The Boston Regional Challenge - Examining the Costs and Impacts of Housing and Transportation on Area Residents, their Neighborhoods, and the ...
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The Boston Regional Challenge
Examining the Costs and Impacts
of Housing and Transportation on
Area Residents, their Neighborhoods,
and the Environment.
Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing
The Boston Regional Challenge
Examining the Costs and Impacts
of Housing and Transportation on
Area Residents, their Neighborhoods,
and the Environment.
Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing
National Advisory Board
J. Ronald Terwilliger, Chairman Steve Preston
Chairman Emeritus, Trammell Crow Residential President, OAKLEAF Waste Management;
Former Secretary, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Carin Barth
President, LB Capital, Inc. Jonathan Reckford
CEO, Habitat for Humanity International
Tom Bozzuto
CEO, The Bozzuto Group Nic Retsinas
Director, Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University
Henry Cisneros
Executive Chairman, CityView; Rick Rosan
Former Secretary, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development President, ULI Foundation
Bart Harvey Ronnie Rosenfeld
Former Chairman, Enterprise Community Partners Former Chairman, Federal Housing Finance Board
Bruce Katz Alan Wiener
Vice President and Director, Managing Director, Wells Fargo Multifamily Capital
Brookings Institute, Metropolitan Policy Program
Patrick Phillips, Ex-Officio
Rick Lazio CEO, Urban Land Institute
Managing Director of Global Real Estate and Infrastructure,
JP Morgan Asset Management Pam Patenaude
Executive Vice President and Executive Director,
Mel Martinez ULI Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing
Partner, DLA Piper;
Former U.S. Senator;
Former Secretary, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Copyright 2010 by Urban Land Institute
1025 Thomas Jefferson Street, NW
Suite 500 West, Washington, DC 20007-5201 Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing
ii n www.bostonregionalchallenge.org
About the Urban Land Institute
The Urban Land Institute is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit research and education organization supported by its members. Founded
in 1936, the Institute now has more than 30,000 members worldwide representing the entire spectrum of land use and real
estate development disciplines, working in private enterprise and public service. As the preeminent, multidisciplinary real
estate forum, ULI facilitates the open exchange of ideas, information, and experience among local, national, and
international industry leaders and policy makers dedicated to creating better places.
The mission of the Urban Land Institute is to provide leadership in the responsible use of land and in creating and sustaining
thriving communities worldwide. Members regard ULI as a trusted idea place where leaders come to grow professionally
and personally through sharing, mentoring, and problem solving. With pride, ULI members commit to the best in land use
policy and practice.
About the ULI Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing
The ULI Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing was established by J. Ronald Terwilliger, chairman emeritus of Trammell
Crow Residential, to expand housing opportunities for working families. The mission of the center is to serve as a catalyst in
increasing the availability of workforce housing in high-cost communities by harnessing the power of the private sector.
The center supports the development of mixed-income communities close to employment centers and transportation hubs.
Through a multifaceted approach, the center facilitates research, advocates for public policy change, publishes best prac-
tices, convenes housing experts, and works to eliminate regulatory barriers to the production of workforce housing.
Acknowledgments
This report was prepared by the Center for Housing Policy and the ULI Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing, based on
research conducted by the Center for Neighborhood Technology. Through the generous support of ULI Trustee James J.
Curtis III, the ULI Terwilliger Center for Workforce Housing is working with the ULI Curtis Regional Infrastructure Initiative to
examine how the intersection of land use, housing, and transportation can foster the creation of sustainable communities.
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n iii
“When it comes to development—housing,
transportation, energy efficiency—these things
aren’t mutually exclusive; they go hand in hand.
And that means making sure that affordable housing
exists in close proximity to jobs and transportation.
That means encouraging shorter travel times and
lower travel costs. It means safer, greener, more
livable communities.”
—President Barack Obama, July 13, 2009
Executive Summary
This report analyzes the combined costs of housing and transpor- order to reduce their housing costs. Long and frequent trips in an
tation for neighborhoods, cities, and towns throughout a Boston automobile—whether back and forth to work or school, for every-
regional study area that extends south to Providence, Rhode day errands, or for entertainment—can stress a working family’s
Island; west to Worcester, Massachusetts; and northeast to Dover, budget, can cause countless hours to be wasted behind the wheel,
New Hampshire. Our analysis finds that the typical household in and can take a serious environmental toll on the region. As this
the study area spends upwards of $22,000 annually on housing, report shows, areas that are characterized by good access to pub-
which represents roughly 35 percent of the median household in- lic transit, jobs, and nearby amenities not only have the potential to
come ($68,036). With transportation costs for the typical household keep combined housing and transportation costs in check, but they
reaching nearly $12,000 annually, the combined costs of housing also can lower greenhouse gas emissions and provide for a more
and transportation environmentally sustainable
account for roughly Housing + Transportation Costs in the Boston Area future.
54 percent of the typi- Leaders in the Boston area
cal household’s income. Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Housing have long recognized that to
Similar studies conducted Housing Costs Transportation Costs + Transportation Costs maintain and grow the regional
+ =
for the San Francisco $22,373 $11,927 $34,300 economy, households on all
Bay Area and the Wash- rungs of the income ladder
ington, D.C., region have % of Income % of Income % of Income must be able to find afford-
found average housing 35% 19% 54% able housing options.ii Without
and transportation cost such opportunities, the labor
burdens of 59 percent and 47 percent, respectively. i
pool needed to power the economy may have no choice but to
Housing costs in the Boston area are much higher than national look for work in other metropolitan areas where housing is less
averages and exceed costs in many of the largest metropolitan expensive. But affordable housing by itself is not sufficient if its
areas in the country. Average housing costs for owners and rent- location requires families to experience long, frequent, and expen-
ers are highest in many of the cities and towns inside Route 128, sive car trips. A focus on the combined burdens of housing and
including the city of Boston, and between Route 128 and Interstate transportation costs highlights the importance of strategies such
495 (I-495) in communities typically referred to as MetroWest. as building mixed-income housing near public transit and job cen-
Housing prices outside of these high-cost communities are ters and zoning for a mix of uses to reduce the need to drive long
indeed lower, but transportation costs are often higher, reduc- distances to meet basic needs. Such strategies help keep costs
ing and sometimes even eliminating the savings made possible low for working families, strengthen the economy, and lower the
by lower housing prices. This appears to be particularly true for carbon emissions of current and future generations.
individual households that choose to move farther from work in
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 1
Report Roadmap Boston-Area Subregions
This report emphasizes the importance of including transportation costs in This report analyzes the combined costs of housing
any discussion of housing affordability. Why? Because when a family is look- and transportation for the 2.7 million households that
ing for a home or neighborhood that it can afford, housing costs are stated live in cities and towns throughout the Boston study
clearly on the rental agreement or loan documents, but no such accounting area.iv Because the Boston regional economy extends
exists for transportation costs—even though transportation is the typical well beyond the Massachusetts state line, the study
household’s second-largest expenditure. This information is also important to area includes most of Rhode Island, southeasternmost
policy makers and elected officials as they assess where future investments New Hampshire, and parts of Connecticut and southern
in workforce housing and public transportation improvements should be Maine. In total, the study area for this report comprises
directed. By making the combined costs of housing and transportation more
transparent, this report and the accompanying online cost calculatoriii provide
Table 1 ] The Study Area, Organized into 18 Subregions
useful information to policy makers and households alike.
Total
This report is organized as follows: whether or not they are affordable is Subregion Households Largest Cities and Towns
also a function of the incomes of the Route 128 456,596 Cambridge, Quincy
n Pages 4 through 7 show the costs
households paying them. Providence (RI-MA) 398,713 Providence, Warwick
for housing and transportation in differ-
City of Boston 231,988 Boston
ent parts of the study area. This section n Page 14 illustrates how housing and
Central MA (MA-CT) 201,617 Worcester, Shrewsbury
shows where housing and transpor- transportation costs factor into the bud-
South MetroWest 167,670 Natick, Norwood
tation costs are highest and lowest get of a working family and page 15
North Shore & Suburbs 143,965 Peabody, Salem
and explains why transportation costs discusses the environmental impacts
South Coast (MA-RI) 134,654 New Bedford, Fall River
vary from place to place. of the study findings.
South Shore 123,391 Weymouth, Plymouth
n Pages 9 through 11 show the n Pages 16 and 17 focus on neighbor- Merrimack Valley 118,282 Lawrence, Haverhill
combined costs of housing and trans- hoods and specific cities and towns North MetroWest 102,594 Framingham, Marlborough
portation in each of 18 subregions, where combined costs represent an Lowell 100,465 Lowell, Billerica
documenting the substantial variation extreme housing and transportation cost Manchester (NH) 96,255 Manchester, Derry
within the larger study area. burden. Where housing and transpor- Portsmouth (NH-ME) 88,311 Salem, Portsmouth
tation combine to consume a dispro- North-Central MA 79,888 Leominster, Fitchburg
n Pages 10 and 11 also show the
portionate share of income, little is left Nashua (NH) 78,383 Nashua, Merrimack
combined costs of housing and trans-
over for other essentials. Brockton 76,101 Brockton, Bridgewater
portation for each subregion as a per-
Taunton 56,183 Taunton, Mansfield
centage of income, a theme extended n The report concludes with a brief
Dover (NH-ME) 51,371 Dover, Rochester
in the maps on pages 12 and 13. discussion of the policy implications of
Note: Unless otherwise indicated, subregions are
Absolute costs are important, but the study findings. located entirely within Massachusetts.
Source: Center for Neighborhood Technology.
2 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.org
ME
ME
323 cities and towns.
In order to present the housing
Dover
and cost data in a meaningful way,
95 this report divides the cities and
towns in the study area into 18 sub-
regions developed with the input of
Manchester housing and transportation experts
NH
NH in the Boston area (see the map
Portsmouth
and Table 1 for descriptions). The
93
1
remainder of the report uses this
Nashua framework to describe and discuss
3 Merrimack Valley
the combined costs of housing and
495
95 www.bostonregionalchallenge. transportation in the study area. Al-
MA
MA Lowell org though these subregions represent
n
North-Central MA 93
North Shore & Suburbs
the most efficient way to present the
2 data, the reader should bear in mind
Route 128 that costs and incomes do vary from
190 North MetroWest
128 town to town, and data for the larg-
290 City of Boston est cities and towns are presented in
Central MA the appendix.
Unless otherwise stated, the
90 South MetroWest 3 housing and transportation cost
495
95
Brockton
South Shore data provided in this report can be
1 interpreted as a three-year average,
395
295 covering the most recent years for
CT
CT 44 44
Taunton which data are available (2006–2008).
6
RI
RI
RI
195
Providence South Coast
95
0 10 20
miles 1
© 2010 Center for Neighborhood Technology
N
W E
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 3
Housing Costs
Housing costs in the Boston an average of $1,864 per month on
Combined Statistical Area (CSA)v are housing costs including utilities,
among the highest in the nation. On which represents 35 percent of
measures typically used to quantify household income. Monthly costs
housing costs—home value, monthly for owners ($2,416) are more than
costs for owners, and gross rent— twice as high as typical costs for
the Boston CSA ranks in the top ten renters ($1,044).
among the 100 largest metropolitan As the map demonstrates,
areas in the country (see Table 2). housing costs exhibit a substantial
The Boston area has retained this amount of variation across the study
ranking even though home prices, area. Average housing costs are
which peaked in 2005, had fallen an highest in the city of Boston, inside
estimated 12 percent by 2008, and Route 128, and in the North and
rents, which rose through mid-2008, South MetroWest subregions. Aver-
also had begun declining marginally.vi ages in these subregions range from
This study finds that the typical $2,700 to $3,000 for owners and
household in the study area spends from $1,150 to $1,250 for renters.
Table 2 ] Housing Costs in the Boston CSA Rank Near the Top
Rank Among
% Above the 100 Largest
U.S. Average Metro Areas
Median Home Value +75% 9th
Selected Monthly Owner Costs (total) +57% 7th
for Owners with a Mortgage +41% 9th
for Owners without a Mortgage +64% 3rd
Gross Rent +20% 10th
Note: Rankings apply to the Boston-Worcester-Manchester Combined Statistical Area.
Source: 2008 American Community Survey.
4 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgME
ME
Renter and Owner Housing Costs
Compared to the Study Area Averages
Even within these subregions, howev-
er, some cities and towns (e.g., Lynn) At least 10% below average
Within 10% of average
are much more affordable than others
At least 10% above average
(e.g., Belmont). Dover
95
North and south of these high-cost
areas, housing expenditures more
closely approximate the study area Manchester
average. Typical costs for owners
NH
NH Portsmouth
range from $2,200 in the Manchester
subregion to just over $2,600 in the
North Shore & Suburbs subregion; av- 3
93
1
Nashua
erage gross rents run from just under
Merrimack Valley
Lowell
495
95
MA
MA North-Central MA
93
North Shore & Suburbs
2
190 North MetroWest Route 128
128
290
City of Boston
Central MA
90
495
South MetroWest
3
$950 in the Merrimack Valley to nearly
$1,150 in the South Shore subregion.
95
Brockton
On average, housing is least expen- 1 South Shore
sive outside of I-495 to the west and
395
295
CT
CT 44 44
south, as well as in the northern tip of Taunton
the study area in the Dover subregion. 6
In these subregions, owners incur RI
RI
average monthly costs ranging from
195
South Coast
Providence
just under $1,950 (Dover) to just over
$2,100 (Central Massachusetts). Gross
95
rents average less than $750 in the
South Coast subregion and do not ex-
0 10 20
ceed $900, on average, in any of these miles
1
comparatively lower-cost areas.
© 2010 Center for Neighborhood Technology
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 5Transportation Costs ME
ME
Transportation Costs BELOW AVERAGE DUE TO:
Good access to jobs and transit
Household characteristics NH
NH
ABOVE AVERAGE DUE TO:
Nationally, transportation costs
Limited access to jobs and transit
Household characteristics Dover
95
are a household’s second-largest Combination of access and
expenditure—after housing—and household characteristics
the Boston area is no exception.vii Manchester
Major Job Centers
Between 2006 and 2008, transporta- NH
NH Portsmouth
tion costsviii consumed 19 percent of Commuter Rail Lines
income for the typical household in
3
93
1
the study area, amounting to $994 Nashua
Merrimack Valley
per month, or $11,927 annually.
A household’s total transportation 495
95
MA
MA
costs primarily depend on how many
North-Central MA Lowell
93 North Shore & Suburbs
cars it owns, how frequently and how
far members must drive, and whether 2
Route 128
or not public transit is an option.
190 North MetroWest
Some factors that affect auto and 128
transit usage are tied to household
290 City of Boston
characteristics like income, household Central MA
size, and the number of workers per
90
495
South MetroWest 3
household. Larger households with
95
Brockton
South Shore
1
395
295
CT
CT 44 44
Taunton
6
RI
RI
195
Providence South Coast
95
0 10 20
miles
1
© 2010 Center for Neighborhood Technology
6 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgmore workers and more disposable methodology at the end of the report
Good Access Keeps Costs Low: At under $10,000 annually, the income may need—and be able to for a more detailed discussion.)
city of Boston and communities inside Route 128 (shaded light afford—multiple automobiles and A close look at the data shows
green) have the lowest transportation costs, largely attributable longer, more frequent trips. that the 18 subregions can be loosely
to their good access to public transit and job centers and their At the same time, easy access to grouped into five categories based
dense residential development patterns. public transit, major job centers,ix and on (a) their overall transportation
amenities typically leads to lower costs and (b) whether household
transportation costs because house- characteristics or access to jobs,
Household Characteristics Keep Costs Low: The Providence
holds can meet their daily transporta- public transit, and other amenities
and South Coast subregions (shaded dark green) also have
tion needs with shorter car trips or are the primary determinants of
below-average transportation costs, but this has less to do with
replace car trips with more afford- these costs (see map and color-cod-
proximity to major job centers and transit options and more to
able or convenient alternatives. (See ed descriptions).
do with lower incomes and fewer commuters per household.
LIMITED Access Drives Costs Higher: These six subregions
(shaded yellow) have below-average incomes and thus would
be expected to spend less on transportation, but costs for the
typical household are above average because of limited access
to transit and major job centers. Even though commuter rail
lines extend to many of these subregions, overall access to
public transit throughout remains subpar, and lower-density
residential development contributes to more frequent driving.
Household Characteristics Drive Costs Higher: Above-aver-
age incomes allow households in these four subregions (shad-
ed orange) to spend relatively more on transportation costs.
Transportation costs are thus above average even though the
subregions have comparatively good access to employment
opportunities. Sub par transit accessibility also contributes to
higher transportation costs in these subregions.
All Factors Lead to Higher Costs: Four of the five subregions
with the highest transportation costs (shaded pink) fit into this
category. Incomes are above average, residential density is low,
and transit and job access is far below average.
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 7Living and Working in
Rhode Island and
Transit Options New Hampshire
and Travel Patterns
The Providence area and parts of south-
eastern New Hampshire are undeniably
Compared to national spending Although public transit is important parts of the Boston regional
patterns, households in the Boston available in many communities
economy, but commuting patterns
CSA dedicate a relatively low share throughout the study area, the
of their household expenditures to subway system and bus routes are between these areas and Boston are not
transportation.x One reason is the most convenient for those living as widespread as some may think. An
Massachusetts Bay Transporta- in the city of Boston and in other
analysis of commuting data suggests that
tion Authority (MBTA), which alone communities inside Route 128.
provides an average of 1.32 million Roughly 24 percent of commuters 87 percent of Providence workers and
trips every weekday.xi When the in these two subregions rely on 78 percent of South Coast workers are employed in either the Providence or South
Rhode Island Public Transit Author- public transit to get to and from Coast subregions. Likewise, three-quarters of those living in the New Hampshire
ity (RIPTA) and smaller regional work daily, and an additional 11
portion of the study area also work there. For those who do undertake long com-
transit providers are considered, it percent bike or walk to work. Us-
is no wonder that the Boston CSA age is much lower in the balance mutes to work, however, associated costs can be significant.
ranks sixth in the country in the of the study area—only 3 percent Source: Center for Housing Policy tabulations of the 2006-2008
proportion of commuters routinely of commuters outside of these American Community Survey Public Use Microdata Sample files.
using public transit to get to work two subregions routinely use
each day (7.9 percent).xii public transitxiii—but transporta- tion costs in outlying communities metropolitan areas in terms of lon-
served by commuter rail are nota- gest commutes.xiv The vast major-
bly lower than in peripheral towns ity (72 percent) of those commut-
lacking such access. Compared ing more than one hour travel by
to the cost of owning two cars, a automobile, but whether by private
family with good access to transit car or public transit, living far from
and jobs can save as much as job centers can impose a negative
$5,000 each year by owning only “time tax” on workers by consum-
one car. ing part of their day that could be
Forty-one percent of workers in spent on other pursuits with family
the Boston CSA have commutes and friends. Long commutes by
of 30 minutes or longer, and one in car not only impose a time tax
ten commutes at least 60 minutes, on the driver but also contribute
ranking the Boston CSA 13th and to traffic congestion and carbon
14th, respectively, among large emissions (see page 15).
8 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgCombined Housing and Transportation Costs ME
ME
Less than $32,500
$32,500–$35,000
$35,000–$37,500
Greater than $37,500
Housing + Transportation Costs
Dover 95
NH
NH Manchester
Portsmouth
93
Nashua
3 1 Why Combined Costs Appear Low in the
Merrimack Valley
City of Boston and Route 128 Subregions
495
95
MA
MA Lowell
North-Central MA
93
North Shore & Suburbs
Combined costs in the City of Boston and Route 128
subregions appear to be among the lowest in the study
2
190 North MetroWest Route 128
area, but this is partly due to the unusually high share
128
290 City of Boston of renters in these areas. Average housing costs for both
Central MA renters and owners in these communities are very high,
90
495
South MetroWest
3 but since a relatively high share of households in
95
the City of Boston (62 percent) and Route 128
© 2010 Center for Neighborhood Technology
Brockton South Shore
1
395
I-295
295 (45 percent) subregions rent their homes, and since
CT
CT 44 44
Taunton renting is typically less expensive than owning, average
6
RI
RI
195 housing costs appear to be lower than expected.
South Coast
Providence
Given their below-average transportation costs, com-
95
bined costs are slightly below average in the Route 128
subregion and substantially below average in the city
0 10 20
miles
1
US-1 of Boston.
In the study area, the typi- southern New Hampshire, annual Taunton, Lowell, and Merrimack South Coast), and west (Central
cal household spends roughly costs exceed $37,500 (see map). Valley subregions. and North-Central Massachusetts).
$34,300 per year on the combined Combined costs are slightly Below-average combined Housing costs are relatively low
costs of housing and transporta- lower—but still above average— costs can be found in some of the in each, and in the south, transpor-
tion. In four subregions between in areas bordering the north and peripheral subregions to the north tation costs are below average
Route 128 and I-495, as well as in south sides of I-495: the Brockton, (Dover), south (Providence and as well.
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 9Regional Variation in Transportation
Housing + Transportation Costs Housing
$50,000
$40,000
$13,721 $14,028
$13,931 $14,428 $12,850
$30,000 $14,223 $13,342
$11,927 $14,253 $13,026
$20,000
$29,423 $28,664
$26,779 $25,123 $25, 567
$22,373 $23,352 $21,977 $22,722 $22,707
$10,000
0
Study Area North South South Shore Portsmouth North Shore Nashua Taunton Brockton Lowell
MetroWest MetroWest & Suburbs
Annual H+T Costs $34,300 $43,144 $42,692 $40,711 $39,551 $38,417 $37,575 $36,230 $36,065 $35,733
Average Median Income $68,036 $95,744 $92,371 $77,812 $76,585 $76,452 $77,704 $69,032 $67,017 $73,969
Average H+T as % of 54% 48% 48% 54% 53% 52% 50% 54% 57% 51%
Median Income © 2010 Center for Neighborhood Technology
The average household in the transportation costs exceed study higher-income households in these of Boston subregions. Both hous-
Boston study area spends ap- area averages by wide margins. subregions, therefore, these high ing and transportation costs are
proximately $34,300 annually on Because incomes are significantly costs are not as burdensome as below average in Providence and
housing and transportation, which higher in these subregions than in they initially appear, but for those the South Coast, and in the city of
represents about 54 percent of the area as a whole, however, the earning less, there may be few af- Boston, very low transportation
the typical household’s income. typical household’s combined cost fordable opportunities. costs offset more expensive hous-
Combined costs are highest in the burden—i.e., the share of income Combined costs are lowest ing. Because typical incomes in
North and South MetroWest subre- spent on housing and transporta- in absolute dollar terms in the these subregions are substantially
gions, where both housing and tion costs—is only 48 percent. For Providence, South Coast, and City lower than for the study area as a
10 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.org$50,000
$40,000
$30,000 $12,419 $9,794
$13,357
$12,928 $13,491 $13,671
$11,697 $7,013
$11,381
$20,000
$23,241 $23,754
$20,993 $19,918
$10,000 $19,817 $19,142 $18,354 $18,888
$16,426
0
Merrimack Manchester Route 128 Central MA North- Dover Providence South Coast City of
Valley Central MA Boston
Annual H+T Costs $35,660 $34,350 $33,549 $32,745 $32,633 $32,024 $30,586 $27,808 $26,930
Average Median Income $65,795 $67,820 $69,444 $65,489 $63,693 $59,122 $57,336 $48,067 $52,923
Average H+T as % of 59% 52% 51% 53% 53% 55% 57% 62% 56%
Median Income
whole, however, these subregions’ with the exceptions of Brockton or public transit, and housing is leading to high cost burdens.
cost burdens are comparatively and Merrimack Valley, where they more costly than in more peripher-
high, ranging from 56 percent of rise to 57 percent and 59 percent, al subregions such as Central and See the appendix for data on
income in the city of Boston to 62 respectively. In both, combined North-Central Massachusetts and housing and transportation costs
percent in the South Coast. costs for housing and transporta- parts of New Hampshire. Neither and burdens for the largest cities
Combined cost burdens are tion are slightly above the study housing nor transportation is par- and towns in the study area.
roughly at or below the study area average, and incomes are ticularly affordable for the typical
area average of 54 percent in the slightly below. Neither is particular- working family in the Brockton and
remaining mid-cost subregions ly well situated in relation to jobs Merrimack Valley subregions,
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 11Regional Classification Combined Cost Burden
ME
ME
Compared to the Study Area Average
of Housing + Transportation Below average (55% of income)
Dover
95
Manchester
NH
NH Portsmouth
93
Nashua 3 1
Merrimack Valley
495
95
MA
MA Lowell
North-Central MA
93
North Shore & Suburbs
2 Route 128
190 North MetroWest
128
290 City of Boston
Central MA
90
495
3
In the map on this page, each of the 18 South MetroWest
subregions is assigned to one of three
95
I-95 Brockton
South Shore
categories based on its combined cost 1
burden (i.e., the share of income spent
395
295
CT
CT 44 44
on the combined costs of housing and Taunton
transportation): (1) 53 to 55 percent, 6
RI
RI
which includes the study area aver-
195
age (yellow in the map and text); (2) Providence South Coast
below average (less than 53 percent,
in green); and (3) above average (more
95
than 55 percent, in purple). The text ac-
companying the map explores some of 0 10 20
miles
the underlying factors that lead to these 1
varying levels of cost burden.
© 2010 Center for Neighborhood Technology
12 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgBelow-Average Cost Burdens Average Cost Burdens Above-Average Cost Burdens
In the North and South MetroWest, Lowell, and North Shore & Four of the six subregions with cost In the Merrimack Valley and Brockton subregions, both hous-
Suburbs subregions, below-average cost burdens are a reflec- burdens ranging from 53 to 55 percent ing and transportation costs are slightly above average and
tion of above-average incomes that make even higher costs af- have moderate incomes and are located incomes are somewhat below average, resulting in combined
fordable to the typical resident. Households with lower incomes outside of I-495 on the periphery of cost burdens of 59 and 57 percent, respectively.
likely would find few affordable opportunities in these areas. the study area. Housing costs in these
Housing costs are relatively high and transportation costs are
areas are low enough that, even when
In the New Hampshire subregions of Nashua and Manchester, low in the city of Boston, but incomes are significantly below
higher transportation costs are consid-
higher transportation costs are partially offset by lower housing average, leading to high overall levels of cost burden.
ered, combined costs are affordable.
costs, and incomes are sufficient to make combined costs
Very low incomes in the Providence and South Coast subre-
affordable. With higher combined costs and higher
gions also result in above-average cost burdens, despite the
incomes that make them affordable, the
In the Route 128 subregion, the reverse is true—higher housing very low combined costs typically incurred by households in
Portsmouth and South Shore subre-
costs are offset by very low transportation costs. these communities.
gions are two exceptions to this rule.
Local Variation in Housing + Transportation Costs
This report focuses primarily on average costs, incomes, and resulting cost burdens estimated for the
18 subregions in the study area. While this is the most effective way to present the data, it can mask
variation within each subregion. For example, within the Merrimack Valley subregion, the combined
cost burden in Haverhill is 53 percent. But in nearby Lawrence, where costs are lower but incomes
are roughly half, the combined costs of housing and transportation represent 74 percent of income—
far above the study area average. Because there are 323 cities and towns in the study area, the report
cannot focus on each individually. However, pages 16 and 17 discuss the neighborhoods, cities, and
towns within each subregion that are particularly burdened by their housing and transportation costs,
and the appendix includes data on all cities and towns with at least 10,000 households.
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 13A Working Family’s Budget—
Location, Location, Location
A news reporter, a bank teller, At the end of each month, this
and their teenage son own a home family is nearly $200 short of
in Stoughton, Massachusetts. The covering its basic living ex-
family earns an annual income of penses. Rather than cutting
roughly $70,000,1 and after taxes, costs elsewhere, they may be
their monthly take-home pay is ap- able to bring expenses in line
proximately $4,667.2 As with most with their income by lowering
families, housing is their largest transportation costs—even if it
expenditure, and transportation is means paying more for housing
their second largest. Their monthly by moving to another part of the
budget is as follows: Boston area.
Take-Home Pay $4,667
Housing -$2,430
The same family could
Transportation -$1,095 cover costs—with a little
Food -$636 left over each month—if
it moved to Watertown,
Health Care -$381
Massachusetts.3 The cost of
Miscellaneous -$295
owning a home is slightly
Take-Home Pay $4,667 By moving to Watertown, this
At Month’s End -$170 higher, but because the city is
Housing -$2,557 family would not only save over
better situated in terms of jobs
$200 per month but would also
and public transit and is more Transportation -$778
reduce its carbon emissions by
“walkable” than their old neighbor- Food -$636
1
Average salaries for these professions in the walking more frequently and tak-
hood, transportation costs would
Boston Metropolitan Statistical Area according Health Care -$380 ing public transit.
to Salary.com, as reported in the Center for likely be lower. In Watertown, this
Houing Policy’s Paycheck to Paycheck 2006 family’s monthly budget would be Miscellaneous -$254
database. 3
as follows: Compare housing and transportation costs
2
Tax estimates and monthly expenditures with At Month’s End +$62
throughout the study area by using the fully
the exception of housing and transportation
customizable, online Housing + Transporta-
are based on the Self-Sufficiency Calculator,
tion Calculator, available at www.bostonre-
produced by the Crittenton Women’s Union
gionalchallenge.org.
in 2006. The calculator is available at www.
liveworkthrive.org/calculator.php.
14 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgDunstable
North Andover
Boxford
Environmental Impact
Auto-Related
Tyngsborough Annual Carbon Dioxide
Emissions per Household Andover
Under 7.5 metric tons Lowell Topsfield
7.5 to 9.0 metric tons Hamilton In 2008, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts
9.0 to 10.5 metric tons passed the Global Warming Solutions Act, legisla-
Over 10.5 metric tons
Westford
Chelmsford Tewksbury
Middleton
95 Wenham
tion requiring that state greenhouse gas emis-
Subway Lines North Reading sions be reduced to 80 percent of 1990 levels
Danvers Beverly
BLUE Wilmington by 2050. Transportation is a major contributor of
GREEN Billerica
ORANGE
greenhouse gas emissions and thus a major target
Littleton RED Lynnfield of emissions reduction efforts. Interestingly, the
Carlisle Reading Peabody
SILVER
transportation sector accounts for 41 percent of all
Commuter Rail Lines Burlington Salem carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in Massachusetts,xv
Wakefield
Marblehead
Woburn
compared to 33 percent nationally.xvi
Acton Bedford
Stoneham Lynn One strategy for reducing transportation-related
Saugus Swampscott
Concord
Melrose
CO2 emissions is to reduce the number and length
Lexington Winchester of car trips, often measured in vehicle miles trav-
128 Malden Nahant eled (VMT). High-density residential areas that can
Maynard Lincoln Medford
Arlington Revere support—and are zoned to allow—nearby services,
Everett amenities, and employment have been shown to
Belmont Somerville
Sudbury Waltham reduce VMT by 25 to 30 percent, on average. xvii
Cambridge Winthrop
Watertown CO2 emissions related to automobile use are
Wayland Weston lowest, on a per-household basis,xviii in the sub-
regions with the highest residential density. The
Newton
Framingham Brookline
average household in the city of Boston produces
90 Boston only five metric tons of CO2 annually, compared
© 2010 Center for Neighborhood Technology
Wellesley
Natick to a study area average of nine metric tons and at
Hull
Needham least 11 metric tons in six subregions with very low
residential density. Low levels of per-household
Ashland CO2 emissions in the City of Boston and Route
Dover Dedham Quincy
Milton 128 subregions can further be attributed to access
Sherborn
Westwood to the subway system, where coverage is most
Weymouth
extensive (see map). As the map shows, emissions
Braintree
Holliston Medfield 95 Hingham
are lowest in cities and towns that have direct
0 2 4
Norwood Canton
miles access to public transit, which can be a significant
Millis Randolph
factor in reducing a household’s car usage.
Medway
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 15Extreme Housing +
Transportation Cost Burden
Tabl e 3 ] Extreme H+T Cost Burdens Are Most Common
Where Incomes Are Below Average
Households in Average Median
Neighborhoods Household
Where H+T Percent of Income
Subregion Cost Burden Regions’ Relative to Full
>= 58% Households Study Area
South Coast 69,045 51% 54%
Merrimack Valley 51,128 43% 64%
To better understand where hous- Coast subregion and roughly one-
Providence 131,995 33% 54%
ing and transportation costs are third of those in the Providence and
City of Boston 74,287 32% 47%
particularly high relative to incomes, City of Boston subregions live in
we examine the share of households neighborhoods with extreme cost Brockton 19,471 26% 62%
in each subregion living in neighbor- burdens. This is due, at least in part, Dover 13,140 26% 73%
hoodsxix with an “extreme housing to the very low incomes of residents
Central MA 49,979 25% 56%
and transportation cost burden”— in these neighborhoods—ranging
a level equaling or exceeding 58 from 47 to 54 percent of the median South Shore 27,111 22% 89%
percent of income. We chose 58 for the full study area—or roughly Taunton 10,723 19% 71%
percent because only one-quarter of $31,000 to $37,000. Household
Route 128 86,685 19% 64%
all households in the study area live incomes at this level are not sufficient
Manchester 16,275 17% 62%
in neighborhoods with a combined to cover even the modest housing
cost burden that meets or exceeds and transportation costs that charac- Portsmouth 14,572 17% 83%
this level. terize these neighborhoods. North-Central MA 12,769 16% 58%
North Shore & Suburbs 22,649 16% 82%
Extreme housing and transporta- Extreme combined burdens are
tion cost burdens are common also prevalent in moderate-income Lowell 15,682 16% 57%
among very low-income neighbor- neighborhoods in the Merrimack North MetroWest 9,571 9% 62%
hoods in the South Coast, Provi- Valley and Brockton subregions.
Nashua 7,251 9% 60%
dence, and City of Boston subre- Too close to the city to benefit from
South MetroWest 8,582 5% 84%
gions. As Table 3 shows, more than low-cost housing but not close
half of all households in the South enough to access jobs and transit Source: Center for Neighborhood Technology
16 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgTabl e 4 ] Many Cities and Towns in the Study Area
Have Extreme H+T Cost Burdens
nearby, many low- to moderate-in- from 82 to 89 percent of the study
Average Average
come households in these neighbor- area median, showing that extreme Subregion City/Town Median H+T
hoods cannot afford the combined cost burdens are not a problem Income Cost Burden
costs of housing and transportation. experienced solely by low-income
Brockton Brockton $53,065 62%
families.
Higher-income subregions also Finally, Table 4 demonstrates that Central MA Worcester $44,933 59%
have neighborhoods with extreme some cities and towns throughout Merrimack Valley Andover $94,863 58%
combined burdens, although such the study area have extreme com-
Lawrence $31,988 74%
neighborhoods make up a smaller bined cost burdens—even where the
share of each subregion’s total cost burdens of the subregions in Methuen $55,080 63%
households. In four—South Shore, which they are located are not mark- North-Central MA Fitchburg $47,453 58%
Portsmouth, North Shore & Suburbs, edly high. Not surprisingly, cities and
Providence Johnston $54,087 60%
and South MetroWest—the neighbor- towns in the Providence, South Coast,
Pawtucket $41,390 58%
hoods with extreme combined bur- Merrimack Valley, and Brockton subre-
dens have median incomes ranging gions make the list. But three cities in- Providence $36,342 72%
side Route 128, as well as cities such Woonsocket $38,398 61%
as Worcester and Fitchburg in Central
Route 128 Chelsea $39,255 61%
and North-Central Massachusetts,
also have combined cost burdens that Lynn $42,928 63%
qualify as extreme, even though their Revere $48,377 63%
subregions do not stand out as being
South Coast Dartmouth $64,611 59%
particularly burdened.
Fall River $35,051 62%
By and large, incomes for the
cities and towns in Table 4 range New Bedford $37,850 66%
from the mid-$30,000s to the mid-
Note: Only cities and towns with at least 10,000 households
$50,000s, or roughly 50 to 80 percent
and an H+T cost burden of at least 58 percent are shown here.
of the median income for the study
Source: Center for Neighborhood Technology.
area. Not shown in the table because
of their small size, a number of towns
in New Hampshire and the South
Shore subregions have extreme
combined cost burdens and median
household incomes on the order of
$60,000 to $70,000.
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 17The Way Forward
There are many reasons to live transit service in peripheral com-
in and move to the Boston area, munities where housing costs are
including a wide array of highly already low. Efforts to link these
regarded colleges and universities, communities to major job centers
two of the top ten hospitals in the and other nearby destinations
nation, xx a vibrant cultural scene, through public transit could lower
and a diverse economy. At the transportation costs significantly.
same time, many are concerned
that a shortage of affordable hous- Building Political Support
ing may make it difficult to retain The states within the study area
and attract necessary workers. As have a history of supporting afford-
this report makes clear, an effective able housing and efforts to coor-
solution to the region’s housing dinate housing and transportation
challenges will require coordination policy. Prominent examples from
between housing and transporta- Massachusetts include:
tion policy to reduce families’ com- Addressing Identified Needs the Merrimack Valley. n Chapter 40R, which provides
bined costs to affordable levels. As the region readies itself for the n Creating housing affordable financial incentives for cities and
In order to make room for the future, it is important that hous- to low- and moderate-income towns in Massachusetts to zone
more than 250,000 people ex- ing, transportation, and land use households in densely developed, for and build high-density residen-
pected to join the Boston area policies be coordinated to foster walkable communities where tial developments in areas previ-
by 2030,xxi as well as to accom- the development of communities public transit is relatively acces- ously identified as highly suitable
modate today’s residents as they that are appealing and affordable sible and amenities are nearby but for development, near transit, or
form new and increasingly smaller to families at a range of incomes, where housing costs are very high, near already concentrated develop-
households, hundreds of thou- include a mix of uses, and have ac- such as in the city of Boston and ment. The success of Chapter 40R
sands of homes—including both cess to a variety of transit options. in transit-served neighborhoods depends in part on a strong Chap-
rental and for-sale—will have to be To achieve this goal while address- inside Route 128. Similar efforts ter 40B, which helps to fast-track
built in the coming decades.xxii This ing specific findings of this report, to lower combined costs in the efforts to develop affordable hous-
provides an important opportunity the region should consider: Providence and South Coast sub- ing in areas where it is lacking.xxiii
for the region to shape its growth n Developing workforce housing regions, where costs are lower but n The Community Preservation
in a way that reduces combined and expanding affordable transpor- burdens are nonetheless high, are Act (CPA), which allows municipali-
costs as well as greenhouse gas tation options in moderate-income also important. ties to include a surcharge on real
emissions. communities such as Brockton and n Enhancing and extending public estate taxes and to direct funding
18 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.org“Over the past decade, Boston
has built over 18,000 new units
of housing; 9,000 of which are
toward housing affordable to low- Reliable and Affordable the MBTA should continue plan- within walking distance to
and moderate-income households Public Transit ning future service expansions
thousands of jobs. Going forward,
(below 100 percent of area medi- As important as it is to strategi- and enhancements to low- and
an income), historic preservation, cally think about the location and moderate-income areas with high we will continue to grow the
and open space conservation.xxiv transit orientation of new resi- combined cost burdens. Among
n The Commonwealth Capital dential developments, housing several on the drawing board,
City’s population by building
Program, which makes some built in the coming decades will one such example would be housing that is innovative, close
state grant and loan programs for represent only a small fraction the proposed extension of
capital projects partly contingent of the total housing stock in the commuter rail service to to jobs and public transportation,
on how well a municipality has region. Therefore, efforts to lower communities such as Fall environmentally sustainable and
incorporated the state’s sustain- the economic and environmental River and New Bedford in
able development principles into costs of transportation associated the South Coast. Such affordable to Boston’s workforce.”
its planning and zoning practices. with the housing we already have an extension would
Thirty percent of the scoring are also important. In fact, many not only lower costs
—Mayor Thomas M. Menino, City of Boston
for ten to 15 state spending communities have shown that for those who com-
programs is predicated on the sound planning, compact devel- mute into Boston
Commonwealth Capital score of opment, and access to transit from these and
participating municipalities.xxv can produce transportation costs other communi-
These state programs, and that represent only 15 percent of ties but also
others like them, need to be fully income or less, compared to 19 spur mixed-
funded in order to have maxi- percent in the Boston study area income and
mizal impact. This is particularly as a whole. A critical ingredient in mixed-use
important when state funds act the effort to lower transportation development
as incentives for local action, as costs is a comprehensive, reliable around the
they do in the above examples. public transit system. planned
As the region recovers from the To remain an asset in the com- stations.
current economic and housing munities that it serves, the MBTA
crises, state and local govern- needs to receive sufficient funding
ments should renew their support to address its considerable debt
for these programs and guarantee burden and sizable backlog of sig-
funding levels to maximize their nificant repairs.xxvi Even as finan-
effectiveness. cial soundness is being restored,
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 19METHODOLOGY
Estimating Housing and Transportation Costs by Neighborhood
The Original Housing + tions, calculations, and methods have
Transportation Cost Model been reviewed by practitioners at the
The Housing + Transportation Metropolitan Council in Minneapolis-
(H+Tsm) Affordability Index was devel- St. Paul, fellows with the Brookings
oped by the Center for Neighborhood Institution, and academics from the
Technology (CNT) and its collabora- University of Minnesota, Virginia Poly-
tive partners, the Center for Transit technic Institute and State University,
Oriented Development (CTOD) with Temple University, and elsewhere,
support from the Brookings Institu- specializing in transportation model-
tion’s Metropolitan Policy Program’s ing, household travel behavior, com-
Urban Markets Initiative. This cost munity indicators, and related topics.
index has been applied to 55 metro Specifically, the transportation cost
areas in the United States, and is model incorporates four neighbor-
unique in that it measures joint trans- hood variables (residential density,
portation and housing affordability average block size, transit connectiv-
at a neighborhood level (see www. ity index, and job density) and four
htaindex.cnt.org). household variables (household
income, household size, commuters
Transportation Costs per household, and average journey to
The transportation costs estimated work time) as independent variables.
in this model and used in this report These variables are used to predict,
are more than the cost of commuting at a neighborhood level (census block
to and from work. They also include group), three dependent variables —
trips to and from school, errands, auto ownership, auto use, and public
and other travel that is part of the transit usage — that determine the
household daily routine. The methods total transportation costs.
for the cost model draw from peer-
reviewed research findings on the Housing Costs
factors that drive household trans- Housing costs were determined
portation costs. The model assump- using the census variables Selected
20 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgMonthly Owner Costs (SMOC) block group data were aggregated
for Owners with a Mortgage and to the same PUMA boundaries.
Gross Rent for Renters Paying Cash Once the percent changes were
(GR). SMOC is defined as the sum calculated between the two time
of payments for mortgages, deeds periods for each PUMA for each
of trust, contracts to purchase, variable, these values were then
or similar debts on the property used as multipliers. Year 2000
(including payments for the first values for each block group within
mortgage, second mortgage, from varying practices with respect Index, see: http://htaindex.cnt.org/ each PUMA were multiplied by this
home equity loans, and other junior to including utilities and fuels as model summary. percent change to estimate 2006–
mortgages); real estate taxes; fire, part of the rental payment. The es- 2008 values at the block group level.
hazard, and flood insurance on the timated costs of utilities and fuels Updating the Original Transportation costs were
property; utilities (electricity, gas, are reported on an annual basis but Model to 2006–2008 updated by applying new cost
and water and sewer); and fuels are converted to monthly figures Input data for the original model are factors to the model’s estimates of
(oil, coal, kerosene, wood, etc.). It for the tabulations. primarily composed of 2000 U.S. vehicle miles traveled and automo-
also includes, where appropriate, To calculate an average value Decennial Census block group data biles per household. These cost
the monthly condominium fees or for SMOC and GR, an aggregate and values that were created and factors were based on the 2007
mobile home costs (installment value is divided by the number of calculated based on these data. AAA estimates of costs for owning
loan payments, personal property households making up the ag- Since the most recent data are for and operating a vehicle, which are
taxes, site rent, registration fees, gregate. For the purposes of this 2000, estimates for 2006–2008 estimated to be $5,648 per auto
and license fees). study, housing costs are estimated were carried out using a recognized and 14.5 cents/mile for fuel ($2.26/
Gross Rent (GR) is defined as using only renters paying cash and procedure called the “constant- gallon), maintenance, and tires.
the contract rent plus the esti- owners paying mortgages. Renters share method,” which considered Auto-Related Carbon Dioxide
mated average monthly cost of paying with vouchers (e.g., subsi- the percent change of variables Emissions per Household were
utilities (electricity, gas, water, and dized housing) and owners who no from 2000 to 2006–2008 within the estimated using model results for
sewer) and fuels (oil, coal, kero- longer have mortgage payments Public Use Microdata Areas (PU- vehicle miles traveled per house-
sene, wood, etc.) if these are paid are therefore excluded. MAs). PUMA data for 2006–2008 hold, an assumed fuel efficiency of
by the renter (or paid for the renter For a full description of the were obtained from the American 20.3 miles per gallon, and an emis-
by someone else). Using gross rent methods used in the original Hous- Community Survey (ACS) three year sions factor of .0092 metric tons
eliminates differentials that result ing + Transportation Affordability estimates while 2000 U.S. Census per gallon.
www.bostonregionalchallenge.org n 21State City/Town Average Total Average Average Annual Housing Transportation H+T
Median Households Annual Housing Transportation as a % of as a % of as a % of
Income Costs Costs Income Income Income
Appendix: Brockton Subregion $67,017 76,101 $22,722 $13,342 36% 21% 57%
MA Brockton $53,065 33,359 $19,362 $11,441 39% 23% 62%
Housing and Central MA Subregion $65,489 201,617 $19,817 $12,928 32% 21% 53%
Transportation MA
MA
Shrewsbury
Worcester
$88,899
$44,933
13,020
64,850
$26,339
$15,297
$13,945
$9,505
30%
36%
16%
23%
47%
59%
Cost Estimates City of Boston Subregion $52,923 231,988 $19,918 $7,013 41% 15% 56%
Dover Subregion $59,122 51,371 $18,354 $13,671 31% 24% 55%
for Cities and NH Dover $58,752 12,353 $17,488 $12,755 30% 22% 52%
NH Rochester $53,132 12,205 $16,670 $12,940 32% 25% 56%
Towns with at Lowell Subregion $73,969 100,465 $22,707 $13,026 32% 19% 51
least 10,000 MA
MA
Billerica
Chelmsford
$83,452
$85,884
13,383
13,337
$24,882
$26,788
$14,600
$13,913
30%
32%
18%
17%
48%
48%
Households MA Dracut $72,634 10,871 $21,765 $13,878 30% 19% 50%
MA Lowell $50,915 36,466 $16,803 $10,110 35% 21% 56%
MA Tewksbury $84,968 10,376 $26,098 $14,581 31% 18% 49%
Manchester Subregion $67,820 96,255 $20,993 $13,357 32% 21% 52%
NH Derry $70,529 13,330 $21,541 $14,350 31% 21% 52%
NH Manchester $53,056 43,944 $16,602 $10,884 32% 21% 54%
Merrimack Valley Subregion $65,795 118,282 $23,241 $12,419 37% 21% 59%
MA Andover $94,863 11,339 $37,746 $14,562 42% 16% 58%
MA Haverhill $60,494 23,542 $19,065 $12,170 32% 21% 53%
MA Lawrence $31,988 24,440 $13,813 $8,442 46% 28% 74%
MA Methuen $55,080 16,587 $21,504 $12,338 40% 23% 63%
Nashua Subregion $77,704 78,383 $23,352 $14,223 31% 19% 50%
NH Nashua $66,291 35,445 $20,247 $12,089 31% 19% 51%
North-Central MA Subregion $63,693 79,888 $19,142 $13,491 31% 22% 53%
MA Fitchburg $47,453 15,232 $15,177 $11,322 33% 25% 58%
MA Leominster $59,941 16,716 $17,117 $12,393 29% 22% 51%
North MetroWest Subregion $95,744 102,594 $29,423 $13,721 32% 16% 48%
MA Framingham $67,195 25,888 $21,747 $11,545 34% 19% 53%
MA Marlborough $72,507 15,165 $22,603 $12,754 32% 19% 51%
North Shore & Suburbs Subregion $76,452 143,965 $25,567 $12,850 34% 18% 52%
MA Beverly $69,727 15,294 $22,344 $12,209 33% 18% 51%
MA Gloucester $60,660 12,519 $21,489 $12,152 36% 21% 57%
MA Peabody $62,682 19,112 $21,680 $11,785 36% 19% 55%
MA Salem $56,410 17,003 $18,801 $10,238 34% 19% 53%
Portsmouth Subregion $76,585 88,311 $25,123 $14,428 33% 20% 53%
NH Portsmouth $59,416 10,593 $19,760 $11,289 34% 20% 53%
NH Salem $77,233 11,631 $25,144 $14,252 33% 19% 52%
Providence Subregion $57,336 398,713 $18,888 $11,697 35% 22% 57%
MA Attleboro $68,635 16,094 $20,018 $13,256 30% 20% 49%
MA North Attleborough $80,663 10,601 $22,414 $13,939 28% 18% 46%
RI Coventry $65,498 12,769 $20,235 $14,188 31% 22% 53%
RI Cranston $57,567 30,304 $19,226 $11,243 34% 20% 55%
RI Cumberland $69,283 11,872 $21,803 $13,802 32% 21% 53%
RI East Providence $49,147 20,086 $15,804 $10,376 33% 22% 55%
22 n www.bostonregionalchallenge.orgYou can also read
