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Social Education 84(5), pp. 267–271
©2020 National Council for the Social Studies Research & Practice
“Research & Practice” features educational research that is directly relevant to the work of class-
room teachers. Given the intense political polarization in the United States, teaching about the
2020 elections may be especially challenging for educators. Wayne Journell has been conducting
research on teaching politics and elections for over a decade. Here, I invited him to share his
research findings. Based on his research as well as the work of other scholars, he offers concrete
teaching suggestions, as well as thoughtful advice for educators.
—Patricia G. Avery, “Research & Practice” Editor, University of Minnesota
Teaching About the 2020
Presidential Election
Wayne Journell
Covid-19 has made classroom teaching this fall more challenging than normal. the election was discussed on a daily
Masks, social distancing, and remote learning make instruction both difficult and basis. In these classes, the teachers not
unpredictable for all educators. Social studies teachers, though, are navigating an only provided regular updates on the
additional source of tension: the 2020 presidential election. The contest between status of the race, but they also viewed
President Donald Trump and former Vice President Joe Biden has been divisive, the election as an opportunity to develop
vicious, and has certainly captured the attention of students. students’ awareness of their own political
ideologies and biases, encourage skills
My scholarly work has focused on the a result, some teachers miss out on the of tolerant political discourse, and prac-
teaching of politics and controversial opportunity to make these connections tice critical media literacy in addition
issues in secondary education, and in that and capitalize on student interest in the to making authentic connections with
line of research, I have had the oppor- election. During my study of the 2008 aspects of the formal curriculum, such
tunity to study best practices related to presidential election, for example, I as the Electoral College.5
these quadrennial events that bring civic found a wide range of approaches to A teacher that I observed during the
intrigue into the classroom like few other incorporating the election among the 2012 presidential election offers an
events can.1 In this article, I outline some civics teachers I observed. Some teach- example of the extent to which teachers
important considerations for teachers as ers stuck strictly to their pacing guides can capitalize on an election year.6 The
they navigate the election this fall. These and only mentioned the election in teacher, Mr. Monroe, created a semester-
recommendations are aimed at middle passing (with one teacher so devoted to long election project that culminated in
and high school classrooms, but many her schedule that she gave a unit test on a school wide mock election that his
could be adapted for younger learners.2 the day after the election), while others classes proctored. In order to maximize
talked about the election only during the students’ understanding of the election,
Seize the Opportunity two-week unit on the executive branch Mr. Monroe readjusted his entire cur-
Presidential elections have been and political parties.4 riculum to correspond with the natural
described as “the quintessential example Not surprisingly, interviews with progression of the campaign. Over the
of teaching social studies” due to the students in those classes indicated that course of the semester, students worked
authentic connections teachers can make they had developed a less sophisticated in groups based on their affinity for
between the formal curriculum and the understanding of the candidates and the Barack Obama or Mitt Romney and
political world in which students live.3 election than students whose teachers analyzed party platforms, researched
Yet current events often do not fit neatly discussed the election on a more regular the candidates’ positions, created digital
into state curriculum standards and, as basis. In two of the classes, for example, campaign commercials, and kept abreast
O ctob e r 2020
267
of major developments during the cam- than any singular poll. Also, they tracked that Trump and Biden make leading up
paign. The culminating project for each polling data over time to identify outliers to November is designed to sway voters’
group was a tri-fold display that was used and recognize which polls consistently opinions. If students are made aware of
to help schoolmates make an informed produced results favorable to one can- these psychological ploys, they are more
decision on “election day,” when they didate or another.10 likely to start recognizing them on their
voted in the school library using an More importantly, teachers can have own, which can help them separate polit-
Internet voting simulation program.7 students apply their knowledge of these ical theatre from the substantive issues
Of course, the opportunities afforded types of data to inquiries about the elec- that should be the focus of elections.
by presidential elections also come with tion. For example, as I write this article Learning to think politically also
some risk. The vitriolic rhetoric that two months before the 2020 general elec- extends to the political information that
accompanies national elections, coupled tion, Biden is leading in every swing state students will encounter outside of school
with the belief held within some politi- and is within the margin of error in some on television and social media. Much has
cal circles that educational institutions traditionally Republican strongholds been written about the Russian attempts
seek to indoctrinate students, can make (e.g., Arizona, Georgia, Texas). Teachers at influencing the 2016 election with
discussing elections difficult. Research could have their students take the role “fake news,” but politicians have been
on the 2016 presidential election, for of Trump’s campaign manager and strat- using biased and misleading informa-
example, found that many teachers felt egize about the best way to get Trump to tion to affect the outcome of elections
uncomfortable teaching about the elec- 270 electoral votes. Conversely, students for decades. Whether it is a campaign
tion due to comments made by then-can- could debate the merits of Biden spend- commercial that spins partial truths or a
didate Trump and the polarized political ing resources in a state like Texas instead blatantly false meme posted by a Russian
climate they found themselves in.8 Some of focusing exclusively on the states that troll, the reason why they work is the
schools and districts even went as far flipped from Obama to Trump in 2016. same—they play to what people already
as prohibiting teachers from discussing These types of questions have no “right” want to believe. Therefore, attention to
the election in their classrooms. Such answer, but they require sophisticated political psychology concepts such as
concerns are certainly valid; however, knowledge of the Electoral College, poll- motivated reasoning and confirmation
my research suggests that they can be ing data, fundraising, media markets, and bias should be an essential element of
mitigated by a healthy, proactive school the cost of advertising. In short, students one’s election instruction.13 Students
environment that emphasizes collegiality would be engaging in an authentic simu- need to recognize their own biases and
and political tolerance, creating a context lation that mimics the tough decisions understand how those biases influence
in which the benefits of discussing elec- that the Trump and Biden campaigns are their ability to evaluate information and
tions outweighs the risks.9 grappling with this fall. make political decisions.
Presidential elections are also ideal for
Create Spaces for Inquiry and helping students engage in what politi- Rethink Disclosure
Political Thinking cal philosophers have termed “think- As soon as teachers begin discussing the
Presidential elections offer ample oppor- ing politically.”11 This type of knowl- election, students inevitably ask, “Who
tunities for students to engage in the edge moves beyond the nuts and bolts are you voting for?” Though teach-
disciplinary practices of political scien- of the political system as described in ers have been conditioned to avoid
tists, which also lend themselves to the textbooks and instead focuses on “the disclosing political beliefs to students,
types of inquiries advocated in the C3 game of politics—how and why politi- my research suggests that social stud-
Framework (see www.socialstudies.org/ cians make decisions, how they vie for ies teachers should rethink that stance.
standards/c3). Due to the high-profile power, and the strategies they use to Many scholars have made arguments in
nature of presidential elections, there achieve their political goals and garner favor of teacher political disclosure; in
is more data (e.g., polling data, cam- public opinion for their policy posi- short, disclosure provides needed trans-
paign finance data) available for teach- tions.”12 Presidential campaigns are parency for students, allows teachers to
ers to construct disciplinary inquiries highly sophisticated operations that play model tolerant political discourse, and
than there might normally be. In Mr. to voters’ emotions and preconceived helps cultivate a sense of trust between
Monroe’s classroom, for example, dis- worldviews, and these attempts to tap students and their teachers.14
cussions of polling data were an almost into voters’ psyches can often be more Yet many teachers view disclosure as
daily occurrence. Students learned about influential to the outcome of an election a risky proposition due to fears of being
concepts like “margins of error” and how than the candidates’ platforms. From the accused by parents and administrators
averages of multiple polls, as found on lineup of speakers at their respective con- of attempting to indoctrinate students.
RealClearPolitics and FiveThirtyEight, ventions to their willingness to be photo- Another concern often expressed by
provide a more accurate representation graphed wearing a mask, every decision teachers is that they feel their voice
S o c i a l E d u c at i o n
268Tri-fold displays created by Mr. Monroe’s students for 2012’s mock Election Day (Photos by Wayne Journell)
carries so much weight in the classroom would regularly note times when they where their teachers stand, provided that
that if they were to share their opinions, said or did things that advocated for they do not feel pressured to conform to
it would discourage students who dis- their political beliefs or preferred can- their teachers’ beliefs, and they respect
agreed with those opinions from con- didate.16 their teachers for being passionate about
tributing to classroom discussions.15 This “political seepage” revealed itself civic issues.21 Also, I have found that
Certainly, there are teachers who actively to be problematic when I interviewed classroom discussions are often more
push their beliefs on students and penal- students at the end of the semester.17 vibrant and respectful in classrooms
ize those who disagree with them. These Many of the students had not picked up where teachers disclose, even when the
teachers often receive highly publicized on these acts of unintentional disclosure, teacher and students disagree politically.
disciplinary action or end up as objects and as a result, the teachers’ personal All of that said, the 2020 presidential
of derision on cable news networks, opinions were processed as facts by their election is taking place during a period
which only exacerbates teachers’ fear students, leading to a skewed under- of heightened political polarization in
of disclosure. It is important to remem- standing of the candidates and the elec- the United States, so many districts and
ber that such teachers are often being tion. These same students often made school administrators may issue blan-
rebuked not because they disclosed but incorrect assumptions about their teach- ket decrees, like in 2016, prohibiting
for how they disclosed, and fortunately, ers’ political leanings based solely on teachers from discussing the election or
they represent a minority of social stud- demographic factors such as the teacher’s publicly revealing who they support.22
ies teachers in the United States. race and socioeconomic status.18 I believe such knee-jerk reactions are
Most social studies teachers attempt Teachers can avoid such issues by shortsighted and representative of a lack
to be politically neutral in their classes, taking what Thomas Kelly called a of trust in the professionalism of teach-
and while that may be a worthy goal, committed impartiality approach to ers; but, of course, if one’s district or
neutral classrooms cannot exist. The act disclosure.19 Committed impartiality school has such a policy, then it would
of teaching requires making decisions means that teachers are open about be wise to adhere to it. If not, though,
about what to cover, who should be their political beliefs to their students I would encourage teachers to rethink
allowed to speak, for how long, and so but teach in a way that is balanced and their fear of disclosure and give commit-
on. It is impossible for teachers, who are allows competing views to receive a fair ted impartiality a try.
human beings with strong beliefs and hearing in the classroom. In short, a com-
developed worldviews, to completely mitted impartiality approach means that Be Aware of Potential Trauma
remove themselves from those types of teachers acknowledge that their students’ One of the reasons why districts and
decisions. In my studies of presiden- opinions on political issues are just as schools felt compelled to censor dis-
tial elections, nearly all of the teachers valid as their own. In addition to greater cussions of the 2016 election was that
declined to disclose their candidate pref- transparency and allowing teachers to Trump’s “Make America Great Again”
erence to their students and professed model tolerant political discourse, my campaign was widely viewed as an
to teach in a neutral manner, but none research has found that committed attack on immigrants, people of color,
of them did. As I sat in their classrooms, impartiality offers additional instruc- and other traditionally marginalized
day after day and month after month, I tional benefits.20 Students enjoy knowing groups in the United States. While
O ctob e r 2020
269(Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press,
previous presidential elections have helpful in supporting students who 2017).
been infused with identity politics that feel traumatized by rhetoric during the 2. Empirical work on teaching presidential elections
made aspects of teaching about them dif- 2020 campaign. They argue that teach- in elementary classrooms is limited; for an excep-
tion, see Katherina A. Payne and Wayne Journell,
ficult, Trump’s rhetoric during the 2016 ers first must recognize potential trauma “‘We Have Those Kinds of Conversations Here…’:
election was overtly divisive.23 From the and tend to students’ socio-emotional Addressing Contentious Politics with Elementary
Students,” Teaching and Teacher Education 79
promises to build a wall on the Mexican well being. Then, as a way of helping (2019), 73–82. For instructional suggestions, see
border and ban Muslims from enter- students better understand the political Wayne Journell, Laura A. May, Vera L. Stenhouse,
ing the United States to the infamous reality they find themselves in, as well Laura E. Meyers, and Teri Holbrook, “Scaffolding
Classroom Discourse in an Election Year: Keeping
Access Hollywood tape describing sexual as giving students a sense of agency on a Cool Mood in a Heated Season,” Social Studies
assault against women, the Trump cam- how to deal with potential civic harm or and the Young Learner 25, no. 1 (2012), 6–9; Mary
E. Haas, Barbara Hatcher, and Cynthia Szymanski
paign presented teachers with a host of uncertainty, they encourage teachers to Sunal, “Teaching About Elections During a
unexpected challenges. Based on his ten- cultivate students’ civic knowledge and Presidential Election Year,” Social Studies and the
Young Learner 21, no. 1 (2008), P1–P4.
ure in office thus far, Trump’s 2020 cam- capacities and help them toward devel- 3. Mary E. Haas and Margaret A. Laughlin, “Teaching
paign wasn’t likely to be more subdued. oping plans for activism and resistance.26 the 2000 Election: A K-12 Survey,” Journal of
Moreover, this election will coincide Other research on students during the Social Studies Research 26, no 2 (2002), 20.
4. Wayne Journell, “The Influence of High-Stakes
with cultural divisions that have inten- 2016 election suggests that teachers can Testing on High School Teachers’ Willingness to
sified to a point not seen in the United use historical knowledge to help students Incorporate Current Political Events into the
Curriculum,” The High School Journal 93, no. 3
States since the 1960s, as evidenced contextualize vitriolic political rhetoric (2010), 111–125; see also, Erin A. Bronstein, “‘It
by the ongoing Black Lives Matter and encourage resilience and resistance Isn’t in the Curriculum’: World History Teachers’
protests and the increased demands to to discriminatory policies.27 Views on U.S. Presidential Elections,” The Social
Studies 111, no. 3 (2020), 123–132.
tear down monuments dedicated to the Finally, research has shown that teach- 5. Journell, “The Influence of High-Stakes Testing”;
Confederacy and other aspects of white ers may need to break from attempts at Wayne Journell, “Teaching the 2008 Presidential
Election at Three Demographically Diverse
supremacy throughout U.S. history. neutrality in order to protect the safety Schools: An Exercise in Neoliberal Governmentality,”
There is a strong likelihood that these of their most vulnerable students.28 It Educational Studies 47, no. 2 (2011), 133–159.
cultural debates will be pushed to the should not be considered partisan, for 6. Journell, Teaching Politics.
center of the national discourse as Trump example, to condemn sexual assault or 7. The voting program Mr. Monroe used was National
Student/Parent Mock Election (nationalmockelection.
seeks to shift the spotlight away from the assert that everyone living in the United org)
pandemic. States has value and should be treated 8. Alyssa Hadley Dunn, Beth Sondel, and Hannah
Carson Baggett, “‘I Don’t Want to Come Off as
When politicians target specific groups, humanely, even if they entered the coun- Pushing an Agenda’: How Contexts Shaped
particularly groups that have been histor- try illegally. Might such a response draw Teachers’ Pedagogy in the Days After the 2016
Presidential Election,” American Educational
ically marginalized, it creates the poten- the ire of a student or parent? Possibly, Research Journal 56, no. 2 (2018), 444–476.
tial for physical and emotional trauma but teaching sometimes requires taking 9. Wayne Journell, “Ideological Homogeneity, School
for students who identify as members of a stand to protect one’s students, even if Leadership, and Political Intolerance in Secondary
Education: A Study of Three High Schools During
those groups. The “Trump Effect” that the one causing harm is a candidate for the 2008 Presidential Election,” Journal of School
occurred during the 2016 campaign and the highest office in the land. Leadership 22, no. 3 (2012), 569–599.
directly after Trump won the election has 10. Wayne Journell, Melissa Walker Beeson, and
Cheryl A. Ayers, “Learning to Think Politically:
been well documented; many students Conclusion Toward More Complete Disciplinary Knowledge
felt empowered to vocalize “virulently So far, 2020 has been defined by the in Civics and Government Courses,” Theory &
Research in Social Education 43, no. 1 (2015),
racist, anti-Islamic, anti-Semitic, or unimaginable. From virtual conventions 28–67.
homophobic rhetoric in their schools to debates over the validity of mail-in 11. See, for example, Michael Freeden, The Political
and classrooms” as a consequence of ballots, the 2020 election period has Theory of Political Thinking: The Anatomy of a
Practice (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press,
Trump’s rhetoric.24 Research also found been unlike any presidential contest in 2013); Michael Walzer, Thinking Politically: Essays
that many students who identified with history. Regardless of the outcome, it will in Political Theory, ed. David Miller (New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007).
the groups targeted by Trump came to be a pivotal moment for our nation—one 12. Journell, Teaching Politics, 6.
school scared for their safety and wor- that our students will need help under- 13. For an explanation of motivated reasoning and
ried that they or their family members standing and contextualizing. They will confirmation bias, see H. James Garrett, “Why
Does Fake News Work? On the Psychosocial
might get deported should he win the be better able to do so if the election is Dynamics of Learning, Belief, and Citizenship,” in
election.25 a consistent aspect of their social studies Unpacking Fake News: An Educator’s Guide to
Navigating the Media with Students, ed. Wayne
Based on their research during the instruction this fall. Journell (New York, N.Y.: Teachers College Press,
2016 election, Beth Sondel, Hannah 2019), 15–29; for an example of how these concepts
Carson Baggett, and Alyssa Hadley Notes can be applied to information found online, see
1. A comprehensive synthesis of my work can be found Wayne Journell and Christopher H. Clark,
Dunn developed a “pedagogy of politi- in Wayne Journell, Teaching Politics in Secondary “Political Memes and the Limits of Media Literacy,”
cal trauma” that teachers may find Education: Engaging with Contentious Issues in Unpacking Fake News: An Educator’s Guide to
S o c i a l E d u c at i o n
270Navigating the Media with Students, ed. Wayne May, “Social Studies Teachers’ Views on Committed Democracy, Education, and Access, 2017), vi; see
Journell (New York, N.Y.: Teachers College Press, Impartiality and Discussion,” Social Studies also, Maureen Costello, After Election Day: The
2019), 109–125; for historical examples of presi- Research and Practice 1, no. 1 (2006), 30–44. Trump Effect: The Impact of the 2016 Presidential
dential propaganda that play on these psychosocial 16. Journell, “The Disclosure Dilemma in Action: A Election on Our Nation’s Schools (Montgomery,
processes, see Wayne Journell, “Using YouTube to Qualitative Look at the Effect of Teacher Disclosure Ala.: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2016).
Teach Presidential Election Propaganda: Twelve on Classroom Instruction,” Journal of Social 25. Dunn, Sondel, and Baggett; Payne and Journell;
Representative Videos,” Social Education 73, no. Studies Research 35, no. 2 (2011), 217–244; Beth Sondel, Hannah Carson Baggett, and Alyssa
7 (2009), 325–329, 362. Journell, “Teachers’ Controversial Issue Decisions Hadley Dunn, “‘For Millions of People, This is
14. Jenni Conrad, “Navigating Identity as a Related to Race, Gender, and Religion During the Real Trauma’: A Pedagogy of Political Trauma in
Controversial Issue: One Teacher’s Disclosure for 2008 Presidential Election,” Theory & Research in the Wake of the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election,”
Critical Empathic Reasoning,” Theory & Research Social Education 39, no. 3 (2011), 348–392. Teaching and Teacher Education 70 (2018), 175–
in Social Education 48, no. 2 (2020), 211–243; 17. Diana E. Hess and Paula McAvoy, The Political 185.
Rebecca Cooper Geller, “Teacher Political Classroom: Evidence and Ethics in Democratic 26. Sondel, Baggett, and Dunn.
Disclosure in Contentious Times: A ‘Responsibility Education (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2015), 199. 27. Paul J. Yoder, “‘He Wants to Get Rid of All the
to Speak Up’ or ‘Fair and Balanced’?” Theory & 18. Journell, “The Disclosure Dilemma”; Journell, Muslims’: Mexican American and Muslim Students’
Research in Social Education 48, no. 2 (2020), “Teacher Political Disclosure as Parrhêsia”. Use of History Regarding Candidate Trump,”
182–210; Thomas E. Kelly, “Discussing Theory & Research in Social Education 48, no. 3
Controversial Issues: Four Perspectives on the 19. Kelly, “Discussing Controversial Issues: Four
Perspectives on the Teacher’s Role.” (2020), 346–374.
Teacher’s Role,” Theory & Research in Social
Education 14, no. 2 (1986), 113–138; Jennifer 20. Journell, “The Disclosure Dilemma”; Journell, 28. Dafney Blanca Dabach, “‘My Student Was
Hauver James, “Reframing the Disclosure Debate: “Teacher Political Disclosure as Parrhêsia.” Apprehended by Immigration’: A Civics Teacher’s
Confronting Issues of Transparency in Teaching 21. These findings have been corroborated by others; Breach of Silence in a Mixed-Citizenship
Controversial Content,” Social Studies Research see, for example, Hess and McAvoy, “To Disclose.” Classroom,” Harvard Educational Review 85, no.
and Practice 4, no. 1 (2009), 82–94; Journell, 3 (2015), 383–413; Geller; Payne and Journell.
22. I also recognize that the Fall 2020 semester will
“Making a Case for Teacher Political Disclosure,” look and feel different for many teachers across the
Journal of Curriculum Theorizing 31, no. 1 (2016), United States. Disclosure requires building trusting
100–111; Journell, “Teacher Political Disclosure as relationships with students, which may be more
Parrhêsia,” Teachers College Record 118, no. 5 difficult when teaching remotely.
(2016), 1–36. 23. Journell, “Teachers’ Controversial Issue Decisions.” Wayne Journell is Professor of Social Stud-
15. Diana E. Hess and Paula McAvoy, “To Disclose or 24. John Rogers, Megan Franke, Jung-Eun Ellie Yun, ies Education at the University of North Caro-
Not to Disclose: A Controversial Choice for Michael Ishimoto, Claudia Diera, Rebecca Cooper lina at Greensboro. He is also the current editor
Teachers,” in Diana E. Hess, Controversy in the Geller, Anthony Berryman, and Tizoc Brenes, of Theory & Research in Social Education. He
Classroom: The Democratic Power of Discussion Teaching and Learning in the Age of Trump: can be contacted at awjourne@uncg.edu.
(New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), 97–110; Increasing Stress and Hostility in America’s High
Jonathan Miller-Lane, Elissa Denton, and Andrew Schools (Los Angeles, Calif.: UCLA’s Institute for
O ctob e r 2020
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