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ULRICH BARTOSCH, GÖTZ NEUNECK, ULRIKE WUNDERLE (EDS.)
The Russell-Einstein Manifesto –
60 years on
Remember Your Humanity and Forget the Rest!
Challenges facing Nuclear Disarmament
With a foreword by Jayantha Dhanapala and contributions by Egon Bahr, Ulrich Bartosch,
Susanne Baumann, Reiner Braun, Agnieszka Brugger, Klaus Gottstein, Otto Jäckel,
Harold Kroto, Götz Neuneck and Jürgen Scheffran
ULRICH BARTOSCH, GÖTZ NEUNECK, ULRIKE WUNDERLE (EDS.)
The Russell-Einstein Manifesto –
60 years on
Remember Your Humanity and Forget the Rest!
Challenges facing Nuclear Disarmament
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword by Jayantha Dhanapala ......................................................................................... 9
Science – Society - Responsibility Preface by the Editors ...............................................................................................................13
Volume 1 The Russell-Einstein Manifesto – 60 years on
ULRICH BARTOSCH
Opening address by the VDW Chairman ..........................................................................23
HAROLD KROTO
60 Years Russell-Einstein Manifesto:
Video message referring to Joseph Rotblat and his mission ....................................27
KLAUS GOTTSTEIN
Looking back on the Pugwash approach ..........................................................................31
ISBN: 978-3-9818132-1-0 JÜRGEN SCHEFFRAN
Science and Peace .......................................................................................................................37
Berlin, June 2016
Translation into English, with a foreword by Jayantha Dhanapala and a new preface by the
editors, August 2017 EGON BAHR
My experiences with scientists and the new
The Russell-Einstein Manifesto – 60 years on. Remember Your Humanity and Forget the Rest. challenges for European safety – opportunities
Challenges facing Nuclear Disarmament; Ulrich Bartosch, Götz Neuneck, Ulrike Wunderle (eds.)
for arms control and disarmament .....................................................................................45
Vereinigung Deutscher Wissenschaftler e. V., Marienstraße 19/20, 10117 Berlin
Tel. (+49) 30 21234056 E-Mail info@vdw-ev.de Web www.vdw-ev.de Discussion:
Current challenges to the abolishment of nuclear weapons
Layout: Sandra Hartmann
Translation: Renate FitzRoy
Print: WIRmachenDRUCK GmbH, Mühlbachstraße 7, 71522 Backnang GÖTZ NEUNECK
Photography: Leonard Bartosch, Götz Neuneck, Schattenblick (www.schattenblick.de), Lucas Introduction for the Panel: What are the challenges
Wirl (www.flickr.com/fotos/lucaswirl), Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs nuclear disarmament is facing? – an analytical update ...........................................53
(www.pugwash.org/1955/07/09/london-launch-of-the-russell-einstein-mainifesto/)
Title photo: Egon Bahr and Klaus Gottstein at the conference „60 Jahre Russell-Einstein-Mani-
fest“ in Berlin on July 9th 2015 (Part of a larger picture), Leonard Bartosch, 2015. SUSANNE BAUMANN
Nuclear disarmament in difficult times ...........................................................................63
The editors would like to thank Lucas Wirl and Leonard Bartosch for permission to use the
photographs as well as Renate FitzRoy for her commitment in translating this volume.
AGNIESZKA BRUGGER Nuclear disarmament and a world free of nuclear weapons are at the lynchpin of German foreign policy .................................................................67 REINER BRAUN Current challenges for the abolition of all nuclear weapons .................................73 OTTO JÄCKEL Phasing out nuclear energy and nuclear disarmament – contradictions and missed opportunities in German policy-making .................77 Authors and editors ....................................................................................................................79
9
Foreword
JAYANTHA DHANAPALA
The historic London Manifesto – the years since the issuing of the Rus-
foundation document of the Pugwash sell-Einstein Manifesto. The Man-
Conferences on Science and World ifesto laid the foundations for the
Affairs – was issued in London on 9 Pugwash Conferences which have
July 1955 by Bertrand Russell at the maintained a high level of activity to
height of the Cold War and ten years this day. Joseph Rotblat was one of the
after the end of World War II. The sig- eleven scientists behind the Manifes-
natories included eleven pre-eminent to and has since been the most impor-
intellectuals and scientists, including tant figure in the Pugwash work.
Albert Einstein, who signed it just days The Conferences are based on the
before his death on 18 April 1955. recognition of the responsibility of
This welcome and timely collection scientists for their inventions. They
of essays on the Manifesto commem- have underlined the catastrophic
orates one of the earliest instances in consequences of the use of the new
the nuclear age of scientists and intel- weapons. They have brought togeth-
lectuals speaking truth to power. Pug- er scientists and decision-makers to
Photo: Götz Neuneck, 2015 (Part of a larger picture) wash as a global movement has con- collaborate across political divides on
Jayantha Dhanapala (Archive Foto; Part of a larger picture) sistently practiced this policy since constructive proposals for reducing
its inception in 1957. In 1995 it was the nuclear threat.
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize joint- The Pugwash Conferences are
ly with Joseph Rotblat, as the citation founded in the desire to see all nu-
reads – clear arms destroyed and, ultimately,
in a vision of other solutions to in-
“for their efforts to diminish the part ternational disputes than war. The
played by nuclear arms in internati- Pugwash Conference in Hiroshima in
onal politics and, in the longer run, to July this year declared that we have
eliminate such arms. the opportunity today of approach-
It is fifty years this year since the ing those goals. It is the Committee‘s
two atomic bombs were dropped on hope that the award of the Nobel
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and forty Peace Prize for 1995 to Rotblat and to
10 JAYANTHA DHANAPALA 11
Pugwash will encourage world lead- and underpin. While a U.S. Nuclear
ers to intensify their efforts to rid the Posture Review might well be expect-
world of nuclear weapons.” ed there is no policy statement so far
on the Trump Administration‘s nucle-
In a world with approximately 15,395 ar policies, except for the extravagant
nuclear weapons among nine coun- boast that the U.S. should have the
tries, where global military expen- greatest arsenal and that the more
diture in 2016 was as high as U.S. nuclear weapon states in the world
$1,686 billion, the relevance of the there are the better – a wild extension
London Manifesto is all too clear. of Kenneth Waltz‘s theory that some
Never before has a U.S. President proliferation can help keep interna-
caused so much disruption to nor- tional peace. We have therefore no
mal policy and threatened strategic reliable guidance on Trump policies.
stability with his reckless statements The Chicago-based ‚Bulletin for
and actions. A toxic mix of populism, Atomic Scientists‘ made their reac-
nationalist bigotry, protectionism in tion abundantly clear by moving the
trade and intolerant racist exclusiv- Doomsday Clock to 2 ½ minutes to
ism is challenging the post World War Midnight– such is their dire percep-
II liberal democratic international tion of the risk of nuclear war under
order which the U.S. helped to create Trump.
Jayantha Dhanapala quoted the press release of October 13, 1995 by the Norwegian Nobel
Committee. Cf. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/press.html
13 Preface by the Editors ULRICH BARTOSCH, GÖTZ NEUNECK, ULRIKE WUNDERLE On July 9th 1955, Bertrand Russell held many annual conferences, work- handed over to the press a state- shops and panel discussions to con- ment on nuclear warfare that became tribute to the peaceful settlement of known as the Russell-Einstein Mani- disputes and the abolition of weap- festo:1 It points out the absolute, ir- ons of mass destruction (WMDs).3 The revocable disaster linked to this new German Pugwash group and many type of warfare. The text is based on German experts took part in these, conversations with scientists, includ- providing concrete studies, sugges- ing Albert Einstein, who signed the tions and expertise within the VDW declaration during the last days of his framework that forms the basis of the life. The declaration was signed by ten German Pugwash Group.4 Since its Nobel Prize laureates, most of them foundation in 1959 the VDW (Verein- scientists.2 They not only demand- igung Deutscher Wissenschaftler; ed the abolition of nuclear weapons, Federation of German Scientists) has but of war in general, urging govern- been committed to and advocating ments “to find peaceful means for the responsible science by encouraging settlement of all matters of dispute scientists from different academic between them.“ By publishing the disciplines to critically reflect upon declaration, scientists took a politi- the various social consequences and cal stance. The first sentence already implications that their research may stated their main reason: “In the trag- have on society and to use their ex- ic situation which confronts human- pertise to contribute to a public de- ity, we feel that scientists should as- bate. At an international level, the semble in conference to appraise the Pugwash activities became the foun- perils that have arisen as a result of dation of various arms control trea- the development of weapons of mass ties and steps towards disarmament. destruction, and to discuss a reso- They helped to end the Cold War. In lution in the spirit of the appended 1995, the Pugwash movement and draft.” its founder and moving spirit, Joseph The Pugwash movement has since Rotblat, were jointly awarded the
14 BARTOSCH/NEUNECK/WUNDERLE PREFACE 15 Nobel Peace Prize “for their efforts to VDW and the German Pugwash group the Pugwash method of earlier years. geostrategic journey from the origins diminish the role of nuclear weapons in connection with IPPNW, IALANA, The same mechanisms still exist. They of the concept in the Palme Commis- in international politics and, in the NatWiss – Verantwortung für Frieden are based on scientific insight into the sion, the end of the Cold War right up longer run, to eliminate such weap- und Zukunftsfähigkeit and the Ger- matter that is passed on and discus- to an analysis of the crisis now affec- ons.“5 The number of existing nucle- man-Japanese Peace Forum. sed in mediating talks, thus contribu- ting the relationship between the ar weapons has since dropped sig- In his introductory speech, ting to the resolution of conflicts. In superpowers, including the Ukraine nificantly, but not decisively. Now as Prof. Ulrich Bartosch, then chairman addition, governments receive advi- conflict. Bahr emphasised the role before, extended deterrence remains of the VDW, stressed the ongoing re- sory information and the public can of scientists: “The Russell-Einstein the key element for the justification of sponsibility of scientists that results get involved. It is also a declared aim Manifesto marks a revolution in the keeping horrendous weapons stock- from the creation of the nuclear bomb: to “familiarise independent scientists sense that scientists warn against a piles. “It was the result of scientific curiosi- with the details of the problems at danger and politicians must find an On the occasion of the 2005 and ty and technical know-how (…) They hand so that they can use their exper- answer.” At the time, the danger was 2010 anniversaries of the Russell-Ein- were therefore under obligation to tise effectively.” Prof. Jürgen Scheffran the H-bomb and unrestricted nuclear stein Manifesto, the VDW highlighted unite beyond all political differences looked in detail at individual con- armament. At the height of the Cold the dangers emanating from the halt- to discuss and avert the danger.“ This tributions of scientists in research War, politicians accepted that scien- ing nuclear disarmament process and would involve “new ways of thinking” groups and on conferences (some of tists developed a network named after continuous proliferation of modern and an unconventional approach to which were held in Germany), which its foundation location, the village of military technology. The Nagasaki long-established views. In a short vi- helped to slow down the arms race. Pugwash, and that its members took Declaration of the Pugwash Council deo message, Prof. Harold Kroto, No- Scheffran ended his talk with the fol- personal responsibility for analysing of November 2015 not only stressed bel laureate for Chemistry of 1996, lowing words: “Knowledge without the dangers to our world and exerted the utter devastation caused by the referred to his close relationship with responsibility is as problematic as re- a moderating influence. “Undeniably bombs, but also appealed to world Pugwash founder Jo Rotblat, advoca- sponsibility without knowledge.” Pugwash achieved a lot because the leaders to listen to the hibakusha, the ting the return to humanitarian valu- At the centre of the Berlin conver- group created trust and curtailed ne- over eighty-year-old survivors of the es. “Remember your humanity and sations was the keynote speech by gative developments.” Looking at cur- nuclear inferno of Hiroshima and Na- forget the money“, was his variation the former minister of the Brandt rent developments, Egon Bahr urged gasaki and to work towards the aboli- on the original Manifesto theme. Prof. government, Prof. Egon Bahr. At the today’s scientists to keep an eye on tion of nuclear weapons.6 Klaus Gottstein, who had been a long- suggestion that he could deliver his the dangers of cyberwar. On July 9th 2015, precisely 60 term Pugwash delegate for VDW and speech sitting down, the 93-year-old Egon Bahr’s speech was concise, years after the publication of the Rus- a member of the Max-Planck Socie- responded in his own way. He stood political and full of memories, but sell-Einstein Manifesto in London, an ty, began his historical introduction up, firmly holding his manuscript and above all, it was up-to-date and for- expert discussion was held in Berlin with reference to the first conference delivering his speech with impressive ward-looking. These were the words to document the current situation in 1957 that took place in the small presence and aplomb. He was intro- of somebody who wanted to name regarding nuclear disarmament and Canadian fishing village of Pugwash. duced as the Father of Common Se- and address the most urgent issues to provide a platform to discuss the His long-term experience as an insi- curity by the current Pugwash dele- of today’s world, somebody who saw next steps in the disarmament pro- der allowed him to give insights into gate of the VDW, Prof. Götz Neuneck. the cooling of relations between Rus- cess. The event was organised by the the mechanisms and effectiveness of He took his audience on a fascinating sia and Europe and Germany in par-
16 BARTOSCH/NEUNECK/WUNDERLE PREFACE 17 ticular as a dangerous development. Four, Hans-Dietrich Genscher, died me the current standstill in every res- NATO’s tactical nuclear weapons and There was a sense that he felt it was on March 31st 2016. In the preface pect. This was one of the purposes of made the case for more “vision, cre- his duty to do what was in his power of his last book Meine Sicht der Dinge the meeting that has been documen- ativity and courage”. Reiner Braun, to improve relationships with Rus- (my view of things), Genscher, against ted here. co-spokesman for Cooperation for sia. Very soon after our conference, the background of the breakdown of After the talks, a panel discussi- Peace and co-president of the Inter- Egon Bahr travelled to Moscow to trust between the West and Russia, on and a debate with the audience national Peace Bureau in Geneva, fulfil his mission. Having returned writes: “Is peace in Europe now going highlighted the different approaches criticised that nuclear powers insis- from this journey, the great German to die in a piecemeal fashion? Arms and positions of important German ted on their right to possess nuclear peace-builder died in Berlin on Au- control and disarmament elicit con- stakeholders which we publish in this weapons and keep modernising their gust 19th 2015. This news came as a descension, while the use of language volume. Deputy Commissioner for nuclear arsenals. He asked for a grass- shock to us all, and participants of the is becoming increasingly militarised. Arms Control and Disarmament, Su- roots détente policy and unilateral di- symposium of July 9th will remember We are just at the beginning of a de- sanne Baumann, explained the posi- sarmament. Finally, IALANA chairman him as a committed and demanding velopment that still seems manage- tion of the German government. She Otto Jäckel appealed to the German analyst of current developments. His able. But for how long?“ He explicitly advocated rapid progress in conventi- federal government to take a stance contribution to the Russell-Einstein champions further nuclear disarma- onal disarmament and arms control. regarding the approximately 20 nuc- Manifesto anniversary was his last ment. “(…) I believe it is necessary now She also agreed that a ban on nucle- lear weapons stationed in Germany public speech held in Germany. to return to the disarmament culture ar weapons was needed, but thought and asked Germany to refuse to parti- On January 9th 2009, Egon Bahr that enabled the building of trust this could not be achieved in the near cipate in any use of nuclear weapons. published an opinion column in the between East and West in the late future. Such participation would amount to International Herald Tribune togeth- 1980s.“8 Agnieszka Brugger, Member of the a war crime, and Germany should put er with Helmut Schmidt, Richard von Genscher continues: “In my view, Bundestag, Spokesperson for secu- an end to any form of nuclear partici- Weizsäcker and Hans-Dietrich Gen- talking about Germany’s responsibi- rity and disarmament and chairwo- pation. The following discussion with scher, making the case for a nuclear lity means that we, who renounced man of the Defence Committee and the audience was confrontational free world.7 They were all politicians the use and possession of weapons the sub-committee for disarmament, and showed that the dividing line bet- with contacts to the German Pugwash of mass destruction in the Two-plus- arms control and non-proliferation, ween partisans of the Humanitarian group or at least with an interest in its Four Agreement, must now work in championed the objectives of the Hu- Initiative and an arms control appro- work. Their voices are sadly missing in close consultation our allies to esta- manitarian Initiative who argues that ach has widened. today’s European and global debate. blish an ambitious disarmament plan it is time to ban the use of nuclear we- Since the commemoration on July They said: “Our century‘s keyword is that will fill our common European apons under any circumstances. The 9th 2015 in Berlin the international cooperation. No global problem - be it home with a new spirit. This requires step-by-step security policy appro- situation has been deteriorating sig- the issue of environment and climate new thinking and the ability to reco- ach and the global ban requested by nificantly. The Syrian war seems to be protection, providing for the energy gnise and encourage new develop- a coalition of 150 UN Member States never-ending causing many innocent needs of a growing world population ments.” clearly go in a different direction and casualties. The fighting in Afghanis- or tackling the financial crisis - can be „To think in a new way” is also a ma- are colliding in the short run. Brugger tan and Iraq is as bloody as ever and resolved by confrontation or the use xim of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, demanded that the German govern- the armed conflict in the Eastern Uk- of military force.” The last of the Great which must be acted upon to overco- ment insisted on the withdrawal of raine is not solved. Then Foreign Mi-
18 BARTOSCH/NEUNECK/WUNDERLE PREFACE 19
nister Frank-Walter Steinmeier said tes. The youth of today and tomorrow All contributions in this documentation represent the authors‘ views as of July
in June 2015 in Stuttgart: “Peace in a deserve far more.”10 9, 2015, first published in June 2016. In view of the central role Egon Bahr‘s and
world which makes its own rules. Pea- How can an effective policy be put Harold Kroto‘s texts played in the discussion at the time, the other authors agreed
ce in which conflicts arise over the ne- into practice? Finding the route to a not to update their own texts, thus giving a historic snapshot of the challenges
gotiating table and no longer over the world without nuclear weapons re- facing nuclear disarmament 60 years after the Russell-Einstein Manifesto.
flashes of machine gun fire. That was quires new thinking, courage and uni-
the founding idea of the United Na- ty. After Obama’s Prague speech, Sam
tions, and its task is not complete, cer- Nunn said that the top of the moun- Eichstätt, Hamburg and Berlin, July 30th 2017
tainly not in a world which seems to tain, a nuclear-free world, was now Ulrich Bartosch, Götz Neuneck, Ulrike Wunderle
have come loose from its moorings.”9 in sight. One would like to add that
The current volume cannot handle all there are several routes to the top and
the future challenges, but it is in the detours, pauses and even failures are 1
See the original text at: https://pugwash.org/1955/07/09/statement-manifesto/
spirit of the Pugwash movement to possible. In any case, a lot of strength 2
See: Sandra Ionno Butcher: The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto by Sandra Ionno
redouble the efforts to contribute to is required, and the seriousness of Butcher: Pugwash History Series #1, May 2005 https://pugwashconferences.files.wordpress.
arms control and disarmament, cri- the danger must first be realised so com/2014/02/2005_history_origins_of_manifesto3.pdf
sis management and war prevention as not to avoid the necessary efforts. 3
See the Pugwash Homepage: www.pugwash.org
especially where nuclear weapons are This is the legacy Egon Bahr leaves us 4
See: Götz Neuneck: Die Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. Ein Beispiel für er-
involved. in his last public speech in Germany. folgreiche “Track-II-Diplomacy“ der Naturwissenschaftler im Kalten Krieg, in: Christian Forstner,
Obviously, the task ahead has not The urgency of the situation was also Dieter Hoffmann (Hrsg.): Physik im Kalten Krieg. Beiträge zur Physikgeschichte während des Ost-
become easier during the last ye- the motive for the authors of the Rus- West-Konflikt, Springer Spektrum, Wiesbaden 2013, p. 243-263.
ars. Newly elect US President Trump sell-Einstein Manifesto. The mani- 5
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/
seems not committed to invest in festo ends with the following perspi- 6
See: https://pugwash.org/2015/11/05/2015-nagasaki-declaration/
any kind of coherent future crisis di- cuous words: 7
See the article which appeared in print on January 9, 2009, in The International Herald Tribune
plomacy casting doubts on key arms “There lies before us, if we choo- http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/09/opinion/09iht-edschmidt.1.19226604.html
control accords such as the N-START se, continual progress in happiness, 8
Hans Dietrich Genscher: Meine Sicht der Dinge, Berlin 2015, p. 10 (translation of the passages
treaty or the JCPOA agreement of knowledge, and wisdom. Shall we, in- by Renate FitzRoy).
the EU3+3 with Iran. Moral maxims stead, choose death, because we can- 9
Speech by Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier entitled “The World has come loose from
such as those extolled in a letter by not forget our quarrels? We appeal, its Moorings”, on the occasion of the Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchentag, Stuttgart; http://www.
Pope Francis in December 2014, can as human beings, to human beings: auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/Infoservice/Presse/Reden/2015/150606_Kirchentag.html
be generally agreed upon. The pope Remember your humanity, and forget 10
Message of his Holiness Pope Francis on the occasion of the Vienna Conference on the Hu-
emphasised that “nuclear deterrence the rest. If you can do so, the way lies manitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons (7. Dezember 2014), see: https://w2.vatican.va/content/
and the threat of mutually assured open to a new Paradise; if you cannot, francesco/en/messages/pont-messages/2014/documents/papa-francesco_20141207_mes-
destruction cannot be the basis for there lies before you the risk of univer- saggio-conferenza-vienna-nucleare.html
an ethics of fraternity and peaceful sal death.”
coexistence among peoples and sta-Russell-Einstein Manifesto – 60 years on
Photo: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, 1955
Press conference in London on July 9th 1955: Bertrand Russell (right)
reads out the Russell-Einstein Manifesto23
Opening address by the VDW Chairman
ULRICH BARTOSCH
“We appeal, as human beings to circumstances. Is it worth it now that
human beings: Remember your the final threat seems to be unfound-
humanity, and forget the rest” ed “if you cannot, there lies before you
the risk of universal death”?
I feel privileged and honoured to wel- It is apparently well worth it –
come you all to this event commem- otherwise none of you would have
orating the 60th anniversary of the accepted the invitation for today’s
publication of the Russell-Einstein conference. Good evening, ladies and
Manifesto, and I am the first person gentlemen. On behalf of the cooper-
to quote a core sentence of the man- ating organisations NatWiss, IALANA,
ifesto that will possibly be repeated IPPNW, the German-Japanese peace
in the various contributions many forum, the German Pugwash section
times over: “We appeal, as human and VDW, I would like to extend a
beings to human beings: Remember warm welcome to all of you. I dare say
your humanity, and forget the rest” a revisit is even more urgent, or we
This sentence from the manifesto would not have such illustrious com-
Photo: Leonard Bartosch, 2015 (Part of larger picture ) contains the pinnacle of human wis- pany in our discussions tonight. It is
Prof. Dr. Ulrich Bartosch (VDW Chairman 2009–2015, centre) in conversation with dom in a nutshell, but can it be more a particular honour to us to welcome
Prof. Dr. Klaus Gottstein (left) and Prof. Dr. Hartmut Graßl (right) than just a pipe dream? The message the erstwhile Brandt cabinet minis-
has been expounded in many guises ter Professor Egon Bahr and Profes-
through religion, the arts and philoso- sor Klaus Gottstein in our midst. I am
phy throughout the history of human sure all other participants will under-
culture. However, it often met with stand that I welcome you both before
condescension and ridicule. Unper- all others. Dear Egon Bahr, we are
turbed, the manifesto even promises: delighted to see you here, and many
“If you can do so, the way lies open to thanks to you, dear Klaus Gottstein,
a new Paradise“. Is it worth then, to re- for coming all the way to Berlin. In
visit the pipe dream, considering that my view, your presence at our meet-
the document, written in 1955, was ing underlines that we are dealing
conceived under completely different with a serious issue. In this context,24 ULRICH BARTOSCH OPENING ADDRESS 25
Gottstein sometimes quotes Joseph to unite beyond all political differenc- the danger is to themselves and their Commissioner for Disarmament and
Rotblat saying that time has become es to discuss and avert the danger. children and their grandchildren, and Arms Control at the German Feder-
very precious because he had very What might have seemed an ideal- not only to a dimly apprehended hu- al Foreign Office, Agnieszka Brugger,
little left. It was therefore important istic political concept of overcoming manity”, warns the manifesto. The member of the German Bundestag,
to use it for the things that needed war was the only realistic option left dangers are as real as ever and the Reiner Braun, co-chairman of the In-
to get done. Is commemorating the in realpolitik. situation has become more complex. ternational Peace Bureau and Otto
Russell-Einstein Manifesto one such The realistic idealism of the signa- Sixty years after their predecessors, Jäckel, chairman of IALANA. Many
thing? tories was shared by other scientists. Nobel laureates launched another thanks to you all for your involvement
The manifesto demanded noth- A few days later in Germany, on July Mainau declaration at their 2015 and collaboration.
ing less than a new way of thinking. 15th 1955, the Mainau declaration meeting, this time to bring home to Ladies and gentlemen, we will first
It gave mankind just one dramatic was published out of the same con- the public that climate change is a show a video message by Professor
choice – either war would be abol- cern. One of its main proponents was danger that rivals nuclear apocalypse. Harold Kroto, Nobel laureate of 1996.
ished or humankind would face ex- co-founder of the VDW, Carl Friedrich Both require new ways of thinking A close ally and friend of Joseph Rot-
tinction. Being able to change the von Weizsäcker. He was also involved and concerted action. The security blat for many years, he will look at the
world through thinking was a key hy- in the wording of the 1957 Göttingen aspect of climate change is a special world from Rotblat’s perspective. Be-
pothesis shared by Russell, Einstein, declaration and took later part in two focus of Prof. Jürgen Scheffran’s work. fore passing on the baton to NatWiss
Rotblat and eight other signatories of Pugwash conferences that took up A warm welcome to you, Jürgen. We chairman Nina Knöchelmann, who
the manifesto. Can we really change work as a direct result of the manifes- will also discuss the abolition of nu- will facilitate tonight’s discussions, I
the world through our thinking? Such to. We will soon learn more about it. clear weapons. Our competent panel would like to thank the team that pre-
idealism may seem preposterous and These are important and interest- will be chaired by Prof. Götz Neuneck, pared tonight’s event – in particular
naive, disconnected from reality. His- ing milestones, but what makes them whom I would like to thank for the Lucas Wirl, Pascal Luig and Dr. Ulrike
tory seems to teach us a different les- relevant today is that the demands of preparation of our meeting. The other Wunderle.
son. the manifesto have lost none of their members of the panel will be intro- I wish us all helpful thoughts and
And yet the signatories had learned urgency. There has not been a single duced later. I welcome Ambassador good discussions – thank you all again
from their experience that scientific hour when human beings could have Susanne Baumann, Deputy Federal for coming.
thinking had changed the world pro- believed that the danger had been
foundly. The military application of dealt with. Although we have been ex-
nuclear research enabled humans to periencing peaceful changes – where
destroy their own race. It was the re- else but in Berlin can you be more
sult of scientific curiosity and techni- aware of it – but the possibility of war
cal know-how. The punchline is that is still with us. It may have come as a
not only did self-destruction arise as surprise to many that war has become
a possibility, it even seemed the most established as a political instrument
likely outcome, and it was the scien- in Europe again. Are we aware of the
tists who were aware of the danger. dangers associated with it? “People
They were therefore under obligation scarcely realize in imagination that27
60 Years Russell-Einstein Manifesto:
Video message referring to Joseph Rotblat and his mission*
HAROLD KROTO
It is a great honour to be asked to with that power responsibility is very
open this conference. Probably as important – they have to now direct
good as any reason is that in the last their efforts to change the attitudes
few years of his life I became a close of the people who would have the big
friend of Jo Rotblat, who I consider business.
one of the two or three great men that I am reminded of one of the great
I have got to know well, but only in the lines of Jo, which is „Remember your
last few years of his life when I inter- humanity and forget the rest“. I just
viewed him. I have interviewed to a love that statement, that comment,
lot of people, but I think these are the and I use it very often. Because we
most important interviews that I have see that industry now making money
ever done. seems to be more important in con-
I often use part of his Nobel Lecture trolling the way that countries and
when I talk to young people about re- people behave. It is a big problem be-
Photo: Leonard Bartosch, 2015 (Part of larger picture ) sponsibility. I have often gone to Lin- cause I think many of them, not only
Prof. Dr. Harold Kroto’s message is shown at the conference. dau, where some of the people who have they forgotten their humanity, I
are really movers and shakers of the am not sure they ever had any.
world meet, who will get to the posi- This conference should start to
tions of major responsibility. think very carefully about whom they
I think things have changed since should direct their attention to. My
Jo and Pugwash tried to change the view is that it is the leaders of indus-
world. I think what has happened is try.
that governments are no longer in And one sees that when, for in-
control. Big business is now in control. stance, just recently a humanitarian
Young people who are in positions comment was made by a minister of
of power, they are responsible – and a particular country, a humanitari-
*Video message to the conference on July 9th 2015 with the support of IALANA, presented to
the public on YouTube.de with an introduction by Reiner Braun, managing director of IALANA,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vWXyRBdRZA28 HAROLD KROTO an comment with regard to another This is an indication of the prob- country that is very low down on the lems of the future. My motto for this list of human rights. The country in conference and for people with re- question broke off relations. And who sponsibility for saving the world is – was to complain about this? It was we should take it from Joseph Rotblat: the business community within the „Remember your humanity and for- country of that minister that com- get the money.“ plained that they are going to lose their money that they were going to make.
31
Looking back on the Pugwash approach*
KLAUS GOTTSTEIN
Many thanks to Götz Neuneck and the signatories of the Declaration of
the VDW board for inviting me to look the Göttingen Eighteen, drafted by
back and talk about the Pugwash ap- Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and
proach in the context of commemo- published in April 1957, condemning
rating the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. deliberations by Adenauer and Strauß
The VDW is particularly well-placed to equip the Bundeswehr with nucle-
to commemorate the Russell-Einstein ar weapons.
Manifesto that was drafted by Ber- Although these warnings against
trand Russell and then made public the devastating consequences of a
at a press conference in London this nuclear war have many similarities,
day 60 years ago. The manifesto was there is a major difference between
seminal to the Pugwash conferences, the Russell-Einstein Manifesto on
in which the VDW since its foundation the one hand and the Mainau Decla-
acted as the German Pugwash dele- ration and many other later calls for
gation. In the early years, it represent- maintaining peace in the atomic age
ed West Germany only. and for nuclear disarmament, on the
Photo: Leonard Bartosch, 2015 (Part of larger picture ) The Russell-Einstein Manifesto other hand. Russell was not satisfied
Prof. Dr. Klaus Gottstein (right) during the panel discussion with Prof. Dr. Egon Bahr warned against the lethal threats with appealing to decision makers to
to humankind from the nuclear we- behave rationally, but he also appe-
apons of the superpowers, in parti- aled to experts in the relevant scien-
cular after the invention and testing ces to come together and work out
of the H-bomb. Six days later, on July new ways to overcome obstacles that
1955, 18 Nobel laureates from all stood in the way of abolishing nuclear
over the world responded to an ini- weapons and maintaining peace. He
tiative by Otto Hahn and launched took concrete steps to organise such a
the Mainau Declaration, which also meeting of scientists and looked into
warned of the dangers of nuclear ar- funding sources and a suitable venue.
mament. Otto Hahn was also one of In the end, Russell decided to accept
*Speech given on July 9th 201532 KLAUS GOTTSTEIN LOOKING BACK ON THE PUGWASH APPROCH 33
an offer by industrialist Cyrus Eaton, rallel and plenary sessions topics like working groups came up with thoro- both sides. The Pugwashites were in-
who was prepared to finance the hazards arising from the use of ato- ughly researched results that were tent on understanding fully their own
meeting as long as it was held in his mic energy in peace and war, control then passed on to international deci- government‘s position. They could
birthplace, Pugwash in Canada. And of nuclear weapons and the social re- sion makers and the public to make then explore how this position could
this is where the first Pugwash Con- sponsibility of scientists, which are as them aware of the enormous dest- be made palatable to the other side
ference on Science and World Affairs relevant today as they were then. The ructive potential of nuclear warfare or what alternatives or compromises
took place in July 1957. results of the consultations were then and of the risk of inadvertently or er- would be possible.
The declaration by the Göttingen published in a comprehensive decla- roneously triggered nuclear attacks. Both sides informed their gover-
Eighteen also went further than a call ration.1 Such attacks could be launched in the nments about how the meeting had
for politicians to take action or refrain It was decided in the end that this erroneous belief that a hostile attack gone and what results had been
from action, as so often happens in type of conferences should be conti- was already on its way. Research also achieved. The governments were then
political life. What made the decla- nued. When the VDW was founded it included an accurate assessment of free to test officially the practicability
ration of eighteen leading German was clear that their aims were largely the limited effectiveness of measures of the suggestions without mentio-
nuclear researchers stand out was congruent with those of the Pugwash planned by governments to protect ning the Pugwash source.
the concrete commitment they made conference and its successors. Over and help the population in case of a When I was the spokesman of the
by stating that “none of the signato- the years, groups of Pugwash parti- nuclear disaster. German Pugwash group, I met, at the
ries would be prepared to take part in cipants formed in several countries There was another important con- German Ministry of Defence, with Ge-
the production, testing or use of nuc- and there was a consensus that VDW tribution the Pugwash conferences neral Altenburg, then Inspector Ge-
lear weapons in any form whatsoe- would take over this function for Wes- made to consolidating the precarious neral of the Bundeswehr, to discuss
ver.” This made quite an impact! The tern Germany, although not all VDW peace during the Cold War with its the German position on questions
declaration had another concrete members became ‘Pugwashites’. recurrent crises – the use of existing of disarmament in order to enable
outcome – the foundation of the Fe- The second Pugwash Conferen- good relationships that the Acade- me to start from established facts at
deration of German Scientists VDW ce took place in the Canadian winter mies of Science and national scien- a Pugwash conference to be held in
by other scientists – mainly physicists resort Lac Beauport in spring 1958. tific societies enjoyed, even at times Poland. Several talks were held with
– who had not been invited to sign the Weizsäcker took part. The conference when official contacts between go- officials in the Foreign Office, and in
Göttingen declaration, but supported lasted for 12 days and discussed The vernments had broken down. Un- one instance, one of them took part in
it and wanted to work towards an end dangers of the present situation, The noticed by the public, scientists were a Pugwash workshop in Geneva.
to the nuclear arms race and the dan- means of eliminating the immediate able to exert a kind of second-track Some federal governments appre-
gers it entailed for humankind. Some dangers and The means of relaxing diplomacy by meeting with their col- ciated what Pugwash had to offer.
signatories of the Göttingen decla- tension. The papers, along with the leagues from the other side of the Iron Thus, Foreign Minister and Vice Chan-
ration, in particular Carl Friedrich v. proceedings, filled four volumes with Curtain and airing the options for a cellor Willy Brandt invited three emi-
Weizsäcker and Werner Heisenberg, nearly one thousand pages. continuation of official inter-govern- nent VDW members (Konrad Raiser,
could be persuaded by its founders to In the following years, the Pug- mental negotiations that had ground Eberhard Menzel and Hellmut Glu-
collaborate in the VDW. wash approach to conferences began to a halt or broken down, and by brecht) to exchange views on the re-
The Pugwash conference of 1957 to prevail in the VDW. It meant that trying to find out what steps towards sults of the great Ronneby Pugwash
had been a success, discussing in pa- existing expertise was harnessed or solutions would be acceptable for conference in 1967. He asked Pug-34 KLAUS GOTTSTEIN LOOKING BACK ON THE PUGWASH APPROCH 35
wash delegates to convey a more ac- arms control and trust-building. The- were complemented by issues such (1) Advise governments by presen-
curate interpretation of the German se include the Partial Test Ban Treaty as chemical and biological weapons, ting them options on how to resolve
position on the draft to the Treaty on of 1963 that outlawed all nuclear conventional armament and the crises peacefully and find viable so-
the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear We- tests in the atmosphere, under water arms trade, as well as general issues lutions to arms control and disarma-
apons to their Eastern counterparts. and in space, as well as the Nuclear of maintaining peace and global se- ment.
In October 1967, Horst Afheldt tal- Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968, the curity, including regional and ethnic (2) Familiarise independent scien-
ked about the results of the Ronneby Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) of conflict resolution. All these topics tists with the details of the problems
conference to the commanders of 1972, the Biological Weapons Con- enriched the agenda of Pugwash con- at hand so that they can use their ex-
the Military Academy of the German vention of 1972, SALT (Strategic Arms ferences, symposia and workshops. pertise effectively.
Armed Forces and the Army Officers Limitation Talks) and the CSCE (Con- They also included sustainable de- (3) Alert the public about immi-
College as well as other leading of- ference on Security and Cooperation velopment in the Third World, po- nent threats so that they can develop
ficers at a meeting at Haus Rissen. In in Europe). The VDW enabled Ger- pulation growth and migration, the an understanding for solutions that
August 1977, a great Pugwash confe- man scientists to take part in these destruction of the environment and might at first sight be unpopular, but
rence was held in Munich and opened important developments through the waste of energy. These global pro- are necessary. The public may then
by the Federal Minister for Research their Pugwash connections. This, in blems have the potential to threaten be able to support politicians who are
and Technology Hans Matthöfer. His turn, had the effect that the annual the security of today’s population as prepared to implement such measu-
Ministry enabled the VDW to fund the conferences and working sessions of well as future generations and were res.
conference, while Federal President the VDW often dealt with topics si- therefore included in the VDW’s agen- The current dangerous conflicts in
Walter Scheel, Chancellor Helmut milar to those discussed at Pugwash da soon after its foundation. the world provide plenty of scope for
Schmidt and UN General Secretary conferences and workshops so that According to Rotblat, the objectives applying the Pugwash approach. May
Kurt Waldheim sent addresses to the these were made accessible to more of the “Pugwash movement”, as The it continue to be successful.
delegates. In 1989, President Richard German scientists. But also the rever- Pugwash Conferences are often cal-
von Weizsäcker awarded Professor se occurred: Sometimes insights from led, can be summarised under three
Joseph Rotblat the Knight Comman- VDW meetings reached the interna- aspects:
der’s Cross of the Order of Merit of the tional Pugwash circuit through VDW
Federal Republic of Germany to mark delegates. 1
These details and some of the following ones on the first four Pugwash Conferences can be
his 80th birthday and in recognition Over time, the scope of Pugwash found in J. Rotblat, Scientists in the Quest for Peace, The MIT Press, Cambridge 1972.
of his achievements for détente and conferences became larger. They no
arms control. longer were completely restricted to
It is fair to say that since their on- what was the main concern at the
set in 1957, the Pugwash conferences time of the Russell-Einstein Manifes-
with their special approach played an to, nuclear armament, disarmament,
important part in crisis management stability measures in crisis situations
and detente during the Cold War and and non-proliferation of nuclear we-
have contributed towards the nego- apons. These remained at the he-
tiation of important agreements on art of the Pugwash movement, but37
Science and Peace*
JÜRGEN SCHEFFRAN
The end of the Second World War under restrictions after the war, in the
marks a watershed in the German hope that nuclear fission could now
history of science and for many scien- be used for peaceful purposes.
tists also a personal watershed. A lar- The 1950s saw the Cold War un-
ge number of scientists and enginee- folding, and the nuclear arms race
rs played a key role in the war efforts threatened peace and life on Earth.
under the Nazi regime and some have A number of eminent scientists be-
become guilty of war crimes. German gan to unite against the increasing
engineers who had been involved in danger of a new war. These included
the V2 missile programme went on to Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein,
help the USA and the USSR to develop whose manifesto was published on
their missile systems and attained July 9th 1955 and warned in resolute
questionable reputation, whereas the terms against a nuclear disaster, call-
situation of physicists involved in the ing for sustainable ways to avert it.
German nuclear weapons program- The co-signatories, one of whom was
me took a completely different di- Joseph Rotblat, who had left the Man-
Photo: Lucas Wirl, 2015 (Part of larger picture ) rection. In comparison to their rivals hattan Project in 1944, established
Prof. Dr. Jürgen Scheffran during his talk on science and peace working on the US Manhattan Pro- the international Pugwash move-
ject, they had failed, either delibera- ment in 1957. Pugwash used con-
tely, as Werner Heisenberg later sug- tacts between scientists to mediate in
gested, or due to faulty calculations the East-West conflict.
and a lack of equipment. Their deten- In Germany, too, scientists became
tion in Farm Hall at the end of the war increasingly aware of their social re-
did not bring the full truth to light, but sponsibility and went public. Only a
highlighted the inner conflicts and few days after the Russell-Einstein
worries of some nuclear researchers. Manifesto, several Nobel laureates,
They were able to continue their work including Otto Hahn as one of the
*Talk given at the meeting of July 9th 2015, based on an article by the author in the journal
Wissenschaft und Frieden (2005/4), which has been modified and updated38 JÜRGEN SCHEFFRAN SCIENCE AND PEACE 39 initiators, published the Mainau to stop nuclear tests – the chemist furt (PRIF) and the Institute for Peace of their curriculum. There were meet- declaration that warned against the and co-signatory of the Russell-Ein- Research and Security Policy at the ings and exchanges between student misuse of nuclear energy and took stein Manifesto, Linus Pauling. He University of Hamburg (IFSH). Sci- peace activist groups all over Ger- a stand against nuclear armament. drew up a petition that made the entific aspects were also part of the many, complemented by the Forum When the German Chancellor Konrad public aware of the health implica- peace research debate, particularly Naturwissenschaftler für Frieden und Adenauer and his Defence Minister, tions of radioactive fallout. The cam- at the Max Planck Institute found- Abrüstung (forum of scientists for Franz-Josef Strauß considered equip- paign proved successful and led to the ed by von Weizsäcker in Starnberg peace and disarmament) which was ping the Bundeswehr with nuclear ban of all nuclear tests in the atmos- (Max-Planck-Institut zur Erforschung founded in Münster weapons, the scientific elite protest- phere, under water and in space in der Lebensbedingungen der wis- Science-focused activities culmi- ed. On April 12th 1957, the Göttingen 1963. Underground testing, however, senschaftlich-technischen Welt). In nated in the Mainz conference enti- declaration, initiated by Carl Friedrich was not covered by the ban. Pauling 1971, it published the study Kriegs- tled “Verantwortung für den Frieden” von Weizsäcker, was published, giving was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize folgen und Kriegsverhütung (con- (Responsibility for Peace) on July 2nd voice to 18 nuclear researchers who in 1962 for his contribution, having sequences and prevention of war), and 3rd 1983 and the declaration opposed German nuclear weapons. already received the Nobel Prize for which set scientific standards for the of the Mainzer 23, which had a wide The government tried to discredit the Chemistry in 1954. assessment of the effects of nuclear media echo. More than 3,000 partic- scientists as out of touch, but the dec- The 1960s also saw the establish- war. ipants came together in Mainz to dis- laration found a resounding echo in ment of peace research institutions, At the beginning of the 1980s, cuss a wide range of topics, including the press and was well received by the such as the Peace Research Institute when the debate over nuclear weap- Pershing-2, SS-20 and cruise missiles, peace movement. The initiative of the Oslo (PRIO) or the Stockholm Inter- ons and Euromissiles preoccupied their accuracy, the possibility of a first Göttingen 18 led to the foundation national Peace Research Institute Europeans, scientific and technical strike, nuclear tests, the consequences of Vereinigung Deutscher Wissen- (SIPRI). In Germany, peace research aspects became crucial. Eventually, of nuclear war, chemical and biologi- schaftler (Federation of German sci- became important within the wid- mid-range missiles were installed in cal weapons, militarisation of space, entists, VDW), the German branch of er context of the student rebellion 1983, the same year when US Pres- military research, the ambivalence of the international Pugwash organisa- and as a result of the social-liberal ident Reagan held his “Star Wars” science and dual use of technology, tion. The VDW has been awarding its coalition government. The Arbeits- speech, which, in turn, launched the arms control and disarmament. Whistleblower Prize for many years to gemeinschaft für Friedens- und Konf- Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), a In this environment, scientists con- scientists who flag up dangerous de- liktforschung (German Association for space-based anti-missile system. tributed important arguments to the velopments and are prepared to take Peace and Conflict Studies, AFK) was As a result of the peace movement, peace debate. A key aspect was the personal risks in doing so. founded in 1968 as a coordination the Krefeld Appeal and widespread clarification and communication of In the 1950s and 60s, the interna- centre for peace research, while the large demonstrations, students and complex matters in weapons tech- tional scientific community and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Friedens- academics became more interested nology through seminars such as peace movement focused on nucle- und Konfliktforschung (DGFK), found- in the interaction between science, Physik und Rüstung (Physics and Ar- ar tests. The fallout from these tests ed in 1970, ensured that state fund- war and peace, among them many mament), a brochure on SDI that was caused radioactive contamination of ing was available for peace research. natural scientists. Many universities widely distributed, a series of wall the environment. One scientist in par- Further institutions emerged, such as held seminars and multi-disciplinary newspapers or the magazine Wissen- ticular took the lead in the campaign the Peace Research Institute Frank- lectures– making war and peace part schaft und Frieden, giving great at-
40 JÜRGEN SCHEFFRAN SCIENCE AND PEACE 41 tention to scientific aspects of peace. peace research in Germany became und Sicherheit (Interdisciplinary Re- The 1990s began with a sense of eu- The Mainzer 23 declaration and the increasingly professionalised. Young search Group Science, Technology phoria about the possibility of a peace Münster Forum gave rise to the scien- natural scientists who became in- and Security - IANUS) at the Technical dividend, but along came new chal- tists initiative Verantwortung für den volved in the peace movement as University Darmstadt, the Center for lenges for peace. In the disorder after Frieden (“responsibility for peace” – students later made their own con- Science and International Security the Cold War several regions plunged changed now to “for peace and sus- tributions to peace research. As de- (CENSIS) at the University of Ham- into chaos and conflict, including the tainability”), the organisation known velopments in physics were driving burg, the Schleswig-Holsteinisches Iraq wars and the breakup of Yugos- as NatWiss. They organised many the arms race, it made perfect sense Institut für Friedenswissenschaften lavia, the terror attacks of September conferences, promoting the commit- to look at alternatives and solutions (SCHIFF) in Kiel and the Bochum Ver- 11th and today’s crises in the Arab ment for peace in science, the public from an expert’s perspective. A role ification Project. They founded the world and Ukraine. At the same time, domain and politics. At the Göttingen model was found in the community of Forschungsverbund Naturwissen- there have been advancements in the congress against the militarisation of critical scientists in the USA, some of schaft, Abrüstung und internationale technology of warfare and automated space in July 1984, a draft treaty to whom had been involved in building Sicherheit (Research Association for warfighting, in nuclear weapons and restrain the military use of space was the bomb in the Manhattan Project, Science, Disarmament and Interna- missiles proliferation, and the milita- presented which was also discussed and later put their expertise to good tional Security - FONAS). The FONAS risation of outer space. In addition to in the German Bundestag. The debate use in arms control. These associa- expert discussions provided a suita- the classical topics in peace research, about the SDI programme led to an tions include the Union of Concerned ble platform for passing on scientific the possible impacts of environmen- increasing internationalisation of the Scientists, the Federation of Ameri- expertise to political decision-makers, tal and climate change became sub- movement, in particular at the Ham- can Scientists and the Bulletin of the and the Physics and Disarmament jects of research on peace and inter- burg congress in 1986, where over Atomic Scientists with its Doomsday Working Group was established with- national security. After the Rio Earth 4,000 participants came together to Clock. They played a decisive part in in the Deutsche Physikalische Ge- Summit, sustainable development critically focus on the arms race and the criticism of the SDI plans and the sellschaft. New funding opportunities and sustainable peace turned into to develop ways out of it. A transat- development of a space-based missile came with the German Foundation major fields of research. lantic satellite link demonstrated defense system that was at the top of for Peace Research (DSF), which was These were the topics on the minds how international the movement had the agenda in the 1980s. established on FONAS’s suggestion. of the founders of the International become. Conducive for arms control re- One of its greatest achievements was Network of Engineers and Scientists Things were looking hopeful then search in Germany was the grant by a chair funded by the DSF at the Carl for Global Responsibility (INES), which because of the changes in the Soviet the Volkswagen Foundation since Friedrich von Weizsäcker-Zentrum demonstrated the newly-found uni- Union, brought about by Mikhail Gor- 1984 that helped to involve young für Naturwissenschaft und Friedens- fication of the scientific community bachev’s politics of Glasnost and Pe- scientists in peace research. Some forschung (ZNF) at the University at their Berlin conference in 1991. restroika as well as the improvement could thus write their doctoral thesis of Hamburg. The integration of re- In a similar vein, the International of relationships between the super- on peace-related topics in sciences search and teaching made it possible Network of Engineers and Scientists powers that led to some first success- and mathematics. From 1988, entire to attract young scientists to peace Against Proliferation (INESAP) was es in disarmament, the fall of the Ber- research groups were funded, giving research and to offer peace-oriented founded in 1993. At the NPT confer- lin Wall and the end of the Cold War. rise to the Interdisziplinäre Arbeits- Master degrees at the Universities of ence in New York in 1995, they pub- This was the time when scientific gruppe Naturwissenschaft, Technik Marburg and Hamburg. lished a preliminary report entitled
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