The Creative Thinking Skills Needed for Total Quality Management to Become Fact, Not Just Philosophy - Basadur
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The Creative Thinking Skills
Needed for Total Quality Management
to Become Fact, Not Just Philosophy
Min Basadur
McMaster University
and
Susan Robinson
University of Texas
at Arlington
1993
MICHAEL G. DeGROOTE
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS
1280 Main Street West.
Hamilton. Ontario. Canada
LBS 4M4
The New Creative Thinking Skills
Needed for Total Quality Management
to Become Fact, Not Just Philosophy
MINBASADUR
McMaster University
SUSAN ROBINSON
University of Texas at Arlington
This article models the change-making process for organizations. summarizes research on
the model. and shows the fundamental connection between change-making skills and the
concept called total quality management (TQM). Further. the article models the change-
making process as a disciplined multistage. circular creative thinking process and links
creative thinking directly to organizational effectiveness. Three key creative thinking skills
for organizations are identified: deferral of judgment. active divergence. and active conver-
gence. How these skills form the basis of TQM success is described and training research
is summarized. Change-making skills and continuous improvement are identified as the
fundamentals ofTQM. As North American industries continue to experience the effects of
constantly changing markets and global competition. the need to implement TQM will
increasingly emerge. To move beyond the tendency to superficially implement the latest
"fad ." organizations need to increase their understanding of change-making as the founda-
tion ofTQM. Organizational members starting with top management need to leam funda-
mental creative thinking skills to participate in the change-making process.
Many organizations today are realizing that important fundamental changes
are needed in how they conduct business. The slowing of economic growth, the
intensification and globalization of competition, and many other factors have
forced this realization. As market shares dwindle and product complexities
increase, adding more chaos to an already overburdened system, companies are
seeking better ways to compete in rapidly changing markets. In connection with
this need, a term that is becomingincreasingly popular in North America is total
quality management (TQM). TQM is viewed as the latest managerial revolution.
Over the past three decades, North American companies have had a poor
track record of implementing new management methods successfully (Byrne,
1986). Many new management philosophies, tools and techniques attempted,
including management by objectives (MBO), T-groups, zero-based budgeting,
AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST. Vol. 37 No.1. September 1993 121-138
© 1993 Sage Publications. Ioc.
121
122 AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST
Theory Z, intrapreneuring, matrix management, the managerial grid, and The-
ory Y, have turned out to be regarded as temporary fads (Sashkin & Kiser, 1991).
Too frequently, executives latch on to any new management idea that looks like
a quick fix for their problems.
Some managerial fads fail because they are overly simplistic, generalized
"do's and don'ts" of how to manage. Companies adopt the philosophy of a new
method but then fail to do what it takes to translate the philosophy into
permanent action. In a short time, the new method is relegated to the junk heap
as the latest "fad of the month." Those with more substance have failed to
achieve a permanent "take" because they have not been integrated with the
additional supporting organizational changes necessary (Beer, 1980). As Drucker
(1991) points out, adopting new methods requires changing behavior. The main
purpose here is to identify the specific new behaviors and attitudes that are
essential in the offices, boardrooms, and shop floors of North American industry
to prevent TQM from becoming another fad.
These new behaviors and attitudes reflect creative thinking skills that can be
taught, learned, and managed to increase organizational change and innovation.
To be successful in TQM, managers and employees must master change-making
skills for innovation from top to bottom and across the entire organization. These
change-making skills require specific creative thinking skills. This article helps
identify what TQM actually means and identifies the major changes in North
American managerial and employee attitudes, behaviors, and thinking skills that
must occur to make TQM a reality. First, TQM is reviewed, followed by the
requirements for its implementation. Then, a new approach to creative thinking
and problem solving, which is useful for implementing TQM, is presented.
Experiences with the new approach and implications for managers implement-
ing TQM are then discussed, followed by concluding remarks.
WHAT IS TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT?
WHY DOES IT WORK IN JAPAN?
The managerial literature contains surprisingly few references to TQM; most
references are found in practitioner-oriented magazines and company bro-
chures. These references indicate a wide range of different perceptions as to
what TQM is or represents.
The roots ofTQM go back to 1946 when Japan established a clear, long-term
national goal to set new world standards for quality products. At the time,
Japanese products were perceived as poor quality and cheap. The Japanese
gradually developed a corporate quality system called total quality control
(TQC) by merging rational, analytical concepts and tools learned from North
American quality control experts with Japanese managerial philosophy and
organizational systems. The improvements in Japanese products have been so
great that the "poor quality" perception has been totally reversed. In fact, Japan
Basadur, Robinson / NEW CREATIVETHlNKING SKILLS 123
has used superior quality as a strategic competitive advantage to dramatically
increase its share of world markets.
The best examples of these analytical concepts and tools of TQC are zero
defects and statistical process controls (SPC). Zero defects is the concept that
no defects at all in the products and services delivered to customers is a reachable
goal and should be pursued relentlessly. SPC is a convenient catch-all phrase
for a family of specific statistical tools, such as control charts, Pareto analysis,
process flow diagrams, and fishbone diagrams, that apply statistics to control
work (especially, but not confined to, manufacturing). By identifying and
reducing variation in a system, the quality of products and services is continu-
ously improved. These statistics are kept by the workers themselves, and the
primary responsibility for good quality work is thereby placed with the people
doing the work, not with a separate quality control department. To apply these
rational tools to quality problems that require team effort across a system, quality
circles are used in which workers are organized into small problem-solving
groups.
These concepts, tools, and techniques have been effective in Japan because
they represent only one part of a larger managerial philosophy and organiza-
tional system. This philosophy is characterized by an entire organization led by
its management to be totally and single-mindedly committed to key strategic
goals reported by Rehder and Ralston (1984): seek quality before profits; build
a long-term customer orientation; develop the infinite human potential of .
employees through education, delegation and positive reinforcement; commu-
nicate facts and statistical data about quality throughout the organization; and
establish a companywide system of problem solving and communication.
TQM IN NORTH AMERICA
In North America, the word "control" sometimes carries negative connota-
tions, and the term TQC has been replaced by TQM (total quality management).
For companies seeking to emulate the Japanese success, new skills in change
and continuous improvement appear to be the fundamental needs. Few North
American corporations have been able to develop successful TQM systems.
This lack of success most often is caused by an underestimation of the major
changes in organizational behavior and structure necessary to achieve the
strategic goals above. Dertouzos, Lester, and Solow (1989) document several
fundamental weaknesses at the root ofthe productivity woes of North American
industrial organizations that run counter to the goals. Among these weaknesses
are short time horizons (the preoccupation with near-term outcomes and results);
failures of cooperation between individuals and groups (unwillingness or in-
ability to pursue collective goals among departments, suppliers, customers, and
others); neglect of human resources (undervaluing the importance of continu-
ously developing and challenging the skills of workers); technological
weaknesses in development and production (the inability to convert new inven-
124 AMERICAN BEHAVIORALSCIENTIST
tions and discoveries from basic research quickly and efficiently into products
that customers want when they want them); and outdated strategies (managers
and workers are so attached to the old ways of doing things that they respond
to the new challenges of foreign competition and changing customer tastes by
clinging tenaciously to the patterns of production and organization associated
with the heyday of North American economic primacy; this means mass
production of standard commodity goods and competing only within the do-
mestic market).
Short time horizons push top management and staff to implement preplanned
TQM programs in haste without adequately developing the commitment of
middle and lower management, providing the necessary training, setting up
reinforcement systems, or allowing adequate time for participation, buy-in, and
ownership. Furthermore, they expect to see a short-term increase in the bottom
line. The introduction of TQM is often limited to short-term-quality programs
consisting of rhetoric and training in "tools" and "techniques." The training is
done less to develop human resources for the long run than it is to present tools
and techniques in the hope of a short-term profit gain.
Employees are confused as to how the new tools and techniques fit into their
responsibilities because the fundamental changes in organizational behavior and
structure needed to support the ongoing, everyday use of the new tools and
techniques are not made. For example, if they observe their managers still
behaving as though short-term profit is a more important goal than quality, they
are likely to consider the use of these tools and techniques as extra things they
now must do that are really not too important.
Middle managers are confused by the rhetoric about quality, customer
service, and shared goal setting when short-term cost savings, staff reduction,
and profit goals are unilaterally set for them by their superiors. Implementation
is stymied, causing top management to become frustrated because the basic
ideas of TQM are so appealing. The necessary new attitudes, behaviors, skills,
and systems favoring the strategic goals of TQM are much harder to develop.
TQM IS NOT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
SPC tools and communication techniques; such as quality circles, have been
tried by hundreds of North American firms. Their attempts at improving quality
through those vehicles have often not been successful because simply training
people in tools and techniques is mistakenly believed to be the key to high
quality in Japanese products and services. Many North American managers
prefer to believe that quality problems can be traced mainly to production
workers and supervisors and, therefore, new tools and techniques in their hands
will do the trick. Tools and techniques, like SPC and quality circles, do not work
by themselves. They need to be integrated into major long-term changes in
management and organization systems. The development of such systems took
Basadur, Robinson I NEW CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS 125
decades in Japan (Basadur, 1992). Estimates are that most traditional companies
need about 6 to 12 years for complete implementation of TQM.
TQM REQUIRES CHANGE-MAKING
S~LSFORCONnNUOUS~ROVEMENT
Merely exhorting employees to accept the philosophy of TQM is not suffi-
cient to implement TQM. Such exhortations have been described as
"management's lazy way out," a convenient way not to accept the difficult
challenges of reshaping corporate behavior and structure to build concern about
customer satisfaction into every phase of the work (Deming, 1986). Employees
quickly evaluate management's commitment to TQM by watching for real
changes in attitudes and behaviors rather than just enthusiastic words. Drastic
change is needed for TQM, and the first step in the transformation is for
management to learn how to change.' Top management must lead a continuous
improvement process across all organizational functions and systems (Strolle,
1991).
Continuous improvement is the key to TQM (Harmon, 1988). The Japanese
principle of Kaizen (continuous improvement) is the underlying umbrella
concept embracing the successful implementation of every TQM tool and
technique in Japan, extending beyond SPC and quality circles to JIT delivery
and inventory systems and employee suggestion systems (ESS). The Japanese
are totally dedicated to the goal of continuous improvement of products and
services and every other aspect of organizational life. The day a product is
produced is the day to start working to improve it (Morita, 1986). A spirit of
continuous improvement in North America requires a dramatic change in how
people in organizations manage themselves and their environments (Ciampa,
1992). Successful TQM requires a companywide effort to install and make
permanent a climate where employees continuously improve their ability to
provide products and services on demand that customers will find of particular
value.
The fundamental belief in change for continuous improvement is applied by
Xerox Corporation, a successful implementorofTQM in North America. Xerox
defines TQM as a long-term process aimed at fundamentally changing the way
people work and manage so they can continuously improve the way they meet
the requirements of their customers. 2 Xerox recognized that implanting this view
of quality would require massive change. At the beginning of Xerox's develop-
ment ofTQM, a strategy was developed to identify mechanisms for change. The
first mechanism identified was to ensure that visible management actions set
the tone for change making.
The emphasis on skills in change and continuous improvement as fundamen-
tal to TQM is found both in the popular press and in scientific research.
Holberton (1991) identifies the ability to change as the driving force behind
developing new products more quickly, managing in new ways to emphasize
126 AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST
customer service and training, and getting people to work in new ways, includ-
ing teamwork, greater responsibility, and involvement. Mott's (1972) research
established the necessity of skills in continuous improvement and change for
organizational leadership. Mott proved that organizations with a higher propen-
sity to deliberately and proactively make ongoing changes in their methods and
products are more effective than other organizations in the same field. More
effective organizations anticipate problems and develop timely solutions ahead
of time. They continuously search out new methods and technologies emerging
externally and apply them. They promptly accept new good ideas and make sure
that new solutions and new techniques are installed and maintained until they
become new efficient operations. The acceptance is widespread and prevalent
across all organizational subunits. In short, effecti ve organizations make change
that is deliberate, proactive, and ongoing.
THREE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE REQUIRED
Effective organizations skillfully manage three levels of change simultaneously
(see Figure 1). The skills required at these levels are distinctly different, but all three
are necessary for an organization to be successful today:
1. Flexibility-Quick and positive reaction to sudden, unexpected, unanticipated
disruptions to routine processes. Sometimes called "crisis management," this
requires the lowest level of change skill of the three.
2. Efficiency improvement-Proactively making continuous improvements to cur-
rent routine processes, products and services. This is planned change, where
improvement goals are set regularly and work toward those goals is maintained
by the organization. This results in a steady flow of incremental improvements
in the quantity, quality, and costs of products and services produced. Efficiency
improvement requires a higher level of change skill than flexibility because one
must initiate changes, not merely react to situations demanding immediate action.
3. Adaptability-Deliberately seizing new changes in the environment of the orga-
nization to create new products, services, and processes that did not exist before.
This includes discovering previously undetected customer problems to solve.
This kind of change is planned transformational change. A higher level of change
skill is needed because one goes beyond initiating improvements to already
established products, services, or processes. New products, services, and pro-
cesses are created. One must have the skill tofind new customer problems worth
solving and find new environmental trends worth capitalizing on. This means
skill in operating within a less structured, more ambiguous framework compared
to efficiency improvement. Change goals will be more ambiguous and process
oriented.
DELIBERATE CHANGE
Most North American organizations are designed along bureaucratic, func-
tional lines with the result that change making is minimized. Jobs are pro-
Basadur, Robinson I NEW CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS 127
TRANSFORMATIONAL
CHANGE
(Takes the external
environment
into account)
----;,--,-------------------+----------
Efficiency PROCESS CHANGE
(Internal)
Flexibility
Figure 1: Three Levels of Change
grammed for maximum control, highest quality, and lowest cost per unit.
Change skills are limited to short-term quick fixes for emergencies that threaten
to disrupt well-established routines. Problems and changes due to shifts in
technology, customer tastes, and foreign competition are viewed as irritants
getting in the way of well-functioning, established routines; yet the very essence
of change making and continuous improvement is a process called problem
finding. Problem finding means generating and formulating new problems
continuously and deliberately. In fact, change making and continuous improve-
ment in organizational settings can be defined as an ongoing four-stage process
of problem generation, problem formulation, problem solving, and solution
implementation (Basadur, in press-a; Basadur, Graen, & Wakabayashi, 1990)
(see Figure 2).
There are many reasons why teamwork contributing to change is often
uncreative. Group members are unable to communicate clearly in simple terms;
128 AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST
Environment
Solution Problem
Implementation Generation
Problem
Formulation
Figure 2: Change Making and Continuous Improvement as an Ongoing Four-Stage Process
they assume that ''we all know what we mean." This fuzziness causes time-wasting
frustration. Unaware that individuals have different styles of thinking, groups
fail to synchronize these differences. jump into "solving the problem" without
first considering what the real problem is. and then flounder. Interfunctional
teams get stalled arguing about territorial issues. Meeting leaders steer toward
their own points of view rather than facilitating the group to work open-
mindedly and cohesively.
Basadur, Robinson I NEW CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS 129
NEW TIDNKING SKILLS
MUST BE LEARNED TO MAKE CHANGE
Basadur, Graen, and Green (1982) demonstrated in field research that spe-
cific thinking skills, behaviors, and attitudes can be learned in training to
overcome these shortcomings. The training is based on two central concepts.
First, as described above, the change-making process has distinctly different
stages. Problem generating is different from problem formulating, problem
solving, and solution implementation. Second, within each of the four critical
stages, there is a special creative thinking mini process. This is a sequential
two-step process called "ideation-evaluation" (Figure 3). Ideation is defined as
option generation without evaluation (putting aside the judgment capability).
This is the diverging aspect of the two-step miniprocess. Evaluation is the
reverse. It is defined as the application of judgment to generated options to select
the best one(s). This is the converging aspect of the two-step miniprocess. Both
aspects are essential to creative thinking (Parnes, Noller, & Biondi, 1977).
Three separate thinking skills are needed to do this two-step miniprocess in
organizations (Basadur & Finkbeiner, 1985): deferral of judgment, active diver-
gence, and active convergence. Deferral of judgment is the skill of separating
divergent from convergent thinking. It is a passive skill that resists the tendency
to prematurely evaluate and select options. Deferral of judgment sets the stage
for active divergence. Active divergence is the skill of aggressively thinking of
a large quantity of options without pausing to judge or analyze any of them. This
includes generating a wide range of options no matter how wacky; appreciating
new, different points of view and new ideas not only as endpoints but also as
building blocks to create more new ideas; and believing that generating novel
options is not a mysterious process confined to a small number of unusual,
"offbeat" people but a normal process in which everyone in the organization
should participate. .
Deferral of judgment and active divergence are necessary skills but not
sufficient to do the special two-step miniprocess properly. Active convergence
is the third necessary skill. Active convergence resists the tendency to linger too
long in the divergent thinking portion of the two-step miniprocess and selects
and acts on good options that lead to the ultimate implementation of change.
The change-making process emphasizes these three thinking skills and the
ideation-evaluation miniprocess at each of the four stages in turn, as shown in
Figure 4. Examples of how the three separate thinking skills of the two-step
miniprocess work across the four stages are shown in Tables 1,2, and 3.
THE CIRCULAR CHANGE-MAKING PROCESS
In practice, it is useful to break the four-stage change process shown in
Figures 2 and 4 into eight smaller steps arranged in a circular flow, as shown in-
~
STEP 1 STEP 2
DIVERGE CONVERGE
Options
Points of View
Possibilities
Facts
Opinions
...•....
""'-
7""" Items r
Ideas
Things
Criteria
Problems
Solutions "i~~
Actions ~\j\FJ.~
--(C(;.CO
Quantlt,
Imaglnatlv. Quality
Judgmental
Fr••
Disciplined
Gut Intellect
Child Adult
Figure 3: Ideation-Evaluation: A Sequential Two-Step Creative Thinking MiniprocessBasadur, Robinson / NEW CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS 131
STAGE 1
STAGE 2
STAGE 3
STAGE 4
Figure 4: Change Making as a Four-Stage Process Emphasizing the Ideation-Evaluation
Two-Step Mlniprocess in Each Stage
Figure 5. Skills in this circular change process have been successfully trained
and applied in a wide variety of organizations (Basadur, 1982, 1987, in press-a).
One very important aspect of this change process is that the use of the two-step
miniprocess is necessary in each of eight smaller steps across the four stages.
The first two steps are problem finding and fact finding. Problem finding
means sensing and anticipating change opportunities. In sequence, they consti-
tute "Problem Generation," which is Stage 1 of this change process. Steps 3 and132 AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST
TABLE 1: Deferral of Judgment Skill
• Avoid making premature negative judgments of fledgling thoughts (both when working alone
and with others)
• Visibly value, appreciate and welcome other points of view as opportunities to strengthen
thinking rather than as a threat to one's ego
• Maintain an awareness that some facts are more difficult to perceive than others
• Question assumptions for validity and search out hidden, unconscious assumptions that might
be unwarranted
• Tackle problems with an optimistic "can do" attitude
• Do not jump prematurely to a conclusion as to what the "real problem is" in a situation
• Stay open-minded to new ideas and approaches
• Deliberately try an unusual approach to solve a problem instead of automatically relying on an
old approach
• React positively to new radical ideas as opportunities to build fresh new thinking
• Enter meetings open to ideas that might change one's own function or department
• Support other people or departments getting credit or more resources as a result of a team solution
that was clearly the best one for the organization as a whole
• Choose solutions that might be suboptimal in the short run but maximize long-term results
• Realize that some problems require a long time to solve and do not expect immediate results
TABLE 2: Active Divergence Skill
• Show leadership in pinpointing changes, trends, problems, and opportunities for improvement
throughout the organization
• Share information and ideas freely with other people and departments
• Share "bad news" as quickly as "good news" to aid organizational problem solving
• Search out many different facts and points of view before attempting to define a problem
• Define problems in multiple and novel ways to get a variety of insights
• Clarify problems by breaking them down into smaller, more specific subproblems and also
opening them up into broader, less limiting challenges
• Get teams to formulate problems in ways that transcend individual and departmental considerations
• Deliberately push oneself to create additional options when it seems that all the options have
already been exhausted
• Deliberately push oneself to create unusual, thought-provoking potential solutions
• Generate many alternative criteria for decision making covering both long- and short-term
considerations
• Turn premature, negative evaluations of ideas into positive challenges to keep the creative
process flowing; when others say "We can't because ... " counter with "How might we ... ?"
4 are called problem definition and idea finding and, combined in sequence,
become "Problem Formulation," which is Stage 2 of this change process. Steps
5 and 6 are called idea evaluation and selection and planning and constitute, in
sequence, "Problem Solving," which is Stage 3 of this change process. The
seventh and eighth smaller steps are called acceptance gaining and action taking.I
Basadur, Robinson / NEW CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS 133
TABLE 3: Active Convergence Skill
• Convince others to join up and form teams to take on new problems
• Take the time to select, clarify, and focus on the most significant facts available prior to
attempting to define a problem
• Make wise choices from among problem definition options in terms of "broadness" versus
"narrowness" of focus
• Develop and use unbiased criteria for selecting from among options rather than letting precon-
ceptions or hidden motives sway decisions
• Recognize and accept the few best options
• Be willing to accept and participate in consensus-decisions and move on in the change-making
process
• Do not wait for the "perfect" option to emerge; instead, take reasonable risks to get action taken
within time limits
• Pin down clear, simple, and specific implementation plans
• Identify and accept ownership of measures of performance about the products and processes
being improved
• Follow up on implementation; do whatever it takes to ensure successful installation of the chosen
solution
• Take the risk of failing or being criticized for being different in implementing your ideas
In sequence, they constitute "Solution Implementation," which is Stage 4 of this
change-making process.
RESULTS OF TRAINING
SKILLS IN THE CHANGE-MAKING PROCESS
Research and experience strongly indicate that the thinking skills required
to make the change-making process of Figure 5 work can be learned, nurtured,
and managed in organizations (Basadur, in press-b; Basadur, Wakabayashi, & Takai,
1992). The training is primarily experiential and practice oriented. Training
experiences include a series of diverse real-world tasks that permit and encour-
age participants to attempt to discover concepts not considered before, such as
the ideation-evaluation miniprocess and the value of deferral of judgment,
active divergence, and active convergence in thinking in all eight steps and four
stages of Figure 5.
Using a multiple method and measure approach, Basadur, Graen, and Green
(1982) found that participants from an industrial research organization made
gains after training in the circular eight-step change-making process on specific
measures such as "more likely to pause to try new, unusual approaches"; "less
likely to jump to conclusions as to what is the real problem"; "more open-
rnindedness to new ideas and approaches"; "more positive reaction to new,
unusual product ideas"; "deferral of premature critical judgment"; "less time
spent in negative evaluation during idea generation"; "increased quantity and134 AMERICAN BEHAVIORALSCIENTIST
Environment
STAGE IV STAGE I
SOlUllON PROBLEM
IMPLEMENTAll0N GENERAllNG
STAGE III STAGE II
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
FORMULAT1NG
SOLVING
Environment
Figure 5: The Organizational Change-Making Process
quality of problems found"; and "increased number of different problem defi-
nitions developed."
Basadur, Graen, and Scandura (1986) found that after training, manufactur-
ing engineers made gains on attitudes associated with the change-making
process that persisted back on the job. Other organizational field research
showing the changes in specific thinking skills, attitudes, and behaviors related
to the change-making process of Figure 5 resulting from training is summarized
in Basadur (1987, in press-b).
TOP MANAGEMENT'S SPECIAL ROLE IN
GETTING THE CHANGE-MAKING PROCESS
INSTITUTIONALIZED FOR TQM
These change-making skills are the foundation of TQM. To get these skills
implemented in organizations on a day-to-day usage basis is vital. It is notBasadur, Robinson / NEW CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS 135
TABLE 4: New Top Management Activities Needed
Publicizing-letting others know of successful applications of the new thinking skills
Rewarding (formally and informally) sincere efforts to apply the new thinking skills on the job
Modeling (demonstrating) a working knowledge of the new thinking skills; one cannot empower
others without first understanding how to empower oneself
Providing resources for training and application of the new thinking skills
Coaching/teaching-giving others feedback on their use of the new thinking skills
Taking visible risks and rewarding others who take risks to make changes that improve the quality
of goods and services, customer satisfaction, and work life
Managing challenges rather than managing solutions--involve subordinates in change making early
in the change-making process.
sufficient to merely train employees in the skills. The top management of the
organization must develop specific strategies to maintain the change-making
thinking skills in daily work life (Basadur, in press-a, in press-b). The top
managers must lead the way by learning and visibly using the change-making
process. They must create new managerial activities and new organizational
structures to induce the rest of the members of the organization to use the
change-making process daily.' Examples of new managerial activities within
such a strategic plan are shown in Table 4 and include publicizing, rewarding,
modeling, providing resources, coaching and teaching, and visibly taking risks
to promote the change-making process. These new activities enable subordi-
nates to experiment and fail without feeling afraid, learn from mistakes, act as
problem and challenge finders, take ownership of problems, understand how
their jobs fit with other peoples' jobs and with organizational goals, share the
ambiguity and uncertainty that their managers are experiencing due to acceler-
ating environmental change, and accept the fact that there is no "grand scheme"
guiding the organization into the future. Managers must get used to "managing
challenges" rather than "managing solutions." By involving subordinates in
the early stages of the change-making process, as the challenges are being
sensed and formulated, the manager can steer many new change projects
simultaneously.
SUMMARY
Over the past three decades, North American companies have had a poor
track record of implementing new management methods successfully. Too
frequently, executives latch on to any new management idea that looks like a
quick fix for their problems. This article has identified the specific new thinking
skills that are essential in the offices, boardrooms, and shop floors of North
American industry to prevent total quality management from becoming another
fad. These new thinking skills can be taught, learned, and managed to increase136 AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST
organizational change and innovation. To be successful in TQM, more than
anything else managers and employees must master change-making skills for
innovation from top to bottom and across the entire organization.
The emphasis on skills in change and continuous improvement as fundamen-
tal to TQM is confirmed in scientific research. An effective organization must
be skilled in three distinct types of change-making activity. The three different
levels of change skills that are important in organizations (in order of increasing
difficulty) are flexibility (quick and positive reaction to sudden disruptions to
routine processes), efficiency improvement (proactively making continuous
improvements to current routine processes, products, and services, and adapt-
ability (deliberately seizing new changes in the environment of the organization
to create new products, services, and processes that did not exist before).
Most North American organizations are not set up for proactive, deliberate
change making. Problems and changes due to shifts in technology, customer
tastes, and foreign competition are viewed as irritants getting in the way of
well-functioning established routines; yet the very essence of change making
and continuous improvement is a process called problem finding. Change
making and continuous improvement in organizational settings can be defined
as an ongoing four-stage process of problem generation, problem formulation,
problem solving, and solution implementation.
Field research has demonstrated that specific thinking skills, behaviors, and
attitudes can be learned in training to make the four-stage change-making
process successful. Within each of the four critical stages, there is a special
creative thinking miniprocess. This is a sequential two-step process called
ideation-evaluation. Three separate thinking skills are needed to do this two-step
miniprocess: deferral of judgment, active divergence, and active convergence.
Deferral of judgment is the skill of separating divergent from convergent
thinking. Active divergence is the skill of aggressively thinking of a large
quantity of options without pausing to judge or analyze any of them. Active
convergence decisively selects and acts on good options. The four-stage change-
making process emphasizes these three thinking skills and the ideation-evaluation
miniprocess at each of the four stages in turn.
It is not sufficient merely to train people in the skills. The top management
of the organization must develop specific strategies to maintain the change-
making thinking skills in daily work life. Each organization needs to create its
own unique combination of structural interventions to encourage the use of new
change-making skills learned in training. New structures might include chang-
ing appraisal and reward systems, jobs, and organizational designs.
NOTES
1. See "The Beehive," Vol. 45 (December 1991), available from Executive Development
Systems, Suite 150, 14135 Midway Road, Dallas, TX 75244.Basadur, Robinson / NEW CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS 137
2. Quoted from "Xerox Quest for Quality" (Brochure No. 7001'91456, Rev. A, February 1991),
available from the National Quality Communications and Promotion Office, Xerox, 1387 Fairport
Office Center 810-01 A, Fairport, NY 14450.
3. Results of focus group discussions among managers successfully implementing the change-
making process are reported in Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Implementing
Creative Problem Solving Technology in the Organization, held January 29-February I, 1992 in
Orlando, Florida and available from the Center for Research in Applied Creativity, 184 Lover's
Lane, Ancaster, Ontario L9G IG8, Canada.
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