THE EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOOS AND AQUARIA - EAZA Nutrition Group News
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THE EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION
OF ZOOS AND AQUARIA
EAZA Nutrition Group News
EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS July 2020
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2 www.kasperfaunafood.nl EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS
Kasper Faunafood, a brand of Arie Blok Animal Nutrition
FOREWORD CONTENTS
Anouk Fens, Nutritionist, Apenheul Primate Park, the Netherlands, and
Chair EAZA Nutrition Group 5 FOOD FOR THOUGHT
Reporting from the 2019 EAZA
Nutrition Conference
O rganised by the EAZA Nutrition
Group (ENG), the 10th European
Zoo Nutrition Conference took place
6 CONFERENCE WISDOM
Just three of the many inspiring
presentations made at the
at Marwell Zoo (UK) in January 2019. 2019 Nutrition Conference
The biennial conference was a huge
success, attended by more than
160 delegates from 30 countries
8 MAKING LIGHT WORK
Providing full-spectrum lighting
for the animals in our care
including USA, Japan, Singapore and
11
Australia. The conference programme A DIET FOR INSECTIVORES
promised to be diverse, including A species-specific approach to
talks on the importance of vitamin feeding insectivores
D, as presented by keynote speaker
Dr Susan Lanham-New, several talks
on the importance of feeding browse
14 STORAGE SOLUTIONS
Alternative techniques for
storing browse
to our herbivores, and a number
of presentations by well-known
members of the zoo nutrition community, including former Chair of the ENG 16 BROWSE: FRESH OR FROZEN?
Is frozen browse as nutritious
as fresh?
Andrea Fidgett. This special nutrition-themed issue of Zooquaria is based on
18
papers and posters presented at Marwell and contains a wide range of topics FEEDING HABITS
demonstrating the importance and relevance of animal nutrition to zoos. The effects of diet and food
Organising a conference and publishing this special nutrition issue requires presentation on flamingos
the help of many individuals and organisations. I would like to express my
gratitude to the organising committee and everyone involved at Marwell for
their efforts in running a very successful conference. Special mention must
20 A PLACE IN THE SUN
Studying primates' need for
vitamin D
go to Joeke Nijboer and Kristina Johansen for all their work in putting together
this issue, as well as Marcus Clauss and Amy Plowman, who were responsible
for reviewing the papers published in this issue. I would like to thank all 21 BACK ON THE MENU
Notes from a recent EAZA
Nutrition Group meeting
authors who contributed to this issue by submitting their articles. Finally, this
issue would not have been published without financial support provided by
sponsorship. I would like to thank Brogaarden, Granovit Zoofeed, Kasper
Faunafood, Kiezebrink International BV and St Laurent for their support.
22 DESIGNER DIET
Finding the right diet for
Paignton's giraffes
The ENG aims to improve the understanding of zoo animal nutrition in
several ways. These include the organisation of the biennial conferences as
well as sourcing and distributing relevant materials, updating the EAZA website 24 CHEWING IT OVER
Why dental anatomy affects an
elephant's eating habits
and ENG Facebook page and liaising with TAGs and zoo nutrition experts
26
across Europe to ensure good communication and collaborations. You will find CREATING A BALANCED
more information on the ENG, its aims and possibilities for membership on DIET
the EAZA public website. How to improve the daily diet
Finally, I would like to take the opportunity to mention the next European of zoo-kept ruminants
Nutrition Conference, which unfortunately had to be cancelled, but currently
a different format is being proposed. Please visit the Events page on the EAZA
website to keep up to date with the latest information.
29 WHY SIZE MATTERS
Studying the effects of pellet
size on lemur eating behaviour
EAZA Nutrition Group News is a production of the EAZA Nutrition Group (ENG).
EDITORIAL BOARD Printing and distribution: PostNL
30 A NEW VIEW ON FEEDING
Why making animals work for
their food can improve their
Managing editor: Joeke Nijboer The contents of this publication do not welfare
Editorial team: Ollie Szyszka, Anouk Fens, necessarily reflect the views and positions
Kristina Johansen, Joeke Nijboer, Marcus of the European Association of Zoos and
Clauss, Amy Plowman
Editorial assistance: David Williams-Mitchell,
Lauren Florisson
Aquaria or ENG. EAZA and ENG are not
responsible for any factual errors herein.
Uncredited photos have been supplied by the
32 FOOD FOR AGED ANIMALS
Using diet to improve the
welfare of older zoo animals
Editor: Jo Swinnerton authors or taken from the EAZA database.
Designer: Louise Tait Cover image © Marwell Zoo, Jason Brown.
EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS 3
zoofeed
Scientific
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Scientific concepts for
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scientific nutrition concepts that keep animals strong and healthy.
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and fermentability of browse. Invited
FOOD FOR THOUGHT speaker Sven Seiffert (Zoological
Society of London) explained the
THE 2019 EUROPEAN ZOO NUTRITION CONFERENCE AT challenges and lessons learned during
MARWELL ZOO REVISITED TOPICS THAT ARE VITAL TO THE 10 years of browse provision.
HEALTH AND WELFARE OF THE ANIMALS IN OUR CARE Other highlights were the two talks
Anouk Fens, Nutritionist, Apenheul Primate Park, the Netherlands, and given by nutrition colleagues from
Chair EAZA Nutrition Group overseas: Dr Andrea Fidgett from San
Diego Zoo and Shannon Livingston
E very two years, the European Zoo
Nutrition Conference brings
together zoo nutritionists, keepers,
The conference also provided an
opportunity for delegates to interact
with sponsors from the commercial
from Disney Animal Kingdom. Their
talks gave us a look inside the ‘kitchen’
of American zoos, in terms of their
veterinarians, researchers and feed feed industry. After the welcome by Dr history, current challenges and future
companies from across the globe to Will Justice, Head of Plants and Animal steps within animal nutrition. Recently,
share their knowledge and Management at Marwell Zoo, the first Andrea Fidgett stepped down as Chair
experience. The 10th European Zoo conference day was opened by David of the ENG and we were delighted to
Nutrition Conference was organised Williams-Mitchell, EAZA’s Director of welcome her back to the conference.
by the EAZA Nutrition Group in Communications and Membership, During the zoo visit, several work-
January 2019, hosted by Marwell Zoo, who delivered an update from EAZA. shop stations were spread throughout
UK. The second ever nutrition The day then kicked off with two the zoo, where information was
conference was due to be held at opening keynote talks addressing the presented on specific zoo animal
Marwell Zoo back in 2001, but was role of vitamin D in health and nutrition topics, such as body
cancelled at the last minute due to nutrition. Professor Susan Lanham- condition scoring, forage sampling,
foot and mouth disease. Although it New (Surrey University) explained the faecal consistency scoring, feeding
took 18 years to bring the conference challenges of vitamin D anatomy and dentition and
back to this venue, the effort was supplementation in human nutrition, conducting a diet change. Delegates
worth it, as this was the biggest and Frances Baines (UV Guide UK) also had an opportunity to explore the
European Zoo Nutrition Conference translated theory into practice by zoo’s collection via guided tours.
yet, attended by 161 delegates from talking about the use of UVB lights The conference also presented an
more than 30 countries, including and full-spectrum lighting solutions. opportunity for students to share the
several attendees from institutions in In general, session topics were results of their research by means of
Japan, Australia and the USA. dedicated to different taxa, including posters and pitches. There were more
Prior to the conference, delegates mammal, reptile and bird nutrition. than 15 scientific posters on show
could attend an EAZA Academy Within mammal nutrition, obesity covering a huge range of topics and
Workshop covering the topic of ‘Meat management in equid species was taxa, showcasing some very
and fish quality, nutrition and feed discussed, along with fruit-free diets interesting research and results. All
presentation’. The workshop was for primates, body condition scores delegates were asked to vote for the
facilitated by Richard Chivers (Food (BCS) in elephants and nutrition for best poster. ‘Browse preference in
Safety Southwest), Dr Len Lipman geriatric zoo animals. Attention was bonobos’ by Dr Sarah Depauw and
(Utrecht University), Professor Dr paid to reptile and bird nutrition as others won with a convincing majority.
Annette Liesegang (University of well; talks included challenges in A huge thank you is owed to the
Zurich) and Professor Dr Marcus raptor nutrition, digestive tract organising committee, which
Clauss (University of Zurich). It differences between Old World consisted of members of the ENG,
combined theoretical information on vultures, feeding regimes in lesser EAZA Executive Office and Marwell
fish and meat quality and nutrition, flamingos and BCS of tortoises. Zoo, for putting together a wonderful
and practical elements on assessing We were happy to welcome a new conference, including a very
fish and meat quality. The workshop topic to the programme, namely interesting series of talks and posters.
was followed by an enjoyable browse quality and storage. The In addition, the ENG was very
icebreaker evening in the nearby provision of browse is becoming more successful at attracting sponsorship
Marwell Hotel, which allowed important within the diets of browsing for the conference. Thank you to
colleagues from around the world to herbivores. However, many zoological sponsors Kaspar Faunafood, Granovit,
engage with each other once more. institutions face challenges in storage Kiezebrink International BV, Lucerne
The programme for the three-day and collection of sufficient quantities for Browsers – Itchen Valley, Mazuri
conference was mostly dedicated to of browse, often only seasonally Zoofoods, St Laurent, Versele-Laga NV
scientific sessions, but also contained available. In this session, results were and Zooprofis for their support and
poster sessions and sponsor pitches, presented on the effects of frozen contribution to the success of the
a zoo visit and a conference dinner. storage on the chemical composition conference.
EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS 5
CONFERENCE WISDOM
THE FOLLOWING ABSTRACTS ARE JUST A FEW EXAMPLES OF THE MANY INFORMATIVE
AND INSPIRING TALKS THAT WERE GIVEN DURING THE 10TH EUROPEAN ZOO
NUTRITION CONFERENCE, HELD AT MARWELL ZOO IN JANUARY 2019
Practical raptor nutrition: how, mass as daily food intake. The proliferation. The potential risks of
why and when it goes wrong consumption of a prey animal by zoonotic infections should always be
and how to avoid the pitfalls a raptor involves the bird eating considered when handling raptors or
Neil Forbes, Great Western Exotic casting (fur and feather), muscle, their food.
Vets, Wiltshire, UK bone, viscera and the prey’s gut
content. In supplying food to captive References
D iseases of raptors in human care
related to the food they have
consumed are many and varied. This
birds, all these elements should be
considered.
Foods available for feeding to
• Kirkwood, J.K. (1980). Maintenance
energy requirements and rate of
weight loss during starvation in birds
paper highlights the basic principles captive raptors include day-old chick of prey. In Cooper & Greenwood
of raptor nutrition, together with the (doc), ‘grown-ons’ (chickens or turkeys (Eds.) Recent Advances in the Study of
risks associated with ingestion of of several weeks old), quail, rabbit, Raptor Diseases, pp. 153–157. Chiron
foods of varying provenance. Feeding various rodents, beef, venison, lamb Publications, Yorks., UK.
in special circumstances will be and horsemeat. More than 50% of
addressed. UK raptor keepers feed only day-old Survey of feeding practices and
Nutrition must be provided so as chicks. Any diet limited to one source nutrition of captive Aldabra
to ensure freedom ‘from hunger, is likely to be unsatisfactory. There are giant tortoise (Geochelone
thirst by ready access to fresh water marked interspecies differences in gigantea) populations in EAZA
and a diet to maintain full health and nutritional requirement. institutions
vigour.’ The risks associated with Daniel Harrold, Amy Plowman &
certain foods must be appreciated Source and storage of food Luke Harding, Wild Planet Trust,
and assessed. Supplements, Wholesomeness, source, method Paignton Zoo Environmental Park,
probiotics, vitamins and minerals of killing, freezing and storage must UK
may be necessary at times of stress be appropriate. Raptor food species
and increased metabolic demand receiving ante mortem medication Zoo animal nutrition is an ever-
(growing, training, breeding, moulting must have an appropriate withdrawal developing field within conservation
or following illness). Infectious period. Once killed, any food must be biology research and is crucially
diseases are less likely if mammalian quickly and effectively frozen to avoid important for the longevity of
rather than avian food is provided. any bacterial proliferation. Frozen often-threatened taxa housed
Each raptor species has evolved to fill food in transit must not defrost and within institutions. Herpetological
an ecological niche. In the absence of frozen storage must not exceed nutrition, at the genus or species
detailed nutritional data the dietary three months. Foods should be level at least, remains in its infancy.
needs are most likely to be met by defrosted (at 4-8oC), to avoid bacterial Ex situ collections should strive to
feeding a diet approximating to that
which would be taken, under ideal
conditions, in the wild (Kirkwood,
1980).
The maintenance energy
requirement of raptors is 110Kcal/
kg 0.75/day. The daily intake as a
percentage of bodyweight is as
follows:
• 100g bird – 25%
• 700g bird – 15%
• 1,200g bird – 10.7%
• 4,000g bird – 6.25%
• 7,000g bird – 3.5%
It can be seen that larger birds eat
more food but require a significantly
smaller percentage of their body
6 EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS
formulate species-specific diets for feeding practices. There were few the nutritional effect of adding these
as many reptile and amphibian taxa physiological conditions noted, ingredients.
as possible to improve ex situ health which provides reassurance that Emulsifiers are thickening agents
and welfare. Aldabra giant tortoises these tortoises are adequately which are used daily in cooking a
(Geochelone gigantea) are common maintained with the provided diets. variety of foods, such as soups,
and charismatic reptiles and are kept The poor fecundity rate and hatching sauces and desserts. Xanthan gum,
in many European collections. There success, along with large dietary guar gum and gelatine were used for
is sparse published literature on zoo variation within European collections, this study. Xanthan gum is developed
nutrition for these giants compared may mean that this species will by fermenting corn sugar, which
to the closely related Galapagos greatly benefit from published best creates a microbial polysaccharide.
tortoises (Chelonoidis spp.). practice guidelines. Increased data- Guar gum is created from guar beans.
A dietary survey was sent to 44 sharing and collaboration between Gelatine is produced from animal
EAZA institutions with G. gigantea institutions should be promoted for collagen. Four feed mixtures were
registered in their living collections this and other related species. produced: Termant alone, Termant
on ZIMS (Species360). Responses and xanthan gum, Termant and guar
from 18 collections (41%) from seven Nutritional analysis on gum, and Termant and gelatine, all at
nations were received, accounting for aardvarks in human care and a ratio of 200:1. In addition to the four
92 tortoises. Survey questions ranged separation solution of termant mixtures, four different ratios of water
from population demographics to using emulsifiers dilution were tested to determine the
basic husbandry practices, which then Hannah Davies, Jo Bond & Kerry ideal amount needed for producing a
focused on modes of feeding, health Hunt, University Centre Sparsholt, UK stable Termant slurry.
and breeding success. Quantitative A ratio of 200:1 Termant to
data was plotted graphically to emulsifier was utilised for each
evaluate common trends. emulsifier, using 15g of Termant
Average population size was 4.84 with 0.075g of emulsifier. Four
individuals with a sex ratio of 1:1 different dilutions were also used
and a mean age of 28.3 years (range to see whether this had an impact;
nine to 157 years). Seventy-eight these were 2ml of water per gram
per cent of institutions report no of Termant, 2.125ml/g, 2.25ml/g
current health problems. Sixty-one and 2.5ml/g. Time-lapse cameras
per cent of collections highlight a lack on an iPad were used to record the
of mating and breeding, but this is separation over a six-hour period. The
unremarkable as 54% of individuals The aardvark (Orycteropus afer) is a speed of separation was measured,
are under the age of 20 years and myrmecophagous species. In the as was the amount of separation in
so are not sexually mature. Thirty- wild, termites make up the majority millimetres.
nine per cent of collections do not of the aardvark's diet. In addition, The results suggest there is a
vary their diet sheets seasonally; this species feeds on locusts, ants, significant difference (p
MAKING LIGHT WORK
IF ALL OF OUR ANIMALS NEED FULL-SPECTRUM LIGHTING, HOW CAN WE PROVIDE IT?
Frances M. Baines, UV Guide UK
A nutrient is defined as a
substance or ingredient that is
ingested or absorbed that promotes
to most reptiles and amphibians,
a wide range of bird species and a
surprising number of mammals. Its
attention – short-wavelength
infra-red. This, unlike longer
wavelengths emitted by heat panels
growth, provides energy and provision is therefore psychologically and radiators, penetrates the skin
maintains life. So it makes sense that important, enabling full colour vision to significant depths. It warms
this does not exclude full-spectrum in these animals. effectively without overheating the
lighting, as this is certainly absorbed skin surface. It also has biological
– by the skin, over the entire body of VISIBLE LIGHT activity, upregulating more than
any animal in daylight. Visible light is often regarded as 100 genes, stimulating cell growth
necessary purely for vision; this and the immune system, promoting
VITAMIN D3 could not be further from the truth. wound healing and protecting
Full-spectrum lighting, including Non-visual perception of light levels against UV damage.
UVB, is most often recommended has far-reaching effects on the brain
to enable vitamin D3 synthesis via a neuro-endocrine network. This FULL-SPECTRUM LIGHTING FOR
in the skin. Vitamin D3 has a vital sets circadian rhythms and controls ALL?
endocrine function – maintaining the levels of neurotransmitters and We now have extremely good,
calcium homeostasis – but recent pituitary hormones, which affect readily available full-spectrum
research has revealed it as a potent most physiological processes, lighting solutions for almost
regulator of gene transcription, too, including growth, reproduction anything, from a tiny dartfrog
with particularly important effects on and responses to stress. Natural vivarium to a huge primate
the immune system. sunlight may reach over 100,000 lux; enclosure. The questions we need
We still know little about the actual typical indoor lighting may be two to answer now are ‘How much light
daily vitamin D3 requirements of orders of magnitude below this level. does this animal need?’ and ‘How
exotic animals. Very few natural diets Irradiance levels matter. can we supply it?’
contain more than traces of vitamin
D3; it seems likely that many wild SHORT-WAVELENGTH INFRA-RED HOW MUCH LIGHT DOES THIS
vertebrates rely upon cutaneous (IR-A) ANIMAL NEED?
physiological and behavioural Sunlight contains one further Species vary widely in their native
adaptations to ensure that ambient ‘nutrient’ that rarely receives habitats, and hence their lighting
UVB levels in the microhabitat
of each species are sufficient for
optimal D3 production.
ULTRAVIOLET
UVB has direct local effects on
skin. An excess is harmful and
can cause significant damage to
living skin cells, but exposure to
levels naturally experienced by the
species in question is beneficial. It
is a disinfectant. It modulates the
skin’s immune system, stimulates
lymphocytes and melanocytes
and enables beta-endorphin
synthesis. UVA stimulates nitric
oxide production in the skin; this
acts as a vasodilator, improving
skin circulation, and also protects
cells against UV damage. UVA is
also part of the visible spectrum
Figure 1: The physiological effect of sunlight.
8 EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS
Figure 2: Interpreting the 'Ferguson zones' as microhabitats of suitable UV index ranges for all taxa.
requirements in human care also used for skylights and windows. visible light can be provided by
vary. Exposure to light depends In northern latitudes, however, ‘daylight’ fluorescent tubes or
upon both the microhabitat and the adequate levels of UVB for tropical compact lamps, by small non-UVB
behaviour of the animal within it. and sub-tropical species may be metal halide lamps or by ‘white light’
Very little research has been done available only for short periods in LEDs – although LEDs provide no
on this, almost all of it in regard to summer. Full-spectrum lighting UVA.
UV. However, similar microhabitats indoors inevitably requires specialist UVB lamps for small enclosures
will have similar UV levels. Ferguson UVB lamps combined with very come in three basic types:
et al. (2010) identified UV ranges bright ‘daylight’ lamps for visible 1 Standard (T8) UVB fluorescent
typical of four basic microhabitats light, plus incandescent lamps or tubes and compact fluorescent
occupied by different species short-wavelength infra-red heaters lamps. These typically have a low
of reptile. These four ranges or for IR-A. UVB output and an unfocused
‘Ferguson Zones’ have been used The aim is always to create a beam. They can be used to create
to estimate suitable UV levels for photogradient, with a ‘patch of small zones of low-level UV, with
reptiles in human care (the BIAZA sunlight’ large enough for the a UV Index up to approximately
RAWG UV-Tool – Baines et al., 2016). occupant to walk into on one side of 1.0 (similar to that found in shade
Since these microhabitats are the enclosure and shade and shelter outdoors), thus suitable for use
common to almost all terrestrial on the other side. with animals in Ferguson Zones 1
species, it seems reasonable to and 2. They need to be combined
experiment with them as guidelines LIGHTING FOR SMALL with bright visible light and infra-
for other taxa, as well. ENCLOSURES red to complete the spectrum.
For a more detailed discussion on In vivariums, terrariums and small 2 T5 High Output (T5-HO) UVB
this, see the December 2015 edition enclosures, simple, old-fashioned fluorescent tubes. These typically
of Zooquaria. incandescent lamps and halogen have a much higher UVB output,
lamps are an excellent source of and a more focused beam
PROVIDING FULL-SPECTRUM visible light and IR-A, plus small when used in a fixture with an
LIGHTING INDOORS amounts of UVA. ‘Spot’ basking aluminium reflector. These can be
When ambient temperatures are bulbs commonly sold for reptiles used to create zones of UVB at
appropriate, access to outdoor do not create wide enough beams, ‘sunlight’ levels, up to around UVI
enclosures can provide real benefit. but ‘flood’ bulbs such as PAR38 and 7.0 – although a maximum around
Indoors, UV-transmitting glass reflectors with frosted front glass UVI 3–5 at the closest point to the
(with up to 50% UVB transmission) and at least 30° beam width are lamp is normally sufficient. They
and UV-transmitting acrylics (up ideal, and can be controlled using are therefore suitable for use with
to 80% UVB transmission) can be dimming thermostats. Additional animals in Ferguson Zones 3 and 4.
EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS 9
High quality ‘daylight’ metal halide
floodlamps of the type used to
illuminate sports halls and floodlight
buildings are probably the best
indoor substitute for the visible and
UVA parts of the solar spectrum.
Powerful LED floodlights can also be
used, but lack UVA.
As regards UVB, to date only one
type of lamp has proven able to
illuminate large enough areas with
‘sunlight’ levels of UVB: the T5-HO
UVB fluorescent tube. Multi-tube T5-
HO hydroponics fixtures are proving
successful in UK zoos in large
enclosures for reptiles, amphibians,
primates and birds. These are
available in a wide range of sizes, the
Figure 3: Lighting for a small enclosure using a T5-HO 12% UVB tube in largest taking eight 120cm, 54-watt
combination with incandescent and non-UVB metal halide lamps. The UV Index
T5-HO tubes. When T5-HO UVB
iso-irradiance chart for this lamp is overlaid to ‘visualise’ the UV beam.
tubes are installed in these reflective
fixtures, the units can be suspended
These also need to be combined controlled, which is a major up to 2m above the animals.
with bright visible light and infra- disadvantage in small enclosures.
red to complete the spectrum. A NOTE OF CAUTION
3 Mercury vapour UVB lamps and LIGHTING FOR LARGE All UV guidelines to date are
UVB metal halide lamps. These ENCLOSURES just estimates, and the use of
are often sold as ‘all-in-one’ lamps, Providing large, walk-in basking UV with mammals and birds is
providing UV, visible light and IR-A zones and artificial ‘patches of still experimental. It is vital to
all together. Brands vary widely sunlight’ for large animals in room- monitor the levels of UV and the
in their UVB output, and in the sized enclosures and aviaries animals' responses. Albino and
width of the beam. Narrow ‘spot’ requires a different approach. hypomelanistic specimens of any
beams, some with very high UV IR-A can be very effectively species are likely to need much-
in the centre of the beam, should provided using short-wavelength reduced exposure levels as their skin
be avoided, but wide ‘flood’ lamps infra-red ‘patio heaters’ mounted and eyes are often more sensitive to
can be useful. However, these on a wall or ceiling. These are widely UV and visible light.
lamps cannot be thermostatically available in 1.5kW and 2kW versions.
REFERENCES
• Baines, F., Chattell, J., Dale, J.,
Garrick, D., Gill, I., Goetz, M., Skelton,
T., Swatman, M. (2016). How much
UV-B does my reptile need? The UV-
Tool, a guide to the selection of UV
lighting for reptiles and amphibians
in captivity. Journal of Zoo and
Aquarium Research 4(1): 42–63.
• Ferguson, G. W., Brinker, A. M,
Gehrmann, W. H., Bucklin, S. E.,
Baines, F. M., Mackin, S. J. (2010).
Voluntary exposure of some
Western-hemisphere snake and
lizard species to ultraviolet-B
radiation in the field: How much
Figure 4: A group of four 8-tube hydroponics fixtures holding 12% UVB tubes, ultraviolet-B should a lizard or snake
combined with patio IR-A heaters and metal halide floodlights, used to create receive in captivity? Zoo Biology
a 'patch of sunlight' with UV Index 3–4 across an area 5m wide, for a group of 29(3): 317–334.
Aldabra giant tortoises at Paignton Zoo, UK.
10 EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWSA DIET FOR INSECTIVORES
MEETING THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF INSECTIVOROUS MAMMAL SPECIES
Kerry Hunt, Hannah Davies, Clover Hills and Jo Bond, University Centre Sparsholt, UK
In recent years the welfare of
captive myrmecophagous species
has been of increasing research
species-specific approach would be
beneficial in diet development.
To date there have been only a
One large-scale study on human
nutrition (Rumpold & Schlüter, 2013)
has provided average data for the
interest. Practically meeting the couple of studies on the wild diet most commonly identified genera
nutritional requirements of these of insectivorous mammal species. consumed by myrmecophage
species has been challenging, as One study on pangolin diets species.
there is a range of health issues found that Temminck’s pangolin Oyarzun et al. (1996) undertook
associated with current feeding (Smutsia temminickii) predominantly proximate analysis of the stomach
practices (Clark et al., 2016). By consumed four different ant contents of wild tamandua and
reviewing current literature and species and one species of termite identified that on average the
considering the diets provided to (Pietersen et al., 2015). However, this stomach contents were 51% protein,
several myrmecophage species held was not correlated to the abundance 11% fat, 3% acid detergent fibre and
in human care, this study hopes of these species in the environment, 14% ash. This gives some idea of the
to highlight some of the current suggesting that the pangolins were nutrient intake in termite-and ant-
feeding practices in industry and actively selecting specific species. eating species.
consider their effectiveness. In another study, Oyarzun et al.
Clark et al. (2016) identified that (1996) focused on the diets of wild AARDVARK NUTRITIONAL
giant anteaters (Myrmechophaga tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), ANALYSIS
tridactyla) in UK collections had loose suggesting that individuals selected Data was collected from five of the
stools, tying in with earlier research different diets, with one individual six collections in the UK that housed
that identified liquid faeces, vitamin preferring ants (69% of diet) and aardvarks in 2017. This was analysed
K deficiencies and cardiomyopathy another preferring worker termites for dietary components as well as
(Valdes & Brenes Soto, 2012). Valdes (77% of diet). nutritional content.
& Brenes Soto (2012) suggested An increasing number of studies Figure 1 shows that all of the
that it is suitable to use domestic has focused on the nutritional collections used Termant as the
dog (Canis lupus familiaris) and cat content of invertebrates. Some of base for their diets; however,
(Felis catus) diets as a model when these focused on animal diets (Finke the amount of Termant provided
developing and evaluating anteater & Oonincx, 2014), but the majority per aardvark varies considerably
diets. Historically, anteaters were focused on invertebrate species between collections, from 325g to
fed a gruel diet mix which contained, as a food source for humans. 1kg per individual. Collections also
amongst other ingredients, milk
products, raw meat, eggs, dog food
and fruit (Gillespie, 2003). More
recently a range of commercial
complete diets have been developed
for insectivorous mammal species,
including Mazuri’s Termant and DK
Zoological’s Insectivore diet. These
are most commonly powders that
are mixed with water to create a
paste. Bissell (2017) highlighted
that when given choice over their
diet, there was a difference in
the nutritional content of the diet
that the animals selected; more
generalist species such as the
armadillo selected a carbohydrate-
rich diet when compared with
more specialist ant- and termite-
eating species, suggesting that a Figure 1: The aardvark diets of the five collections that provided diet sheets.
EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS 11diets. This could account for some of
the nutritional disorders identified
by Clark et al. (2016) including loose
faeces. The protein content of most
zoo diets is also lower than the 50%
found in the study.
TENREC DIET ANALYSIS
Tenrecs are more generalist feeders
than aardvarks, yet invertebrates
make up a substantial portion of
their diets in the wild (Smithsonian
National Zoo, 2019). Tenrecs are
Figure 2: Analysis of the dry matter nutritional values of diets provided daily per increasingly found in the pet trade
aardvark and the nutritional composition of termites and ants from Rumpold & as well as in zoological collections,
Schlüter (2013). and consideration of husbandry in
both industries can be beneficial in
varied in the additional items offered Ntukuyuk et al. (2012) analysed developing good practice.
to their aardvarks, with mealworms the nutritional content of An online questionnaire collated
being the most common additional Macrotermes bellicosus, which data on 23 different tenrec diets, 13
items. Only one collection did not showed nutritional variation based from zoological collections and 10
report any invertebrates as part of on the caste of the termite. Soldier from private collections. Figures 4
their daily diet. termites contained around 55% and 5 (see right) show a comparison
Figure 2 shows that none of the protein, whereas worker termites between the diets offered to tenrecs
collections matches the nutritional averaged around 27%. So the in zoos as opposed to in private
composition of either termites composition of the diet, not just the collections. In both diets, just over
or ants; four collections were species and amount eaten, needs to one-third of the dietary items
significantly lower in protein than be considered. offered to the tenrecs consisted
both termites and ants (T=-19.75, A study by Oyarzun et al. (1996) of invertebrate species. However,
pcondition and faeces consistency
in captive ant-eating mammals in
the UK. Journal of Zoo and Aquarium
Research 4: 183–195.
• Finke, M., Oonincx, D. (2014).
Insects as food for insectivores. In
J. Shapiro-Ilan Morales-Ramos, G.
Rojas, D. I. Shapiro-Ilan (Eds.), Mass
Production of Beneficial Organisms:
Invertebrates and Entomopathogens,
pp. 583–616. Cambridge, Academic
Press.
• Gillespie, D. (2003). Xenarthra:
edentata (anteaters, armadillos,
sloths). In M. E. Fowler, R. E. Miller
(Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine:
Current Therapy, Vol. 5, pp. 397–
407. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders.
• Ntukuyuk, A., Udiong, D., Ikpe, E.,
Akpakpan, A. (2012). Evaluation
of Nutritional Value of Termites
(Macrotermes bellicosus): Soldiers,
Workers and Queen in the Niger
Delta Region of Nigeria. International
Journal of Food Nutrition and Safety 2:
60–65.
• Oyarzun, S., Crawshaw, G., Valdes,
E. (1996). Nutrition of the Tamandua:
1. Nutrient Composition of Termites
(Nasutitermes spp.) and Stomach
Contents From Wild Tamanduas
(Tamandua tetradactyla). Zoo Biology
15: 509–524.
• Pietersen, D., Symes, C.,
Figure 4: Dietary components Figure 5: Dietary components
Woodborne, S., McKechnie,
provided in zoo-based diets. provided in private collections.
A., Jansen, R. (2016). Diet and
prey selection of the specialist
myrmecophage Temminick’s ground
pangolin. Journal of Zoology 298:
The growing literature on requirement for a more species- 198–208.
the nutritional composition of specific approach to diet provision • Rumpold, B., Schlüter, O. (2013).
invertebrates, as well as previous in insectivorous mammal species in Nutritional composition and safety
literature, suggests the need to human care. aspects of edible insects, Molecular
increase fibre in diets. Consideration Nutrition and Food Research 57:
of chitin in dietary fibre has not REFERENCES 802–823.
been discussed here, but should • Bissell, H. (2017). Macronutrient • Smithsonian National Zoo (2019).
be considered when reviewing selection in mammalian insectivores Lesser hedgehog tenrec. Accessed
30.07.2019. https://nationalzoo.
JOHN MATHER, WIKIMEDIA COMMONS
fibre requirements. Current at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay. In
inconsistencies in both nutritional A. Ward, A. Coslik, M. Brooks (Eds.), si.edu/animals/lesser-madagascar-
composition and components as Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference hedgehog-tenrec
well as the reported nutritional on Zoo and Wildlife Nutrition, Zoo and • Valdes, E., Brenes, Soto A. (2012).
disorders in insectivores suggests Wildlife Nutrition Foundation and AZA Feeding and nutrition of anteaters.
the need for a more standardised, Nutrition Advisory Group, Frisco, TX. In M. E. Fowler, R. E. Miller (Eds.),
evidence-based approach to feeding • Clark, A., Silva-Fletcher, A., Fox, Fowler’s Zoo and Wild Animal
these species with species-specific M., Kreuzer, M., Clauss, M. (2016). Medicine, Vol. 7, pp. 378–383. St
approaches. Work highlights the Survey of feeding practices, body Louis, Elsevier Saunders.
EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS 13Alfalfa is currently the best fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre
STORAGE alternative for browse and is known (ADF) – were still much higher than
SOLUTIONS
to preserve well as silage. In total, two pure alfalfa. Interestingly, willow
tons of willow twigs (< 0.8 mm Ø, Salix ensiled in combination with alfalfa
burjatica x S. viminalis) were manually resulted in a significantly lower pH
WILLOW SILAGE – harvested at the beginning of June and higher content of lactic acid
EXPLORING ALTERNATIVE 2018. Two short-rotation willow fields, bacteria compared with the other
TECHNIQUES intended for biomass, were used as additives and the blanks, which
Sarah Depauw, Annick Boeykens the willow source. The willow was indicates a better fermentation.
and Jannes Van Houcke, Odisee pressed into 30-litre polyethylene Moreover, the addition of alfalfa (as
University College, Belgium; Guido drums with a self-developed the only additive) succeeded in a
Bosch, Animal Nutrition Group, automatic press machine to minimise complete disappearance of yeast and
Wageningen University, the the content of air. mould growth. This is an important
Netherlands Per additive, three drums were advantage, as zoos regularly have
sampled at nine weeks and six to remove the top layer of ensiled
months of storage and compared browse in drums due to the visible
with blank drums (i.e. no additives). growth of fungi.
The nutritive value of willow did Our results indicate that the
not significantly alter after ensiling, addition of alfalfa improves the
W intertime is a major challenge
for European zoos housing
browsers. An inadequate supply of
regardless of the used additive
(Table 1). The addition of alfalfa,
however, resulted in an end product
quality of ensiled willow in drums
compared with currently used
additives.
browse increases the risk of health significantly lower in fibre. However, A preference test with bongos
issues, such as ruminal subacute fibre fractions – neutral detergent (Tragelaphus eurycerus) was set up
acidosis and hoof problems, but also
impairs natural behaviour and thus
mental health in browsers. Moreover,
many other animals, such as leaf-
eating primates, benefit from access
to browse during winter.
ADDING ALFALFA TO DRUMS
Institutions that make browse
silage mostly harvest their browse
manually, which is then stored in
drums with or without additives. This
study compared the effectiveness of
commonly used additives, with alfalfa
as a new additive.
% on dry matter basis
Field Willow type Treatment* pH DM % Protein Fat Fibre NDF† ADF†
1 Fresh 5.9 40.4 11.3 2.2 33.0 61.5 50.2
Silage Blank 5.6 31.9 13.5 1.5 30.1 68.9 54.2
+Molasse+HFI 5.7 33.9 11.1 1.6 38.1 63.3 44.6
Nitrogen flushing 5.7 34.9 10.2 1.6 39.3 61.3 56.1
2 Fresh 5.9 29.4 14.2 2.2 34.9 64.2 54.5
Fresh (60%) +Alfalfa (40%) 6.0 35.5 17.4 2.1 32.4 56.8 46.5
Silage Blank 5.5 29.1 12.2 1.7 37.8 68.6 55.7
Silage (60%) +Alfalfa (40%) 5.0 35.7 17.2 1.8 33.1 58.1 48.5
*Molasse (4% of willow (DM)) + homofermentative silage inoculant (108 CFU/kg fresh browse); nitrogen (flushing drum
with 2 bar, 1.5 minutes); †NDF = neutral detergent fibre, ADF = acid detergent fibre.
Table 1: pH and chemical composition of fresh willow and willow silage after six months of ensiling.
14 EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWSto evaluate whether the animals preferred willow ensiled with or without the addition of 40% alfalfa. Five bongos housed at Antwerp Zoo and Planckendael Zoo were used for the trial. The two types of silage were simultaneously offered, and the researchers monitored the animals’ first choice as well as the amount of willow silage consumed. There was no significant difference in preference and acceptance between willow ensiled with or without alfalfa. WILLOW SILAGE IN BALES Although the production of browse silage is fairly cheap and easy, it remains labour-intensive. Currently, the use of alternatives such as dried or frozen browse is not widespread due to relatively high costs or lack of storage capacity. Possibly, the commercialisation of browse silage various Salix types. Willow (S. viminalis further trial will focus on making could be a solution for many zoos. Yet sp.) growing at the border of the bales from younger willow that is not to allow a lucrative commercialisation plantation was automatically cut yet lignified. Our research focuses of browse silage, automatic pruning and directly wrapped in small round on ensiling complete branches of and ensiling is required. bales of 150kg, which are more willow to stimulate oral manipulation In June 2018, a pilot study was set suitable for zoo settings. The bales in browsers and to allow the up to explore if willow twigs could be will be analysed after six months of animals to be selective in what they wrapped in round bales. The bales storage to evaluate the quality of eat. However, the use of chipped weighed around 500kg and were preservation. willow might be more suitable to successfully stored for six months commercialise in small bales without before being fed to several animal FURTHER EXPLORATION any risk of puncturing the packaging. species at Bellewaerde Park. Commercialisation of the current Therefore, in cooperation with In June 2019, a collaboration was quality of willow bales is, however, Kiezebrink®, small bales of chipped set up with a brushwood company a risk for traders as the plastic can willow will be produced and evaluated that owns 248 acre plantations of be punctured during transport. A after six months of storage. EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS 15
BROWSE – FRESH OR FROZEN?
THE EFFECTS OF FROZEN STORAGE ON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, FERMENTABILITY AND
PALATABILITY OF TEMPERATE BROWSE IN ZOOS
Ellen van Herk, Quality & Project Manager at New Generation Nutrition, the Netherlands; Anouk Fens, Nutritionist
at Apenheul Primate Park, the Netherlands; Guido Bosch, Assistant Professor at the Animal Nutrition Group of
Wageningen University, the Netherlands
F ibrous plant material, such as
leaves, bark and twigs, make up an
important part of the in situ and ex
(Quercus rubra), willow (Salix alba),
lime (Tilia Americana), maple (Acer
campestre), elm (Ulmus minor and
Besides evaluating nutritional value,
feed intake behaviour was studied
in two forestomach fermenting
situ diet of browsers. Zoos often use hazel (Corylus avellana) – were primate species (East Javan langur
locally available browse to support harvested in spring, in three Trachypithecus auratus and Bengal
digestion and encourage natural different locations close to the Hanuman langur Semnopithecus
foraging behaviour. In temperate zoo. Half was analysed fresh, while entellus) and one hindgut fermenting
climates, extra browse can be the other half was first stored, as primate species (Colombian red
collected during spring and summer branches with leaves attached, in howler Alouatta seniculus). This study
and stored in freezers to cover the freezers at -20°C for six months. was done in four seasons: 1) winter:
winter months. The effects of such On both time points, branches thawed browse, 2) spring: young,
storage on the nutritional value were stripped and the leaves fresh browse, 3) summer: mature,
and acceptance have rarely been were cut before further analysis fresh browse, and 4) autumn: both
reported. For example, ice crystal was carried out. Leaves were fresh and thawed browse. Using a
formation and enzymatic reactions chemically analysed for dry matter, cafeteria-style experiment, eating
might impact the nutritional value crude ash, crude fat, crude fibre, times and preference ranks were
and palatability of frozen browse. neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid determined after 30 minutes event
We therefore evaluated whether detergent fibre (ADF), acid detergent sampling on four days. On each day,
a freezing process influences the lignin (ADL), nitrogen, calcium and the same three individuals were
chemical composition, fermentability phosphorus contents. Fermentability scored: the group’s adult male,
and palatability of temperate browse was evaluated by incubating the the highest-ranking adult female
species. browse in vitro with goat rumen and a juvenile. To minimise the
fluid as an inoculum, and measuring influence of group dynamics on feed
METHODS gas production continuously for 70 intake behaviour, two bundles of
Six of the most used browse species hours and volatile fatty acid (VFA) each browse species were offered
at Apenheul Primate Park – oak production after 70 hours. simultaneously.
Oak Maple Hazel Elm Lime Willow
Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed
Dry matter 395.2 354.2 472.9 394.8 343.5 309.1 307.5 274.2 296.7 279.2 354.4 315.4
Crude ash 34.8 34.7 54.5 55.0 67.7 66.8 97.3 97.2 86.4 91.4 92.4 89.2
Nitrogen (N) 28.0 25.7 28.1 26.9 38.1 37.5 38.5 36.2 34.6 39.1 32.7 31.1
Crude fat 27.9 30.4 24.6 30.6 15.8 26.9 26.3 28.2 37.2 38.1 26.4 25.9
Crude fibre 210.2 213.7 175.5 168.2 169.7 157.6 113.0 107.1 174.8 168.8 143.4 145.0
NDF 414.6 394.2 343.3 318.2 479.9 428.4 303.5 321.0 367.7 401.0 359.7 363.4
ADF 227.3 233.9 192.0 194.0 222.3 208.8 155.1 142.4 220.6 206.2 220.4 205.9
ADL 74.5 63.3 63.4 48.5 82.6 49.3 81.3 29.1 69.6 43.1 97.0 60.0
Calcium (Ca) 3.4 3.2 10.6 10.6 12.7 12.6 19.1 20.2 13.6 16.2 19.6 19.0
Phosphorus 2.1 1.8 2.2 2.2 3.5 3.3 3.8 3.3 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.7
(P)
Gas 244.6 186.4 227.5 200.0 202.4 161.8 336.8 275.6 333.9 276.0 296.1 232.8
production
Total VFAs 8.3 7.7 7.2 7.7 7.5 7.0 10.6 10.3 10.6 10.4 10.7 8.9
Table 1: Chemical composition of fresh and thawed browse species (in g/kg on dry matter basis), gas production after 70
hours of in vitro fermentation (in ml/g on organic matter basis) and total VFA (volatile fatty acid) content (in millimol/g on
organic matter basis). NDF = neutral detergent fibre, ADF = acid detergent fibre, ADL = acid detergent lignin.
16 EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWSRESULTS & DISCUSSION lower gas productions than fresh here is that red howlers, as hindgut
Results showed that, overall, fresh browse, with decreases of 18% in fermenters, can more easily cope
browse contained relatively more elm, 17% in lime, 21% in willow, with high fibre contents as all
dry matter and ADL than thawed 24% in oak, 12% in maple and 20% undigested fibre is passed quickly
leaves (Table 1). The relatively lower in hazel. The production of VFAs through the gut. Foregut fermenting
dry matter contents in thawed (Table 1) was also generally lower in langurs, however, are more sensitive
leaves might be explained by water thawed browse compared to fresh to blockage when fibre contents in
movement out of the twigs during browse. As browsers use VFAs as their diet are too high.
the freezing process and collection an energy source, lower production
of condensation droplets on the of VFAs from thawed browse CONCLUSION
outside of the leaves during thawing. means that browsers would have to It is concluded that large
After thawing, this led to an overall consume more to achieve the same differences in nutritional value and
more wet-looking product. These amount of energy. These findings fermentability can be found between
effects might be reduced by freezing could suggest that some microbial browse species. Also, each animal
browse in smaller packages, or using digestion of the material occurred, species shows its own preference
shock freezers to decrease the possibly prior to freezing. Shock for certain browse species. All
amount of water movement during freezing might prevent this effect. studied animals preferred fresh
freezing. Breakdown of lignin during In terms of palatability, both langur browse, but thawed browse was also
storage is not likely, so changes in species and the red howlers showed accepted quite well.
ADL (and other fibre fractions) might less variation in eating times (Table Feeding thawed browse is,
in part be explained by changes 2) between thawed browse species therefore, preferred over feeding no
in the physical properties of the than between fresh browse species. browse during temperate winters.
browse due to the freezing process. We expect that browse species Even though nutritional values
Such changes could have led to that were preferred in fresh form did not change very much after
differences in handling (stripping underwent relatively more negative freezing, availability of nutrients
and cutting) after freezing, thereby changes induced by freezing than might be lower in thawed browse,
impacting the leaf to twig ratio and the non-preferred fresh species. indicated by the generally lowered
the amount of ADL in the analysed In that way, differences between fermentability values. Provision
product. thawed browse species could have of browse should, therefore, be
In vitro gas production (Table 1) in become smaller. adjusted per animal species, to
fresh leaves, and thus their expected In general, langurs showed meet their preferences, and also
fermentability, was highest for elm preference for the more per season, to be able to provide
and lime, while lower values were fermentable species elm and maple, browsers with the required amounts
obtained for willow, oak, maple and while red howlers preferred the less of energy and nutrients during all
hazel. All thawed browse showed fermentable hazel. The hypothesis seasons.
Oak Maple Hazel Elm
Period Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed Fresh Thawed
Bengal Hanuman
langurs 1 - 327 - 374 - 208 - 1295
(Semnopithecus entellus) 2 64 - 227 - 105 - 937 -
3 32 - 194 - 5 - 416 -
4 116 43 240 192 14 8 494 474
East Javan langurs
(Trachypithecus auratus) 1 - 324 - 205 - 132 - 891
2 99 - 427 - 35 - 962 -
3 114 - 455 - 94 - 845 -
4 130 55 314 169 75 18 735 425
Colombian red howlers
(Alouatta seniculus) 1 - 35 - 82 - 177 - 375
2 0 - 243 - 239 - 624 -
3 2 - 249 - 210 - 513 -
4 0 7 215 27 212 93 525 199
Table 2: Number of seconds spent eating each browse species by one animal, during 30 minutes scoring, averaged over three
individuals and four days per period. - = not offered in this period.
EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWS 17FEEDING HABITS
CONSIDERING THE BEHAVIOURAL CONSEQUENCES OF FEEDING REGIMES – A FLAMINGO
CASE STUDY
Paul Rose, University of Exeter, UK, Research Associate, Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust
Z oos hold large numbers of dietary
specialists who consume specific
food with peculiar anatomical and
morphological features. Flamingos
(Phoenicopteriformes), for example,
are extreme dietary specialists (del
Hoyo, 1992) but very common zoo
birds (King & Bračko, 2014). Time
spent on non-feeding behaviours
can also be directly influenced by
nutrition and feed presentation.
Chemical compounds within food
are metabolised to produce colours
that are used for sexual selection
and provide a signal of individual
quality. In some species, the onset of
the breeding season will change the
time spent on specific maintenance
behaviours to provide a stronger
reproductive message. Greater
flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) that Figure 1: Different feeding styles for captive lesser flamingos (top left) as well as
are more efficient foragers will spend the extent of pink colouration of each individual bird’s feathers (top right) may influ-
ence the degree of aggression experienced by foraging birds (bottom).
more time preening at the start of the
breeding season, wiping carotenoid-
stained preen oil over their feathers al., 1991; Schmitz & Baldassarre, the UK were observed whilst feeding
and thus cosmetically enhancing 1992) and can significantly decrease in four different situations: pellet
the brightness of their plumage the time birds spend filter feeding provided in a bowl/trough, indoor
(Amat et al., 2011). A heightened pink (Bildstein et al., 1991). Wild flamingos feeding pool, outdoor feeding area
colouration increases chances of have more space to distance and natural foraging (i.e. filter feeding
pairing and producing a chick. themselves from other foraging on aquatic material in their pool).
Flamingos kept in human care must birds; restricting access around Counts of seconds each bird spent
be artificially supplemented with high-value resources (e.g. pellets) can feeding/foraging and being aggressive
carotenoids, provided in a complete artificially increase stocking density were recorded. The same data were
pellet, otherwise they gradually fade and therefore increase aggression then recorded for the group overall.
to white. Flamingo pellet is a limited during feeding (Bildstein et al., 1993; The number of feeding birds, their
resource and highly sought after by Rose, 2019; Rose et al., 2014). Wild individual identifier (from plastic leg
the birds. Increases in aggression flamingos attempt to maintain equal rings), age and sex were noted. Colour
around feeding times and in feeding distances between themselves and scoring was based on the degree of
areas can be detrimental to time others during foraging (Schmitz & white to pink feathers on the bird’s
spent foraging, and this may impact Baldassarre, 1992) therefore in-zoo body, going from all white to mainly
on the attainment of pink colouration. feeding must consider the behavioural white, mainly pink and all pink. Figure
Juvenile flamingos can be subjected choices of the birds to maximise 1 shows these different feeding
to more aggression than adults intake and reduce food wastage. situations, bird colour differences, and
within foraging patches, and as they the specific behaviours observed.
have increased energetic demand CASE STUDY Results showed that paler flamingos
compared to adults, such aggression To determine the impact of husbandry spent more time foraging than those
could negatively impact upon growth and phenotype (colour) on population of a more intense plumage colour.
and development. Aggressive and individual foraging, 46 lesser Foraging was influenced by the
interactions between feeding wild flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) at foraging location as well as by the
flamingos are noted (Bildstein et WWT Slimbridge Wetland Centre in number of birds foraging. There was
18 EAZA NUTRITION GROUP NEWSno influence of colour on aggressive courtship display and became paler REFERENCES
differences between birds. Aggression towards the end of summer. As the • Amat, J. A., Rendón, M. A., Garrido-
increased, and foraging therefore social dynamic of a flock, specifically Fernandez, J., Garrido, A., Rendón-
decreased, with flock size. At an mate choice, is influenced by colour, Martos, M., Perez-Galvez, A. (2011).
individual level, male flamingos were flamingos that cannot gather Greater flamingos Phoenicopterus
more aggressive during foraging bouts food effectively may be unable to roseus use uropygial secretions as
than females. Flamingos spent the metabolise enough carotenoid into make-up. Behavioral Ecology and
least time foraging when they were growing feathers to produce a bright Sociobiology: 65(4): 665–673.
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when they were naturally filter-feeding breeding. This may have profound Spalding, M. G. (1991). Feeding
in their pools. and long-lasting efforts on population patterns and aggressive behaviour in
Flamingo foraging is clearly sustainability. Differences between juvenile and adult American flamingos.
influenced by the mix of birds in the the plumage colour of captive (paler, The Condor: 93(4): 916–925.
group and the location and placement uniform) and wild (brighter, variable) • Bildstein, K. L., Golden, C. B.,
of flamingo pellet. Colour may be of Andean (Phoenicoparrus andinus) and McCraith, B. J., Bohmke, B. W., Seibels,
relevance to foraging effort, with birds James’s flamingos (P. jamesi) are one R. E. (1993). Feeding behaviour,
of a paler colour attempting to gather of the reasons why these species aggression, and the conservation
more energy and more carotenoid have fared poorly in the zoo (Kear & biology of flamingos: Integrating
to improve plumage condition at the Palmes, 1980). studies of captive and free-ranging
next moult. Given the multi-factorial birds. American Zoologist: 33(2):
reasons for flamingo feeding style CONCLUSION 117–125.
and colouration, it is likely that colour The dietary requirements of flamingos • del Hoyo, J. (1992). Family
signals between birds will dictate and their specific means of collecting Phoenicopteridae (Flamingos). In J.
differences in time spent feeding food strongly influence their daily del Hoyo, A. Elliot & J. Sargatal (Eds.),
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sent preening versus feeding and pink, red, orange and purple colours and James' flamingos Phoenicoparrus
plumage colour score would make an to how they would prefer to forage, andinus and P. jamesi in captivity.
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Flamingo plumage colour will on wild birds. Flamingos should be 17–23.
change markedly after breeding fed in a manner that promotes group • King, C. E., Bračko, A. (2014).
(Figure 2), and while these lesser foraging, in enclosure areas that Nineteen years of management for
flamingos did not produce chicks allows sufficient space between birds Phoenicopteriformes in European
during the observation period, birds to reduce aggression, which impacts Association of Zoos and Aquaria
did moult into brighter colours for on individual and group feeding effort. institutions: The Fabulous Flamingo
Surveys and strategies to increase
reproduction in captivity. International
Zoo Yearbook: 48(1): 184–198.
• Rose, P. E. (2019). Evaluating the
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Flamingos in captivity: Comparing
species and flocks using multiple
methods. Wildfowl, 69(69): 70–92.
• Rose, P. E., Croft, D. P., Lee, R.
(2014). A review of captive flamingo
(Phoenicopteridae) welfare: A
synthesis of current knowledge and
future directions. International Zoo
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• Schmitz, R. A., Baldassarre, G.A.
(1992). Correlates of flock size and
behavior of foraging American
flamingos following Hurricane Gilbert
Figure 2: Colour differences in captive Andean flamingos following a breeding
event. Birds that produced crop milk are much paler than those who were not in Yucatan, Mexico. The Condor: 94(1):
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