mail-
ing container with the appropriate Fertilizing
information, and send them accord- Rate of Application
ing to the soil testing laboratory’s
The nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
instructions.
and potassium (K) fertilizer rates shown
Liming to Adjust Soil pH in the tables on page 24 depend on
Proper soil pH is a basic requirement yield goals. P and K rates are lower for
for optimum plant growth. If soil test established pastures than they are for
results indicate that your soil is acidic establishing or reestablishing pastures,
(low pH), adding limestone will be because on established pastures grazing
recommended. Preferably, limestone animals leave urine and feces that are
should be applied six to 12 months be- high in these nutrients. Some estimates
fore seeding to ensure sufficient time to indicate that as much as 85 percent of
lower soil acidity (i.e., raise the pH). If the P and 50 percent of the K in con-
the soil test recommends 5 or more tons sumed forage is recycled in the manure.
of limestone per acre, apply half of the One of the inherent advantages rotation-
limestone before the primary tillage and al stocking has over continuous stocking
the other half before a secondary tillage. is that feces and urine are more evenly
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