Time Devoted to Internet Activities by Spanish Adolescents: Differences According to the Practice of Sport and Affection Received
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doi:10.5477/cis/reis.177.3
Time Devoted to Internet Activities by Spanish
Adolescents: Differences According
to the Practice of Sport and Affection Received
Tiempo destinado a Internet por los adolescentes españoles:
diferencias según la práctica de deporte y el afecto recibido
Luis V. Casaló, José-Julián Escario and J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal
Key words Abstract
Adolescents Adolescents are currently the age group that devotes the most time
• Affection to using the Internet and are the most vulnerable to its harmful use.
• Sport Practice Fostering strategies aimed at reducing anxiety and depression, and
• Internet use increasing self-steem may help reduce overuse of new technologies.
Using the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use Among High School
Students in Spain, we analyze, estimating a linear Seemingly Unrelated
Regression system, the time devoted by Spanish teenagers to the
following online activities: email and messaging, social networking,
games, gambling and pornographic and violent websites. The results
suggest that fostering the practice of sports and advising parents about
the benefits of caring relationships with their children can be useful
strategies to reduce the time devoted to new digital technologies.
Palabras clave Resumen
Adolescentes Los adolescentes son los que más usan Internet y el grupo más
• Afecto vulnerable frente al uso desadaptativo de Internent. La promoción de
• Práctica de deporte estrategias dirigidas a reducir la ansiedad y la depresión, así como a
• Uso de Internet incrementar la autoestima pueden ayudar a reducir el excesivo uso de
las nuevas tecnologías. Partiendo de la Encuesta sobre Uso de Drogas
en Enseñanzas Secundarias en España (2016) analizamos, estimando
un sistema de ecuaciones aparentemente no relacionadas, el tiempo
dedicado por los adolescentes españoles a actividades online: correo
y mensajes, redes sociales, juegos, apuestas y páginas con violencia/
sexo. Los resultados sugieren que fomentar la práctica de deportes y
concienciar a los padres sobre los beneficios de mantener relaciones de
afecto con los hijos pueden ser estrategias útiles para reducir el tiempo
dedicado a las nuevas tecnologías.
Citation
Casaló, Luis V.; Escario, José-Julián and Giménez-Nadal, J. Ignacio (2022). “Time Devoted to Inter-
net Activities by Spanish Adolescents: Differences According to the Practice of Sport and Affection
Received”. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 177: 3-20. (doi: 10.5477/cis/reis.177.3)
Luis V. Casaló: Universidad de Zaragoza | lcasalo@unizar.es
José-Julián Escario: Universidad de Zaragoza | jescario@unizar.es
J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal: Universidad de Zaragoza | ngimenez@unizar.es
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-204 Time devoted to Internet activities by Spanish adolescents: differences according to the practice of sport and affection...
Introduction authors have pointed out that greater ICT
use in general, and especially at night, is as-
The expansion of the Internet since the mid- sociated with poorer quality of sleep (Woods
1990s has had a revolutionary impact on cul- and Scott, 2016); poor sleep may, in turn,
ture, commerce and technology, leading to cause mood alterations and contribute to
substantial changes in our daily lives (Ling, anxiety, sadness and irritability.
2004). Information and Communication Tech- Fostering strategies to reduce anxiety,
nologies (ICT) are affecting the behaviour of depression, and low self-steem will reduce
all populations, allowing them to connect with ICT overuse (Malak, Khalifeh and Shuhaiber,
distant others in real-time, establish online 2017; Oaten and Cheng, 2006; Wu et al.,
relationships, shop online and check emails 2016), and one strategy could be the prac-
from work in their spare time. Analysis of the tice of sports and physical exercise. Previ-
time devoted to ICTs is thus important to un- ous research has shown that physical exer-
derstand the impact of these activities, es- cise could compensate for the decrease of
pecially for teens, for whom the Internet is dopamine level associated with decreased
an integral part of their lifestyles (Castillo and online usage (Greenfield, 2000). In addition,
Ruiz-Olivares, 2019; Ige, 2004; Lichy, 2011; sports exercise prescriptions used in the
Wang and Gimenez-Nadal, 2018). course of cognitive behavioral group therapy
Despite the benefits and unquestiona- may enhance the effect of the intervention
ble utility of the Internet, its use is not as be- for Internet Addiction Dissorder (Cash et al.,
nign as most people may believe (Greenfield, 2012). Furthermore, Zheng et al. (2020) ana-
1999), and its assocated risks are also in- lyze Problematic Internet Use (PIU) in adoles-
creasing (McNicol and Thorsteinsson, 2017). cents, and show that adolescents’ physical
The misuse or overuse of the Internet can activity affected PIU through adolescents’
yield Internet addiction, which is considered depression. In this sense, much research
a problematic behaviour similar to patho- has highlighted the benefits of sporting prac-
logical gambling (Lee et al., 2012). In fact, tice and physical activity on depression, anx-
over the past two decades, the literature has iety and mental health (Bahrke and Morgan,
abundantly documented that uncontrolled 1978; Gleser and Mendelberg, 1990; Da-
Internet use can lead to severe functional im- ley, 2002; Harris, Cronkite and Moos, 2006;
pairment (Dalal and Basu, 2016; Sinkkonen, Babiss and Gangwisch, 2009; Dinas, Kou-
Puhakka and Meriläinen, 2014). tedakis and Flouris, 2011; Rosenbaum, Tie-
Adolescents are major Internet users and demann and Ward, 2014; Eather, Morgan
the most vulnerable group for Internet addic- and Lubans, 2016; Kandola et al., 2019).
tion (Koyuncu, Unsal and Arslantas, 2014; Another strategy to reduce anxiety, de-
Malak, Khalifeh and Shuhaiber, 2017; Özgür, pression, and low self-steem could be pro-
2016). Previous studies focused on this age viding adolescents with caring relationships.
group have shown that Internet overuse is Acccording to Madsen (2008), the level of
associated with an increased risk of suffer- care and affection received by adolescents
ing a range of social and emotional prob- represents a major support (Madsen, 2008),
lems, including anxiety, depression, low self- which may reduce anxiety or depression
steem, poor or few personal relationships (Fletcher, Steinberg and Williams-Wheeler,
and shyness (Malak, Khalifeh and Shuhaiber, 2004) and foster positive outcomes and be-
2017; Özgür, 2016; Park et al., 2016). Scien- haviors (Spera, 2005). This affection may
tific evidence about the causal relationship be received from both parents and friends
between ICT overuse and these problems is (Casaló and Escario, 2019), although par-
not perfect and can be bidirectional. Some ents are considered more influential (Soh
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-20Luis V. Casaló, José-Julián Escario and J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal 5
et al., 2018). In the context of Internet use, based on data from 2014. While Casaló and
Casaló and Escario (2019) find that care Escario (2019) constructed a measure of In-
received from parents is associated with ternet addiction by adding the scores from
lower levels of excessive use (a measure of 14 questions (items), considering there to be
Internet addiction in general) among adoles- Internet addiction if scores exceeded a cer-
cents from 14 to 18 years of age. tain value, we, in contrast, use six measures
Within this framework, we analyze the of the hours a day spent on various internet
time Spanish teenagers devote to a number related activities, and we focus on predictors
of ICT-related activities: email and messag- for the time spent on these activities. More-
ing, social networking, video games, gam- over, Escario and Wilkinson (2020) focus on
bling and visiting pornographic and violent only one of the six activities we consider, and
websites. While some studies have meas- their measure for frequency of use refers to
ured the frequency of participation in these days per week/month, which clearly repre-
activities as a single construct (e.g., online sents a comparatively poorer measure of fre-
risky activities, Soh et al., 2018), our ap- quency of use in comparison to information
proach represents one of the first studies based on hours per day.
to date that considers joint time-allocation
decisions. Using representative survey data Background and hypothesis
from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use
Among High School Students in Spain, we Anxiety and depression are associated with
focus on the role of the practice of sports, higher Internet addiction among teenagers all
the level of care provided by parents and over the world. For example, Malak, Khalifeh
friends, and several socioeconomic charac- and Shuhaiber (2017) demonstrate these im-
teristics (gender, age, and education level pacts on teenagers aged 12 to 18 from Jor-
of parents), as protective or risk factors. dan; Yen et al (2014) find similar results for
Our contribution to the literature is two- teenagers 12 to 18 years of age in Taiwan,
fold. First, we examine the benefits of sports and Ha et al (2007) report a significant asso-
on Internet addictions (Cash et al., 2012; ciation between depressive symptoms and
Zheng et al., 2020.). To that end, we analyse Internet addiction on adolescents in Korea.
several specific behaviors at the same time More specifically, anxiety, depression and
rather than focusing on Internet addiction in low self-esteem have frequently been asso-
general (Casaló and Escario, 2019; Lam et al., ciated with specific activities on the Internet,
2009; Malak, Khalifeh and Shuhaiber, 2017; such as online social interaction (e.g., Caplan,
McNicol and Thorsteinsson, 2017) or on just 2006), online gambling (e.g., online poker, Bar-
one specific activity, such as Internet gaming rault, Bonnaire and Herrmann, 2017), online
(Liu and Chang, 2016; Wartberg, Kriston and video games (e.g., Lo, Wang and Fang, 2005)
Kammerl, 2017) or Facebook addiction (Tang and online harassment (e.g., non-consensual
et al., 2016). We focus on the relationship sharing of sexually explicit images or videos,
between the consumption of technological Walker and Sleath, 2017), which are similar to
products on the Internet and the practice of the activities considered in this research.
sports. Secondly, we focus on Spain, an un- In this respect, previous literature has
der researched cultural context. Despite other shown that physical exercise may result in a re-
authors having previously analyzed ICT use of duction in anxiety (e.g., see the meta-analysis
teenagers in Spain (Casaló and Escario, 2019, by Petruzzello et al., 1991) and that the prac-
Escario and Wilkinson, 2020), our analysis is tice of sport improves levels of self-control
based on a more up-to-date dataset, as we (Oaten and Cheng, 2006). These authors, us-
use data from 2016, versus previous studies ing participants ranging from 18 to 50 years
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-206 Time devoted to Internet activities by Spanish adolescents: differences according to the practice of sport and affection...
of age, find that exercise programmes foster strengthen their bonds (Rodríguez-Sánchez,
more healthy (e.g., avoidance of junk food) Sancho-Esper and Casaló, 2018). In any
and more responsible behaviours (e.g., miss- case, it has been argued that parents may
ing fewer appointments, reducing impulse be more influential than friends (Soh et al.,
spending). Similarly, a study of 16,483 un- 2018). Following these studies, the following
dergraduate students by Steptoe et al. (1987) hypotheses are proposed:
found that exercise is positively associated
H1: Sporting practice is negatively associa-
with lower levels of depression. More recently,
ted with ICT activities.
and focused on the online context, Zheng
et al. (2020) find in a study conducted among H2: Care received from parents is negatively
288 adolescents that higher levels of physical associated with ICT activities.
activity help reduce depression and, subse- H3: Care received from a best friend is posi-
quently, problematic Internet use. Therefore, tively associated with ICT activities.
it is unsurprising that sport or physical exer-
cise has been suggested as the best possi- Socio-demographic variables are typi-
ble treatment for Internet Addiction Disorder cally included in analyses of Internet use. In
in adolescents (Masih and Rajkumar, 2019). terms of gender, mixed results have been
In addition, we must also note that, as leisure found regarding its association with exces-
time is limited, devoting more time to sport/ sive Internet use and Internet addiction. This
physical activity reduces the available time for mixed evidence could be due to the fact that
ICT activities. different Internet activities have different aeti-
ologies and consequences (Snodgrass et al.,
Similarly, social support or care provided
2014), which may indicate that there are dif-
by parents and friends can reduce anxi-
ferences in the type of Internet activities male
ety and depression (Fletcher, Steinberg and
and female teens are attracted to (Malak,
Williams-Wheeler, 2004) and, consequently,
Khalifeh and Shuhaiber, 2017; Wu et al.,
the time devoted to ICT activities (Wu et al.,
2016). This suggests the need to analyse
2016). These authors argue that lacking sup-
gender roles in different Internet activities. In
port from parents and friends could drive
this respect, gender differences in person-
adolescents to seek social support on the
ality traits are persistent throughout adoles-
Internet. However, some authors find that,
cence (Wilgenbusch and Merrell, 1999). In
regarding Internet use, parent and peer at-
general, girls are more agreeable and con-
tachments play different roles; while parents
cerned about seeking companionship (e.g.,
try to reduce Internet use, friends usually
Schmitt et al, 2008; Malak, Khalifeh and
foster Internet use (Snodgrass et al., 2014).
Shuhaiber, 2017), which may increase their
On the one hand, it has been recognised
communication via email, messaging or so-
that children that have caring parents show
cial networking. In addition, they are less
lower Internet addiction rates and lower lev-
risk-taking than boys (e.g., Byrnes, Miller
els of deviant behaviours (Bench, 2019). As
and Schafer, 1999), which may reduce their
mentioned, this affective behaviour reduces
participation in activities such as gambling,
some of the risk factors (anxiety, depres-
video games or visiting pornographic and
sion, low self-steem, etc.) of Internet use.
violent websites. Based on these assump-
On the other hand, friends, as a reference
tions, the following hypothesis is postulated:
group, may motivate teenagers to behave in
certain ways (Belanche, Casaló and Flavián, H4: Boys devote more time than girls to vi-
2012); thus, adolescents may imitate their deo games, gambling, and pornography
peers and decide to participate in online ac- and violent websites, and less to email,
tivities because their friends do so in order to messaging and social networking sites.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-20Luis V. Casaló, José-Julián Escario and J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal 7
Method crecy and data protection. The information
collection period was from November 18,
Participants and survey description 2016 to March 8, 2017.
We use the 2016 National Survey on Drug
Dependent variables
Use Among High School Students in Spain.
This survey constitutes a nationally repre- We use the following variables regarding
sentative sample of Spanish teenagers 14 time use activities related to ICT: using
to 18 years of age. A total of 35,369 teenag- email and messaging, social networking,
ers were surveyed, and the survey includes playing virtual reality games, playing single-
information about how often, and to what player games, gambling, and visiting porno-
extent, teenagers spend time on ICT-re- graphic and violent websites. The question-
lated activities. naire clearly indicates that, when answering
The universe of the sample is made up these questions, the student should not
of students from 14 to 18 years old who are take into account the time he/she spends
in secondary education in Spain. In order to on the Internet to do homework or work,
obtain a nationally representative sample, and that he/she should just indicate the time
stratification was first performed by region spent on the Internet for fun. Each variable
to guarantee a minimum number of schools is coded from 0 to 4 (0 = No time devoted;
per region. Then, schools and subsequently 1 = half an hour or less per day; 2 = around
classes, were randomly selected. The sam- an hour per day; 3 = between 2 and 3 hours
pling error was 0.5% at the 95.5% confi- per day; 4 = 4 or more hours per day). The
dence level. All responses are anonymous frequencies corresponding to each depend-
and are protected by laws on statistical se- ent variable are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary Statistics
E-mail and Social Virtual Single- Gambling Pornography
Use hour per day messaging networking reality player (%) and violent
(%) (%) games (%) games (%) websites (%)
I haven’t use it 0.513 2.199 44.173 35.485 93.113 62.981
Half an hour or less per day 8.087 8.809 18.066 41.023 3.620 28.546
About one hour per day 16.294 19.970 16.787 15.729 1.174 5.782
From two to three hours 27.924 30.688 12.771 5.002 0.910 1.181
Four hours or more 47.183 38.334 8.203 2.762 1.183 1.510
Source: Own elaboration based on data provided by ESTUDES (2016).
Covariates ables Sporting Frequency 0 to Sporting Fre-
quency 4 indicate whether or not the re-
The set of control variables includes five spondent chooses the response 0, 1, 2, 3
dichotomous variables to measure sport- or 4, respectively. Sporting Frequency 0 is
ing frequency. This frequency is revealed the reference category. Care Parents meas-
by the respondent choosing an option from ures, on a two item scale, how often the re-
the following scale (0 = never; 1 = one to spondent receives care from his/her parents
three days per year; 2 = one to three days (0 = sometimes, rarely, or never; 1 = always
per month; 3 = one to four days per week; or almost always); Care Friend measures,
4 = five to seven days per week). The vari- using the same scale response as Care Par-
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-208 Time devoted to Internet activities by Spanish adolescents: differences according to the practice of sport and affection...
ents, how often the respondent receives care posable euros per week) are also included;
from his/her best friend; Sex Male (1 = male; lastly, there are two dichotomous variables,
0 = female); Age 14 to Age 18, five dichoto- University Mother and University Father that
mous dummy variables indicate if the stu- measure if the mother and the father of the
dent is 14, 15, 16, 17 or 18 years old, re- respondent have university degrees. Table 2
spectively. Age 14 is the reference category; provides a descriptive analysis of these vari-
Immigrant (1 = yes; 0 = no) and Income (dis- ables for all the teenagers in our sample.
Table 2. Summary Statistics
All Girls Boys
Mean SD n Mean SD n Mean SD n
Time Use
E-mail and messaging 3.132 0.994 34.909 3.313 0.903 17.557 2.948 1.046 17.352
Social networking 2.941 1.063 34.737 3.099 1.004 17.503 2.781 1.097 17.234
Virtual reality games 1.228 1.344 32.841 0.492 0.912 16.376 1.960 1.305 16.465
Single-player games 0.985 0.980 32.228 0.788 0.840 16.145 1.183 1.067 16.083
Gambling 0.134 0.580 34.498 0.075 0.484 17.439 0.195 0.658 17.059
Pornography and violent websites 3.132 0.994 34.909 0.149 0.473 17.245 0.860 0.877 16.535
Socio-Demographics
Sport Frequency 0 0.098 0.297 34.382 0.137 0.344 17.152 0.058 0.235 17.230
Sport Frequency 1 0.046 0.210 34.382 0.064 0.245 17.152 0.029 0.167 17.230
Sport Frequency 2 0.135 0.342 34.382 0.173 0.378 17.152 0.097 0.296 17.230
Sport Frequency 3 0.555 0.497 34.382 0.535 0.499 17.152 0.576 0.494 17.230
Sport Frequency 4 0.166 0.372 34.382 0.091 0.287 17.152 0.240 0.427 17.230
Care Parents 0.902 0.297 33.838 0.904 0.295 17.120 0.901 0.299 16.718
Care Friend 0.877 0.329 33.821 0.916 0.278 17.112 0.836 0.370 16.709
Sex Male 0.499 0.500 35.369 — — 17.720 — — 17.649
Age 14 0.258 0.438 35.369 0.260 0.438 17.720 0.257 0.437 17.649
Age 15 0.217 0.412 35.369 0.214 0.410 17.720 0.220 0.414 17.649
Age 16 0.272 0.445 35.369 0.274 0.446 17.720 0.270 0.444 17.649
Age 17 0.200 0.400 35.369 0.203 0.402 17.720 0.197 0.398 17.649
Age 18 0.053 0.223 35.369 0.049 0.217 17.720 0.056 0.230 17.649
Immigrant 0.103 0.304 35.251 0.106 0.308 17.666 0.100 0.301 17.585
Disposable income 16.226 21.045 31.767 15.283 18.509 15.896 17.172 23.272 15.871
University mother 0.355 0.478 28.378 0.340 0.474 14.608 0.371 0.483 13.770
University father 0.317 0.465 26.559 0.304 0.460 13.409 0.330 0.470 13.150
Notes: SD = Standard deviations. n = number of participants that answered the specific question.
Source: Own elaboration based on data provided by ESTUDES (2016).
Data analysis time a teenager spends on social networks
may be correlated with other ICT activities.
We analyse the time devoted to the six time- Thus, we estimate a linear Seemingly Unre-
use categories. In this analysis, failing to ac- lated Regression (SUR) system on the time
count for joint time-allocation decisions would devoted to the six activities by each teenager
affect the interpretation of the results, as the (Molina, Campaña and Ortega, 2017).
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-20Luis V. Casaló, José-Julián Escario and J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal 9
This procedure makes it possible to εemi, εsni, εvri, εlgi, εbgi and εvsi are the random
consider joint time decisions and to take variables representing unmeasured factors.
into account that the time devoted to one We estimate the following equations:
activity may complement or substitute for
Temi= αem+βemXi +εemi (1)
the time spent on other activities. Thus,
this procedure considers correlations be- Tsni= αsnj+βsnXi +εsni (2)
tween the activity times, as not taking into Tvri= αvr+βvrXi +εvri (3)
account these correlations will yield biased Tlgi= αlg+βlgXi +εlgi (4)
standard errors and, consequently, invalid
Tbgi= αbg+βbgXi +εbgi (5)
inferences.
Tvsi= αvs+βvsXi +εvsi (6)
The statistical model is as follows:1 For
a given teenager “i”, Temi, Tsni, Tvri, Tlgi, Tbgi, where “i” represents each individual teen-
and Tvsi represent the time devoted to email ager. We allow for correlations at the individ-
and messaging (em), social networking ual level by permitting the error terms to be
(sn), virtual reality games (vr), single-player jointly normally distributed, with no restric-
games (lg), gambling (bg) and pornographic tions on the sign of correlations. We further
and violent websites (vs), respectively. Xi assume that the error components are inde-
is a vector of the individual and household pendent across individuals. The variance-co-
characteristics previously described, and variance matrix has the following form:
! ! 2 $$
! ! cmi $ # # " cmi " cmi,rdi " cmi, jrvi " cmi, jhoi " cmi,aoi " cmi,ppvi &&
# & #! 0 $# &
# ! rdi & ## &# " rdi,cmi 2
" rdi " rdi, jrvi " rdi, jhoi " rdi,aoi " rdi,ppvi &&&
0
# &
! jrvi & ## &#
" jrvi,cmi " jrvi,rdi " 2jrvi " jrvi, jhoi " jrvi,aoi " jrvi,ppvi &&
# # 0 &#
# & ' N ## &, #
&& (7)
! jhoi # 0 " jhoi,cmi " jhoi,rdi " jhoi, jrvi " 2
" jhoi,aoi " jhoi,ppvi &&
# & ## 0
&# jhoi
&&
# ! aoi & ### &#
& " aoi,cmi " aoi,rdi " aoi, jrvi " aoi, jhoi 2
" aoi " aoi,ppvi &&
## && #" 0 %# &&
"
! ppvi % 2
# # " ppvi,cmi " ppvi,rdi " ppvi, jrvi " ppvi, jhoi " ppvi,aoi " ppvi &&
" " %%
Results social networking, 8.20% on games of vir-
tual reality, 2.76% on single-player games,
Tables 1 and 2 show some descriptive sta- 1.18% on gambling, and finally, 1.51% on
tistics for the variables used in this study. pornography and violent websites. Regarding
According to figures in Table 1, the per- control variables, the percentage of students
centage of students spending four hours or that never practice sport is more than double
more per day breaks down into the follow- for girls (13.7%) than for boys (5.80%). The
ing activities: almost half of them (47.18%) proportion of girls and boys that receive care
on e-mailing and messaging, 38.33% on from their parents is almost identical (90.40%
and 90.10%, respectively). However, more
girls (91.60%) than boys (83.60%) consider
1 We have estimated alternative models, such as the
Logit model (available on request). Given that this
that they receive care from their best friend.
model uses dichotomous dependent variables, and that Forty-nine-point-nine percent of the re-
the choice of the cut-off points for what can be con- spondents are males, 10.3% are immigrants,
sidered addictive use relies on the judgment of the re-
searchers, we prefer to use linear models with the origi-
and approximately one third of them have
nal values of the variables. mothers and fathers with university studies.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-2010 Time devoted to Internet activities by Spanish adolescents: differences according to the practice of sport and affection...
Table 3. Seemingly Unrelated Regression estimates
E-mail and Social Games of virtual Single-player Gambling Sex and
messaging networking reality games games violence webs
Sport Frequency 1 –0.066 * –0.034 0.087 * 0.180 *** –0.005 0.017
(0.040) (0.045) (0.048) (0.041) (0.023) (0.029)
Sport Frequency 2 –0.068 ** –0.095 *** 0.047 0.151 *** –0.016 0.016
(0.030) (0.033) (0.035) (0.030) (0.017) (0.021)
Sport Frequency 3 –0.006 –0.064 ** –0.016 0.087 *** –0.015 0.016
(0.026) (0.028) (0.030) (0.026) (0.015) (0.018)
Sport Frequency 4 0.021 –0.060 * –0.117 *** 0.060 ** 0.015 0.028
(0.030) (0.033) (0.035) (0.030) (0.017) (0.021)
Care Parents –0.106 *** –0.108 *** –0.170 *** –0.007 –0.033 ** –0.184 ***
(0.026) (0.028) (0.030) (0.026) (0.015) (0.018)
Care Friend 0.231 *** 0.203 *** –0.086 *** 0.022 0.004 –0.005
(0.024) (0.026) (0.028 (0.024) (0.014) (0.017)
Sex Male –0.338 *** –0.275 *** 1.527 *** 0.441 *** 0.111 *** 0.743 ***
(0.015) (0.016) (0.017) (0.015) (0.008) (0.010)
Age 15 0.205 *** 0.199 *** –0.060 ** –0.045 ** 0.030 ** 0.098 ***
(0.021) (0.023) (0.025) (0.021) (0.012) (0.015)
Age 16 0.297 *** 0.221 *** –0.086 *** –0.068 *** 0.012 0.164 ***
(0.019) (0.021) (0.023) (0.020) (0.011) (0.014)
Age 17 0.356 *** 0.244 *** –0.175 *** –0.106 *** 0.023 * 0.190 ***
(0.021) (0.023) (0.024) (0.021) (0.012) (0.015)
Age 18 0.465 *** 0.298 *** –0.088 ** –0.068 ** 0.052 *** 0.286 ***
(0.034) (0.037) (0.040) (0.034) (0.019) (0.024)
Immigrant –0.091 *** 0.006 0.086 *** 0.121 *** 0.026 * 0.007
(0.025) (0.028) (0.030) (0.025) (0.015) (0.018)
Income 0.003 *** 0.003 *** 0.000 0.000 0.002 *** 0.001 ***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
University mother –0.176 *** –0.164 *** –0.065 *** –0.036 ** –0.018 * –0.007
(0.017) (0.018) (0.020) (0.017) (0.010) (0.012)
University Father –0.125 *** –0.111 *** 0.008 –0.018 –0.011 0.033 ***
(0.017) (0.019) (0.020) (0.017) (0.010) (0.012)
Constant 3.051 *** 2.930 *** 0.806 *** 0.718 *** 0.060 *** 0.147 ***
(0.038) (0.042) (0.045) (0.039) (0.022) (0.027)
Notes: Standard errors in parentheses; *Significant at the 90 percent level; **Significant at the 95 percent level; ***Significant
at the 99 percent level.
Source: Own elaboration based on data provided by ESTUDES (2016).
Table 3 shows the results of estimating and social networking, although the inten-
Equations (1) to (6). We see that the asso- sity of these associations decreases for the
ciations between the level of sporting activ- two last levels of sporting frequency. Simi-
ity and the times devoted to the six Internet larly, the highest sporting frequency is neg-
activities analysed do not follow a homoge- atively associated with virtual reality gam-
neous pattern. Thus, compared to not prac- ing. In contrast, compared to not practising
tising sport, practising sport is negatively as- sport, practising sport is positively associ-
sociated with the time devoted to messaging ated with the time devoted to single-player
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-20Luis V. Casaló, José-Julián Escario and J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal 11
games. However, among those adolescents age is positively related to the time devoted
who practise sports, the association is nega- to e-mail and messaging, social network-
tive as the estimated coefficients decrease ing, and pornography and violent websites,
from 0.18, for Sport Frequency 1, to 0.06, while negatively related to virtual reality and
for Sport Frequency 4. Finally, sporting fre- single-player gaming. Age is also positively
quency is not statistically significant at the associated with gambling, with the excep-
standard level (e.g., 95% level of confidence) tion of the Age 16 variable, which appears
for the rest of the ICT activities. These results as not significant. Immigrant teenagers de-
only partially support H1. vote comparatively more time to virtual re-
With respect to the social environment, ality and single-player gaming and less to
the estimates show that the frequency with emails and messaging than their non-immi-
which adolescents receive care and affec- grant counterparts. Having a higher dispos-
tion from parents is negatively associated able income is related to more time spent
with all the ICT activities, except for single- on most of these activities.
player games. This is, in general, consist- The fact that one or both parents hold
ent with H2. The pattern for care received a university degree is correlated with less
from the best friend is a little bit different. time spent in all the activities, with the ex-
This variable is positively associated with ception of pornography and violent web-
the time devoted to messaging and social sites. In fact, having a father with a univer-
networking, but negatively associated with sity degree is positively associated with
time devoted to virtual reality gaming. As a time devoted to the latter activity.
result, H3 is only supported for the first two Table 4 presents the correlation ma-
activities. trix of residuals from estimating Equations
Regarding socio-demographic charac- (1) to (6). We observe that all the cross-
teristics, male teenagers devote compar- values (e.g., social networking vs. gam-
atively less time to messaging and social bling games) are positive, indicating posi-
networking, and more time to games (virtual tive correlations between all the activities.
reality and single-player games), gambling, Thus, those teenagers who devote more
and pornography and violent websites, in time to ICT activities, devote comparatively
comparison to their female counterparts. more time to all the activities in compari-
This provides evidence in favour of H4. Re- son to teenagers who devote less time to
garding the remaining socio-demographics, ICT activities.
Table 4. Correlation Matrix
E-mail and Social Virtual Single- Gambling Pornography
messaging networking reality player and violent
games games websites
E-mail and messaging 1.000
Social networking 0.654 1.000
Virtual reality games 0.054 0.122 1.000
Single-player games 0.114 0.134 0.346 1.000
Gambling 0.050 0.046 0.068 0.069 1.000
Pornography and violent 0.102 0.126 0.202 0.173 0.123 1.000
websites
Note: Correlation matrix of residuals obtained from estimates of Table 3.
Source: Own elaboration based on data provided by ESTUDES (2016).
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-2012 Time devoted to Internet activities by Spanish adolescents: differences according to the practice of sport and affection...
Discussion associated with single-player gaming. Thus,
our research hypothesis is confirmed except
In this study, we analyse the time Spanish for those who never practise sport. This group
teenagers devote to ICT-related activities, represents only 9.9% (3119/31376*100) of the
with a focus on differences related to sporting sample and has the highest percentage of ad-
practice and affection received. Teenagers olescents (49%) that never play these types of
are exposed daily to ICTs, which makes them games (see Table 5). At least two hypotheses
vulnerable to certain negative behaviours, in- can help to explain this counterintuitive result.
cluding gambling and sexual harassment. First, given that many single-player games are
Identifying what factors are related to the use sport-based (soccer, basketball, martial arts,
teenagers make of ICTs is key to educating etc.), adolescents that practise these sports
teenagers on the use and consumption of are more likely to be familiar with actual play-
these technologies, and sporting practice and ers and might enjoy these games more than
parents’ affection may play a relevant role. those who never practise these sports. Sec-
In general, our results are consistent with ondly, the group of adolescents that never
previous research. First, the frequency with practise sport could include many adoles-
which teens practice sport is negatively as- cents considered to be so-called “nerds”, that
sociated with the time devoted to email and is to say, students who devote many hours to
messaging and social networking sites; but studying or on computers (often with knowl-
contrary to our expectations, it is heteroge- edge of programming) because they are pas-
neously associated with single-player gaming sionate about learning and technology. Most
and it is not a significant predictor of the other of these “nerds” and others who are passion-
two activities considered (gambling and visit- ate about their cultural hobbies may consider
ing pornography and violent websites). playing on the computer instead of learning
Regarding single-player gaming, the es- something as a waste of time. It is also im-
timates reveal that those adolescents that portant to highlight that the group that never
never practice sport, the reference group, practises sports also includes the highest per-
play less than the rest. For the rest of the ad- centage of adolescents that play single-player
olescents, sporting frequency is negatively games four or more hours per day (3.9).
Table 5. Contingency table for Sport Frequency and Single-player games
Single-player games
Sport
Never Half an hour or About one hour From two to Four hours Total
Frequency
less per day per day three hours or more
1,527 906 411 152 123 3,119
Never
49.0% 29.0% 13.2% 4.9% 3.9% 100%
One to three days 509 612 236 65 38 1,460
per year 34.9% 41.9% 16.2% 4.5% 2.6% 100%
One to three days 1,482 1,818 680 171 116 4,267
per month 34.7% 42.6% 15.9% 4.0% 2.7% 100%
One to four days 5,841 7,501 2,748 873 391 17,354
per week 33.7% 43.2% 15.8% 5.0% 2.3% 100%
Five to seven days 1,695 2,128 870 300 183 5,176
per week 32.7% 41.1% 16.8% 5.8% 3.5% 100%
11,054 12,965 4,945 1,561 851 31,376
Total
35.2% 41.3% 15.8% 5.0% 2.7% 100%
Note: χ2 = 396.262. df = 16. Cramer’s V = 0,056. P = 0.000.
Source: Own elaboration based on data provided by ESTUDES (2016).
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-20Luis V. Casaló, José-Julián Escario and J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal 13
Regarding gambling, and pornography tual interaction (Wu et al., 2016). In general,
and violent websites, we find insignificant the results regarding care received from
associations with sporting frequency, which parents and best friends are in line with Soh
seems counterintuitive. We suggest at least et al. (2018), as parents seem to influence
two explanations for this result. Adolescents adolescents in more activities than friends.
could be experimenting with these activities Regarding socio-demographics variables,
and the decisions about the time devoted we find that male teenagers devote less time
to them may be more related to personal- to social networking and messaging, while
ity traits such as impulsivity and sensation they devote comparatively more time to the
seeking (Snodgrass et al., 2014; Weidberg
remaining activities. This is consistent with
et al., 2018; Wéry et al., 2018). Moreover,
the most common interpretation, that girls are
given students’ low disposable income, de-
more interested in seeking companionship,
cisions to carry out these activities, particu-
sharing feelings and ideas, and building so-
larly gambling, are heavily conditioned by
cial networks (Malak, Khalifeh and Shuhaiber,
income. Consequently, when conditioned
2017), while boys are less risk averse than
by certain controls, such as income and
girls (e.g., Byrnes, Miller and Schafer, 1999).
caring parents, sporting frequency is not
significant. As a result, the different genders may be-
come addicted to different types of Internet
Second, another and even more impor-
applications more easily (Wu et al., 2016).
tant factor is the frequency with which ad-
Thus, it has been found that chat rooms
olescents receive care and affection from
are more problematic for girls, while watch-
parents, which is negatively associated with
ing pornography is more prevalent among
all the ICT activities except for single-player
games. This result is consistent with previ- boys (Young, 2007). Moreover, these diver-
ous studies, which have claimed that the de- gent patterns by gender may help to explain
gree of warmth between parents and child the mixed results found in the literature when
is an important dimension of parenting style analysing Internet addiction in general, with-
(Maccoby and Martin 1983), arguing that out differentiating among specific online ac-
parents may deter or reduce negative be- tivities. In this sense, while some studies
haviour by establishing close and caring rela- have found that teenage girls have higher
tionships with their teenage children (Escario rates of excessive Internet use than teen-
and Wilkinson, 2020; Fletcher, Steinberg and age boys (Casaló and Escario, 2019; Malak,
Williams-Wheeler, 2004; Wu et al., 2016). Khalifeh and Shuhaiber, 2017), other studies
have found the opposite (Wu et al., 2016),
With respect to the level of affection
and others report no significant differences
provided by a best friend, we find that ad-
(Koyuncu, Unsal and Arslantas, 2014).
olescents’ feelings about the affection re-
ceived are associated with ICT activities, Furthermore, having parents with higher
as a higher level of affection received from educational levels decreases participation
a best friend is positively associated with in almost all ICT-related activities. It has
the time devoted to messaging and social been argued that families with lower edu-
networking, but negatively associated with cational levels may have less knowledge
time devoted to virtual reality games, and of the adverse effects of high Internet use
insignificant in the case of the other ICT ac- and the strategies available to reduce it (Wu
tivities. The positive association is consist- et al., 2016). This is consistent with the re-
ent with the fact that some friendships are sult found that while normal users reported
formed online and that the Internet does not risks associated with Internet overuse, none
impose many restrictions on the form of vir- of the over-users reported any harm from
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-2014 Time devoted to Internet activities by Spanish adolescents: differences according to the practice of sport and affection...
that overuse (Sinkkonen, Puhakka and Mer- Khalifeh and Shuhaiber, 2017; McNicol and
iläinen, 2014). In addition, children of parents Thorsteinsson, 2017), by suggesting that dif-
with higher education levels are more likely ferent approaches should be used to reduce
to ask their parents for help regarding their the time devoted to each activity considered,
Internet use (European Commission, 2008). as can be seen in the following section.
All in all, we find that the activities consid-
ered in this research are either positively or Policy implications
negatively associated with the independent
variables used in this study. In this respect, There are certain implications for policy
time devoted to online communication ac- based on our results. What emerges most
tivities –i.e., email and messaging, and so- clearly is that policy makers, schools and
cial networking sites– is negatively associ- parents should encourage adolescents
ated with sporting frequency, care received to practice sports. This simple and cheap
from parents and education level of parents; measure could, according to our estimates,
however, care received from a best friend reduce the time devoted to the most com-
and income are associated with increased mon online activities: emailing, messaging
time spent on these activities, and women and social networking. As mentioned, this
and older teens devote more time to them. is consistent with previous literature, which
Regarding virtual reality games, we observe systematically finds that the practice of
that care received from parents and friends sports can reduce Internet addiction. This
helps reduce the time devoted to these ac- study also suggests that informing parents
tivities; similarly, time spent on these games of the benefits of expressing affection to-
declines as age and sporting frequency in- ward their children could be an important
crease; however, boys and immigrant teens aspect of future intervention programs, as
spend more time playing these games. For care from parents seems to be the factor
single-player games, time spent on this ac- that helps reduce time devoted to the great-
tivity is lower among older teens, and more est number of online activities. As a 2008
frequent sporting activity is also associated Eurobarometer shows, French and Span-
with less time spent on it; boys and immi- ish parents worried the most —among Eu-
grant teens spend more time playing these ropean parents— that their child might use
games. For both types of games, the educa- the Internet inappropriately (European Com-
tion level of the mother is negatively associ- mission, 2008); thus, they could be very re-
ated with the time devoted to these activities. ceptive to programmes regarding children’s
Finally, it is noteworthy that care received Internet use directed at them.
from parents is the only factor negatively as- From a policy perspective, our results in-
sociated with the harmful consequences of dicate that prevention is not only a matter
the last two online activities – gambling and for authorities, but the different social con-
visiting pornography and violent websites texts that influence adolescents’ behaviour
(Gainsbury et al., 2016; Griffiths, 2012). In must also be addressed. Thus, schools and,
other words, care from parents emerges as a more particularly, parents must be involved
key factor in avoiding these online behaviors. in achieving an adequate use of the Internet
In this respect, we add to previous literature, among adolescents. In light of this, some
which has mainly focused on the analysis authors have recommended that school pro-
of just one Internet activity (Liu and Chang, grammes integrate parents in their actions,
2016; Wartberg, Kriston and Kammerl, 2017; as this would foster a broader community
Tang et al., 2016) or use in general (Casaló effort with no significant budgetary require-
and Escario, 2019; Lam et al., 2009; Malak, ments (Escario and Wilkinson, 2018). Stud-
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. N.º 177, January - March 2022, pp. 3-20Luis V. Casaló, José-Julián Escario and J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal 15
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have, in fact, been effective in reducing so- “Anxiety Reduction following Exercise and Medi-
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