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Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 A research project commissioned by Siemens Limited - detailed findings
Foreword
Foreword
I t is increasingly clear that the battle for
environmental sustainability will be won
or lost in cities. Over half of the world’s
technology can contribute to greater
environmental sustainability in the Dublin
region. By taking a holistic perspective
population now live in urban areas, a figure and applying a quantitative analytical
which will reach almost 60% by 2025. approach, it identifies a series of
Cities account for about 80% of technological levers that can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and 75% of greenhouse gas emissions and bring
global energy consumption. Issues of Ireland closer to its international targets.
water and waste management in cities are The encouraging message is that many of
inter-related with carbon ones, as well as the identified levers not only help protect
having their own important impact on the the environment, but also pay back from
environment and quality of life. an economic point of view.
While there is widespread acceptance The research was carried out by a team
that humanity must tackle the challenge from University College Dublin School
of climate change, economic issues tend of Electrical, Electronic and Mechanical
to take precedence, especially in difficult Engineering, led by Professor Gerry Byrne
times – the premise being that we should and Dr. Donal Finn. Siemens would like
fix the economy first and think about the to thank this team for their efforts in
environment later. producing a most rigorous analysis. We
The reality is humanity cannot afford would also like to acknowledge the support
to wait. Climate change is happening and received from Dr Gerry Wardell and his
will pose catastrophic consequences unless team at CODEMA.
we take action now. Studies show that it Siemens sees itself in the vanguard of the
will cost the global economy much more drive for sustainability. In commissioning
in lost growth if we wait to solve these this report, we want to make our
challenges. contribution by helping stakeholders
Ireland is already exceeding its Kyoto take informed decisions - decisions that
target and will likely miss its EU 20-20-20 could have economic and environmental
target, which will cost us in the form of ramifications for generations to come.
carbon credits. With one quarter of Ireland’s
population living in the Dublin region, Dr. Werner Kruckow
urban residents will be responsible for a CEO Siemens Limited
large part of the associated emissions. Dublin
This report seeks to explore how Ireland
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 1
Contents
EXECUTIVE Key finding 4
SUMMARY 04 Existing and proven
technologies can provide
Approach 04
solutions to significantly
Key finding 1 reduce Dublin’s emissions 07
Ireland will struggle to
Key finding 5
reach its targets 06
Technological levers for
Key finding 2 a sustainable Dublin 08
Dublin’s emissions
- Energy 09
per capita are higher
than comparable - Transportation 09
cities 07
- Buildings and Lighting 10
Key finding 3
Dubliners have a choice: Key finding 6
Pay the penalty or invest Economically profitable
in sustainability 07 strategies also exist to
2 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025
Table of
Contents
substantially reduce water Key finding 10 BUILDINGS
usage and waste to landfill 10 A strong stimulus & LIGHTING 32
in economically
- Water 10 difficult times 13 WATER 38
- Waste 11 Looking forward WASTE 42
We have the
Key finding 7 technology CONCLUSION 44
75% of these solutions - we can do it! 13
will pay for themselves 12
LEVER
SUMMARY 46
METHODOLOGY 14
Key finding 8
Fashionable solutions are
REFERENCES 48
DUBLINS
often an expensive means of SUSTAINABILITY GLOSSARY 49
reducing carbon emissions 12 CHALLENGE 16
Key finding 9 ENERGY 18
Sustainability issues need to be
seen holistically, not in silos 12 TRANSPORT 26
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 3
Executive Summary
APPROACH show, many of the solutions are already at educationalists, consumers and concerned
Cities can play a decisive role in fighting hand. individuals - in short society as a whole. We
climate change: over half of the world’s For the first time for the Dublin region, hope it will assist them in making informed
population lives in urban centres today and more than 20 technological levers covering decisions concerning the deployment of
the number is likely to grow to nearly 60% five sectors (buildings, energy, transportation, technologies to reduce Dublin’s relatively
by 2025. Cities are responsible for some 80% water and waste) have been examined for high per capita carbon emissions.
and therefore, a disproportionate share of their potential to reduce greenhouse gas The encouraging message is that
the world’s greenhouse gas emissions [1]. (CO2) emissions along with the associated many of the levers that reduce energy
Dublin as the capital and economic investment costs and benefits. and water consumption and improve
hub of Ireland can pave the way towards The study aims to illustrate the contribution waste management not only help protect
becoming a truly sustainable city. It that technology can make towards creating the environment, but also can have an
is a formidable challenge, but not an a more sustainable city. It is targeted acceptable pay back period from an
insurmountable one and as this study will at policy makers, planners, businesses, economic point of view.
4 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025
Executive
Summary
The figures quoted for the abatement each technological lever shows the lower maintenance costs, etc.)
potential of each technological costs or net savings per tonne of are greater than those of the
lever1 equate to the amount of CO2 CO2 abated. All calculations2 take reference technology - it provides
emissions that can be avoided in into account both the investment a net annual saving over the
2025. It is important to note that and running costs of a particular forecast period. When a lever cost
all of the levers would result in a lever and its reference technology. is positive, this implies that carbon
reduction of CO2 emissions from Where the cost is negative, it implies emissions will be reduced but the
the time they are implemented. that the benefits associated with its initial investment is high and will
The abatement cost quoted for implementation (energy savings, not be paid back before 2025.
1
See glossary
2
except those for electric cars
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 5
Potential for CO2 abatement - Dublin 2025
Executive Summary
14
Key finding 1: Ireland will struggle to
-1.53 13
to reach its targets Irish
12
CO2 emissions projections and targets-28%
Under the Kyoto Protocol, Ireland has -1.14
committed to limiting greenhouse gas
10 -1.03
emissions to 13% above 1990 levels (56 Mt
CO2), equivalent to 62.8 Mt3 CO2 each year 9.3
80
between 2008 and 2012 (See figure 1.1) 8
[2]. ‘Business as usual’ scenario
Energy Buildings & Transport
To meet its commitments to the EU 20- 75
Mt CO2
Lighting
20-20 Agenda, Ireland has to, by 2020, 6
Decrease from identified abatement levers
reduce its emissions by 20% relative to 70 ‘Additional measures’
2005 levels, to meet a target of 56 Mt CO2,
4
as well as increase its share of renewable 65
Mt CO2
energies in energy consumption to 16%
(to contribute to the 20% overall target of 2 Kyoto Protocol
60
the EU) [3, 4]. In addition to the EU 20-20-
20 target, Ireland has set a national target 1990 Emissions EU 20-20-20 Target
of increasing the share of renewables in 550
Carbon emissions Carbon emissions
energy generation to 40% (double the EU Dublin 2005 Dublin 2025
target) by 2020. 50 (If all measures are
implemented)
If Ireland adopts a ‘business as usual’4
approach, it is predicted that it will exceed
45
its Kyoto target by approximately 8.7 Mt
90
06
08
10
12
14
16
18
20
CO2 each year during the period 2008-2012
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
[2, 5].
Figure 1.3
In September 2008 the EPA predicted
that even with all the ‘additional measures’5
planned by the Government that Ireland
Figure 1.1 [2]
Figure
would fall short of the Kyoto target by
approximately 7 Mt CO2 each year over the
five year period [2, 6, 7, 8].
While the most recent projections European cities: CO2 emissions per capita 2005/06
released by the EPA in March 2009 show
that the economic downturn will have the
temporary effect of lowering emissions,
it will still be a challenge for Ireland to 12
meet both its Kyoto and EU 20-20-
20 obligations. Even assuming the
most optimistic scenario where the 10 9.7
‘additional measures’ are implemented
on time and realise their full anticipated
8 7.5
emissions reductions, Ireland will still 7.1
6.9
Tonnes of CO2
be over both its Kyoto target and EU 6.3
20-20-20 target [9]. 6
It is imperative that the transitory
reduction in emissions brought about by
the economic downturn does not dilute 4
the urgency of Ireland’s need to lower
its emissions. Ireland must continue to 2
implement whatever measures are needed
to decouple CO2 emissions from economic
activity, otherwise emissions will increase 0
again as soon as the economy recovers, Dublin Edinburgh Munich Copenhagen London
compounding the problem of CO2 already
in the atmosphere.
While there is no specific emissions target
for Dublin, given that approximately one Figure
Figure 1.2
1.2 [1, 11, 12, 13]
3,4,5
See glossary
6 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Overview of identified CO2 abatement levers - Edition
Dublin Dublin – a view 2025
to 2025
quarter of the Irish population resides in
the Greater Dublin Area and that its current Potential for CO2 abatement - Dublin 2025
emissions are approximately 13 Mt CO2,
in order to reach the EU 20-20-20 target,
Dublin’s share of the required reduction
(20% relative 2005 levels) should amount 14
to at least 2.6 Mt CO2.
13 -1.53
Key finding 2: Dublin’s emissions
12 -28%
per capita are higher than comparable -1.14
cities 10 -1.03
Dublin residents are responsible for emitting
more carbon dioxide per capita than many 9.3
other developed cities at 9.7 tonnes CO2 per 8
capita (2006) [10]. In London the per capita Energy Buildings & Transport
Mt CO2 Lighting
emissions are 6.3 tonnes per annum, while 6
smaller cities, which are more comparable Decrease from identified abatement levers
to Dublin such as Edinburgh and Munich,
emitted 7.5 tonnes and 7.1 tonnes per 4
capita respectively in the same year
[1, 11, 12, 13].
2
Key finding 3: Dubliners have a
choice: pay the penalty or invest in 0
sustainability Carbon emissions Carbon emissions
Even in the most optimistic scenario, where Dublin 2005 Dublin 2025
(If all measures are
the government’s ‘additional measures‘ implemented)
have been implemented on time and
realised their full anticipated emissions
reductions, it is predicted that Ireland will Figure 1.3
fall short of its Kyoto target by around 7 Mt
CO2 each year over the Kyoto period. The Figure 1.3
latest projections by the EPA, which factor increase as economic growth recovers. potential to significantly reduce carbon
in the temporary impact of the economic Local authorities, consumers and emissions in the Dublin region comprising
downturn, predict that Ireland will still miss businesses therefore have two options: the four local authority areas: Dublin City,
its Kyoto target by at least 1.3 Mt CO2. spend money on carbon credits, which Fingal, Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown and South
This could cost stakeholders in Ireland will be mandatory in the future if carbon County Dublin. The advantage of these
- businesses, consumers and government, emissions limits are exceeded, or invest in levers is that the underlying technology,
between €156m and €840m over the five European
technologies cities:
that will enhanceCO emissions
the region’s
2
perbehind
such as that capita 2005/06
wind turbines, efficient
year Kyoto period (2008-2012), assuming infrastructure and contribute towards the electrical appliances and hybrid vehicles,
an average price of €24/tonne of carbon achievement of emissions targets. is already well researched and available
[14], depending on the extent to which It is demonstrated in this study that, today.
Ireland overshoots its Kyoto target. instead 12 of purchasing carbon credits, The 226 technological levers evaluated
In order to meet the Kyoto targets public authorities, businesses, industry in this study, if fully implemented, could
(under the ‘additional measures‘ scenario) and consumers
10 should
9.7 consider investing potentially abate 3.7 Mt CO2 annually in
the Irish Government has indicated in technologies that would reap returns Dublin in 2025, which corresponds to a
that it will purchase up to 3.6 million in the form of lower emissions and 28% reduction of Dublin’s emissions as well
Kyoto units each year from 2008-2012 energy 8savings and benefit the7.5 economy as reducing water consumption by 10%
7.1
equating to approximately €433m over through enhanced competitiveness and job compared to 2005
6.9 levels (See figure 1.3) [2].
Tonnes of CO2
6.3
the five year period [6]. It has already creation, while also improving the quality While this study focuses on technology,
6
set aside over €290m for the purchase of life. it recognises that technology alone
of these carbon credits [6]. If Ireland can only partially contribute to overall
fails to decouple economic growth from Key finding
4 4: Existing and proven CO2 abatement. Behavioural change,
carbon emissions, any reprieve in penalty technologies can provide solutions to though not considered explicitly in this
payments due to lowered emissions significantly reduce Dublin’s emissions study, is another key factor which needs
arising from the economic downturn This study
2 outlines a number of to be considered in goals of CO2 emissions
will be short-lived as the burden will technological levers that have the reduction.
0
Dublin Edinburgh Munich Copenhagen London
6
See full list of technological levers on pages 18-19
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 7
Figure 1.2
Executive Summary
12
10 9.7
8 7.5
7.1
6.9
Tonnes of CO2
6.3
6
4
2
0
Dublin Edinburgh Munich Copenhagen London
Key finding 5: Technological levers for as well as reap returns in the form of employment and prosperity, all the while
a sustainable Dublin energy savings. Not only do they contribute improving quality of life for its citizens.
Across
Figure 1.2all infrastructure areas, there towards creating a sustainable city, Figures 1.4 and 1.5 detail the key
are some 22 proven technological they can also enhance Dublin’s quantitative findings of the study:
levers discussed in this report that can competitiveness in the international
substantially reduce carbon emissions, arena, which would increase investment,
Overview of identified CO2 abatement levers - Dublin 2025
Renewable electricity generation
Building retrofitting
Transport 21
Modified petrol cars
City district heating scheme
Modified diesel cars
Domestic appliances
Commerical/industrial lighting
Vehicular biofuels
Residential lighting
Electric cars
Commercial building heat recovery
Gas fired CHP
LED public lighting
Hybrid buses
Hybrid trucks
Traffic management
Improved lighting controls
Domestic commercial biomass
0 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.4 1.6
Mt CO2
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
8 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025Overview of identified cost/savings of technological levers - Dublin 2025
Hybrid trucks
Vehicular biofuels
Hybrid buses
Traffic management
Domestic commercial biomass
Electric cars
Gas fired CHP
Renewable electricity generation
Commercial building heat recovery
Commerical/industrial lighting
Improved lighting controls
Building retrofitting
Domestic appliances
City district heating scheme
Modified petrol cars
Modified diesel cars
Residential lighting
LED public lighting
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
€/t CO2
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Energy would represent another major lever. transport could be reduced by 1.03 Mt CO2
The greatest CO2 abatement potential lies It could abate 0.15 Mt CO2 by utilising annually by 2025 through implementing
in the energy sector, which accounts for heat that would otherwise be dumped the technological levers outlined in this
over 40% of the total reductions outlined in as a waste by-product of conventional study.
this study. CO2 emissions could be reduced electricity generation. • The single most influential lever in the
by 1.53 Mt annually by 2025, if levers • Installation of a number of local gas transport sector is the Transport 21
that reduced Dublin’s dependency on fired combined heat and power (CHP) strategy. It has committed to develop
fossil fuels for electricity generation were systems, with thermal capacity range two Metro lines in the Greater Dublin
implemented. of 0.5-10 MW, would also provide Area and to improving and extending
• If Ireland achieves its national target substantial potential for emissions the LUAS7 services, as well as upgrading
of 40% renewables contribution to the abatement at 0.03 Mt CO2. This would and improving the existing bus and
national grid by 2020, it will result in a generate around €2.5m in savings DART8 systems. The DART improvements
reduction of 1.34 Mt CO2 for the Dublin annually for the investors. include increased electrification of
region [15]. To achieve this, renewable • Addition of biomass boilers to the the system and the construction of
power connected to the grid will have contributors of the district heating an interconnector to link the planned
Potential for CO2 abatement
to increase four-fold between now
- Dublin 2025
system would lead to an abatement Docklands railway station with Pearse
and 2020 from the current capacity of 0.01 Mt CO2 and fuel savings of and Heuston stations, as well as
of approximately 1,200 MW to an €500,000 annually. the LUAS and the planned Metro. If
14
estimated 5,000 MW, consisting mostly Transport 21 is fully implemented, the
of wind power [16]. The investment Transportation abatement potential would be 0.51 Mt
required in the13period up to 2020 is Over 65% of transport emissions in Dublin CO2 nationally, per year [17]. The total
-1.53
12
approximately €9.45bn [16]. can be attributed directly-28%
to private cars national investment for Transport 21 is
• A district heating system within the city -1.14
[10]. Greenhouse gas emissions from estimated to be €34bn, of which €15.8bn
10 -1.03
7,8
See glossary 9.3
8
Energy Buildings & Transport
Mt CO2
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Lighting Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 9
6
Decrease from identified abatement leversExecutive Summary
will be invested in public transport up to
2016 [17]. An abatement cost was not
calculated due to the complex nature of Comparison of abatement cost variation (2025)
the strategy. based on crude oil prices
• A number of fuel efficiency
improvements associated with petrol
engines have an abatement potential
of 0.16 Mt CO2, with annual running 600
cost savings of €400 per car. Similar
improvements applied to diesel cars 400
would abate 0.13 Mt CO2 and lead to
Abatement Cost €/t CO2
annual savings of €360 per car. 200
• Increasing the share of biofuels in the
fuel mix for vehicles to 12% by 2025
0
would lead to a reduction in carbon
emissions of 0.12 Mt CO2.
• The introduction of electric vehicles -200
could reduce emissions by a further 0.05
Mt CO2, if 12% of all cars were electric -400
by 2025. (This study assumes that cars
are charged primarily at night when
-600
electricity demand is lowest and that
the electricity is generated from both
fossil fuels [50%] and renewable sources -800
Modified Modified Electric Traffic Hybrid Biofuels Hybrid
[50%]). diesel petrol cars management buses trucks
• The introduction of a traffic management cars cars
system in the Greater Dublin Area to
improve traffic flow based on existing
infrastructure has an abatement Figure 1.6
potential of 0.02 Mt CO2.
Figure 1.7
• Replacing public buses with hybrid buses energy management systems. Other levers (light emitting diodes) has an annual
could abate an additional 0.02 Mt CO2. include the replacement of sodium based abatement potential of 0.02 Mt CO2 with
Similarly replacing heavy commercial lighting systems with LED alternatives. savings of over €8m annually in energy
vehicles with hybrid drive vehicles could • Retrofitting of buildings in the and maintenance.
abate 0.02 Mt CO2. residential sector offers the largest • Replacement of inefficient ventilation
Note: For all calculations involving fuel, single abatement potential with an systems with heat recovery systems
an oil price of $60 per barrel is assumed annual reduction of carbon output in commercial buildings would lead
between 2005 and 2025 [18]. Higher by 0.78 Mt CO2. This lever includes a to an abatement of 0.04 Mt CO2 with
energy prices (such as those experienced number of insulation measures such as associated savings of €52m annually for
in 2008 when oil reached $120 per barrel) solid wall insulation, implementation of investors.
would lead to a significant decrease in low-emissivity double glazing (energy
the abatement costs of each technology. efficient insulating glass) and draught Key finding 6: Economically profitable
For example, at $60 per barrel, the proofing. Retrofitting could also save strategies also exist to substantially
abatement cost of replacing the existing Overview
investors aboutof€150m identifiedper yearcost/savings
in reduce water of technological
usage and waste levers
to - Du
bus fleet with hybrid diesel buses is €40/t energy costs net of investment. landfill.
CO2 in 2025. However, if oil increases to • Upgrading to more efficient domestic
$120 per barrel then the abatement cost appliances (washing machines, Water
of implementing hybrid buses becomes a dishwashers,Hybrid fridges) trucks
could provide a The average Dublin resident consumes
saving of €110/t CO2 in 2025 (see Figure further reduction of 0.12 Mt CO2 with 145 litres of water per day, which amounts
Vehicular biofuels
1.6). annual energy savings
Hybrid for investors of to 53,000 litres per capita per year [19].
buses
€24m. Dublin city loses 20% of its water due
Traffic management
Buildings and Lighting: • More efficient lighting in buildings to leakages and in response the city
The abatement potential of implementing could lead
Domestic to anbiomass
commercial annual reduction council has put in place a Leak Reduction
certain technological levers in both of 0.19 Mt CO Electric carssave investors Programme [20]. While this goes some way
2
and
residential and commercial buildings is 1.14 approximately €78m annually in energy to addressing the city’s water issue, Dublin
Gas fired CHP
Mt CO2 in 2025. For residential buildings, and maintenance. still faces future potential water shortages
the key levers are insulation measures and Renewable electricity
• Replacing sodiumgeneration
street lights with LEDs and should consider options for reduction
Commercial building heat recovery
Commerical/industrial lighting
Improved lighting controls
Building retrofitting
10 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025
Domestic appliances
City district heating schemeWaste convert up to 600,000 tonnes of waste
Levers that pay back their
Irish people on average produce the largest each year into energy, providing enough
investment by 2025
amount of municipal waste in the EU at 824 electricity to power up to 50,000 homes.
City district heating scheme
kg per capita [21]. In 2007, residents of It could also provide hot water for district
the Dublin region produced approximately heating schemes in the area for up to a
Gas fired CHP
half a million tonnes of household waste further 60,000 homes [22].
Domestic commercial biomass [21]. At present, any waste not recycled is • In addition to incineration, anaerobic
Modified petrol cars sent to landfill which is not a sustainable digestion is an appropriate treatment for
Modified diesel cars option. While reducing the volume what is unable to be recycled.
0 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Domestic appliances of waste is largely a behavioural issue, • Nonetheless recycling is the cheapest
Residential lighting there are a number of interesting and most sustainable solution to
technologies for waste treatment. Waste diverting waste from landfill as long as
Building retrofitting
to energy
Figure 1.9 technologies can supply the waste being recycled is treated in
Commercial building heat recovery
thousands of households with electricity an environmentally friendly way. Last
Commercial/industrial lighting and heat. year 40% of Dublin’s municipal waste
Improved lighting controls • The implementation of an incinerator was diverted from landfill and sent to be
LED street lights in Dublin (due to open in 2012), could recycled [23].
Windows
Dual flush toilets
Aerated taps
Water reduction potential in 2025
Levers that do not pay back their
investment by 2025
Vehicular biofuels Dual flush toilets
Hybrid trucks
Traffic management Aerated taps
Hybrid buses
Water meters
Water metering
on the demand side. Although businesses 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
are charged water rates, Dublin is one of the Reduction in water consumption (million m of water)
3
few European cities where householders
do not pay for water. Charging for water Figure 1.7
1.8
Figure
creates an incentive for people to consume
less. This report identifies levers that can
reduce water demand by more than 10%
(6.8 million cubic metres) from 2005 levels
per year by 2025.
• If domestic metering and charging
(€0.0015/litre) were introduced they
would lead to a reduction in water
consumption of 4.3 million cubic metres
in 2025.
• The implementation of other water
saving devices, such as aerated taps
and dual flush toilets, would lead to a
combined saving of over 2.5 million
cubic metres of water.
• Improved water pump efficiency would 0 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
decrease the energy consumption of
water stations, leading to reductions
in CO2 emissions associated with water
Figure 1.8
1.9
production. Irish Greenhouse Gas Emission Projections/Targets
Figure
At current Business As Usual rates, Ireland will not meet either target.
Even if Ireland implements additional prescribed measures, emission levels
will still be above Kyoto & EU 20-20-20 targets.
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 11
80Executive Summary Key finding 7: 75% of these solutions Key finding 8: Fashionable solutions navigate might lure users of public transport will pay for themselves are often an expensive means of back into their cars. Of course, making Our study shows that the required reducing carbon emissions public transportation more attractive or incremental investment for all the levers Some technologies, despite being discouraging individual transportation outlined in this study (excluding Transport perceived at the cutting edge of green, through toll systems where alternative 21, renewable electricity generation are not yet capable of reducing carbon options are available, can prevent and the infrastructure to support emissions in a cost effective way. For this from happening. For example, in electric cars) amounts to approximately example in Ireland, photo-voltaic (PV) cell London, the introduction of a congestion €2.6 billion until 2025, which is less electricity generation systems, and hybrid charge proved successful in discouraging than 1% of Ireland’s projected GDP cars, whether petrol based or diesel, are all commuters from travelling by private car. over the same time period [24]. This still more expensive than other approaches Similarly, although gas-fired CHP is is roughly in line with the findings of to energy generation, or transport [1]. currently one of the most promising the Stern report [25], which places the Of course, technological development decentralised energy generation technologies cost of slowing the impact of greenhouse is rapid. Between 1975 and 2003, for for Dublin, its ecological viability depends gases at approximately 1% of global example, the cost per kWh of solar PV on the carbon intensity of the alternatives GDP per year. Should nothing be dropped by over 90% [1]. Nevertheless, available. If the national carbon emissions undertaken, the Stern Report estimates many fashionable green technologies from electricity generation are below a that an unchecked rise in global are likely to remain expensive choices in certain amount (0.22 t/MWh), then gas-fired temperatures could cost up to 5 -10% of the this forecast period. So while they play a CHP would provide no carbon benefit at all. global GDP. visible, symbolic role in efforts to combat For example, in countries such as France, A significant number of the levers climate change, it is out of proportion to where nuclear power is responsible for a discussed require large initial investment, their current contribution. large proportion of electricity generation, the yet 75% of them would pay back carbon intensity of the national grid is very their capital cost within 10-15 years. Key finding 9: Sustainability issues low. In such countries/cities, the installation These levers would also deliver need to be seen holistically, not in silos of gas fired CHP would not be beneficial. approximately €430m in savings per year Many sustainability challenges are A similar, but positive, connection is seen by 2025 through reductions in energy interconnected in surprising ways, requiring in waste: using advanced waste treatment and fuel consumption. complex thinking to develop solutions. One such as anaerobic digestion not only reduces Therefore, investment in these example for Dublin is in the area of traffic the need for landfill, but also reduces the technologies (as opposed to paying carbon management. More efficiency here would methane (a greenhouse gas 21 times more penalties) makes strong economic sense as improve the flow of vehicles and could detrimental to the environment than CO2) well as helping towards meeting Ireland’s potentially abate 0.02 Mt of CO2 emitted. emitted from dumps and creates biogas that emissions targets. On the other hand, making roads easier to can be used to replace other fossil fuels. 12 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025
Key finding 10: A strong stimulus in to reduce emissions and prepare the way information and regulation. The public sector economically difficult times for low carbon economic growth. also is uniquely placed to lead by example The global financial crisis and economic Implementing the various technological and we welcome many of the positive downturn have displaced the challenge levers will help create jobs, particularly initiatives already underway in this regard, of climate change in the headlines. In welcome in the current economic climate. such as the York Street Redevelopment. many economies, including our own, the Investing in the region’s infrastructure will Dublin’s four local authorities and question has been posed: “Can we tackle also improve the general quality of life for national government must continue to the climate challenge and the economic city residents and increase Dublin’s appeal assume a leadership role by driving the crisis - at the same time?” The key message as a “city state” in the battle for attracting adoption of technological levers and of this study is that “Yes we can!” future foreign investment. promoting behavioural change. Consumers, Economic growth and fighting climate Retrofitting of buildings, energy as businesses and individuals, must be change are not mutually exclusive. performance management and lighting exposed to information which explains Technology is the key to reducing projects would provide a welcome stimulus their role in reducing carbon emissions greenhouse gas emissions and it is also to the construction sector. Large scale through different lifestyle choices and the engine that drives modern knowledge- infrastructure projects in areas such as purchasing decisions. based economies. Climate change is renewable energy, district heating and It is important that any new strategies/ happening now and will pose catastrophic public transportation have the potential to policies address the gaps between those consequences for all of us if we fail to act deliver thousands of jobs. who invest in the sustainable solutions and decisively today. Investing in technology, those that receive the financial benefits. along with behavioural changes are Looking forward - We have the For example, the cost of insulating rented collectively the best way for Ireland to technology - we can do it! accommodation lies with the landlord, yet tackle its emissions targets head on. Making the case for change may appear the tenant receives the energy saving benefits The lowered emissions arising from the straightforward because most of the through cheaper bills. The introduction of economic downturn is a transitory effect levers that cut carbon emissions pay for the Building Energy Rating (BER) encourages that must not deflect from the urgency themselves eventually through reduced landlords to make such investment. of the situation or lead to complacency energy consumption. Nonetheless, This study is a stepping stone for among society and political leaders. Any given the complexity of urban society Dublin, shedding light on major challenges reprieve will be short-lived so we should and the varied stakeholders involved in inherent in creating a sustainable city. not delay in taking action on climate making sustainability-related decisions, By investing in the technological levers change, otherwise we will be faced with a implementing them is a challenge. and encouraging behavioural change situation of even higher emissions once the Government and local authorities have through strong public policy, there is a real economy picks up again. We must continue a key role to play in making sustainable opportunity to put Dublin at the vanguard to implement the measures at our disposal strategies successful through incentives, of sustainable development. Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 13
Methodology
Methodology
S ustainable development can be defined
in numerous ways, but it is frequently
expressed as a “development that meets the
a likely scenario, or baseline, for each
sustainability area through to 2025. A
‘constant technology adoption’ approach
mega-tonnes (Mt) that can be reduced per
year by implementing each lever while the
abatement cost refers to the cost or saving
needs of the present without compromising is utilised, which assumes that the current in euros per tonne of CO2 abated. These
the ability of future generations to meet level of technological adoption will remain savings or improvements are calculated in
their own needs” [26]. unchanged between now and 2025. For comparison to the reference technology
This study follows a methodology instance, the energy efficiency of newly in the baseline scenario. The running and
used in an earlier study commissioned by built houses will remain unchanged from investment costs associated with each
Siemens for the city of London [1]. Relevant their efficiency today and consumers will technological lever, in comparison to its
technological levers used in the London continue to purchase appliances with corresponding reference technology,
study were transposed to Dublin based the same energy efficiency as they do are taken into consideration during
on assessment of associated assumptions presently. calculations. A negative abatement cost
and raw data. This report focuses on As a result, the baseline takes the implies that the financial benefits associated
the Dublin region, which consists of the increased adoption of the technologies with its utilisation (energy savings, reduced
four county council areas. It examines of today into consideration, but does maintenance costs, etc.) exceed those of
CO2 emissions associated with energy not reflect any improvements in their the reference technology over time.
production and energy demand (buildings efficiency. In addition, no further measures For all calculations involving fuel, an oil
and transport), as well as assessing the beyond those already decided upon or price of $60 per barrel is assumed between
role of water consumption and waste implemented are taken into consideration. 2005 and 2025, based on a forecast by the
disposal in the region. It focuses on the This means that the calculations take likely International Energy Agency [18]. Higher
direct impact the region exhibits, but does changes into account, such as the impact of energy prices (such as those experienced
not consider indirect carbon emissions power plants currently under construction in 2008 when oil reached $120 per barrel)
such as those embedded in manufactured that will come online during the forecast would reduce their abatement costs,
goods consumed in the city but produced period, but does not speculate on making them more economically attractive.
elsewhere. possible measures that may or may Similarly electricity/gas prices quoted by
Environmental issues such as noise not be introduced. Consequently, the Sustainable Energy Ireland were used in all
and electromagnetic pollution are estimates provided can be considered to be energy calculations.
not considered. Similarly, the broader conservative. It should be noted that all investments
economic or social aspects of sustainability, For each infrastructural area detailed calculated in this report refer to the
such as poverty, inequality, health and in this report, excluding waste, graphical additional capital expenditure required
human rights have not been considered. representations of the abatement potential over and above the baseline assumption
Instead, the report seeks to provide a clear and associated cost implications are of constant technology adoption. In some
environmental profile of where Dublin provided. Interdependencies between the cases (e.g., insulation), no investment costs
stands today, and how the use of a variety technological levers are not considered are assumed in the baseline which means
of technologies can help achieve key (except in the water sector where water that the figures refer to the total investment
sustainability goals by 2025. metering is linked with all other levers). cost associated with the implementation of
In order to assess the value of adopting The key findings documented are the that lever (e.g., installing the insulation).
possible methodologies that possess abatement potential and the abatement In other instances (e.g., energy-efficient
the potential to improve sustainability cost of each lever. The abatement potential appliances), where investment will occur
performance over time, the report projects refers to the amount of CO2 emissions in over the period in any case (but on an
14 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025Image courtesy of Dublin City Council
alternative technology), the investment
KEY POLICY DOCUMENTS
reported is the difference between
expenditure in the baseline and the
The National Climate Change Outlines and analyses domestic
additional expenditure associated with Strategy 2007-2020 [27] policy to achieve EU targets (20-20-20) and
the acquisition of the more efficient the Kyoto Protocol.
technology.
In total, this report identifies 19 National Development Plan Major focus of this plan is on investment in
technological levers, that possess 2007-2013 [28] physical infrastructure to support progress,
the potential to reduce greenhouse education, science, technology and innovation.
gas emissions across buildings, It also summarises the government funds set
transport and energy supply. Levers aside for purchase of carbon credits, waste
management and water treatment.
with the potential to reduce water
demand are also suggested, as are Energy White Paper: ‘Delivering Sets out substantial and ambitious targets
possible strategies for the reduction a Sustainable Energy Future for including:
and treatment of waste. In selecting Ireland’ [7] • 15% electricity generation from renewables
all of the technological levers, only by 2010; 33% by 2020 - increased to 40% in
technological solutions that, according December 2008.
to current knowledge, possess the • Installed capacity of combined heat and
ability to have an influence by 2025 are power (CHP) target: 400MW by 2010,
considered. Emerging technologies, 800MW by 2020.
where costs and benefits cannot be • 500MW capacity from ocean energy
by 2020.
reasonably assessed, are excluded
• 5.75% penetration of biofuels by 2010.
from consideration.
Behavioural change, in terms of Dublin City Council Climate Focuses on action items set out in five main
people having to change normal Change Strategy [29] sectors: energy, planning, transport, waste
habits (e.g., altering driving patterns management and biodiversity for Dublin city.
or turning down thermostats) is
not considered as such activity EU Biofuels Directive [30] Target of 5.75% of petrol and diesel
cannot be subjected to the same consumption in transport to be replaced by
biofuels in 2010.
rigorous and objective analysis as
the technological levers. The only EU Landfill Directive [31] Target to reduce the amount of national waste
behavioural change included is sent to landfill from 1,300,000 tonnes of waste
that attributed to the purchasing in 1990 to 450,000 tonnes in 2016.
decisions (e.g., choosing to change
a boiler or buying a car with better fuel
efficiency). Furthermore, assumptions The results presented in this report are based on information compiled from diverse sources. They involve
the application of various assumptions, which have been applied as objectively as possible. They have
about realistic implementation rates
been reported as accurately as possible and provide a useful insight into the relevant trends. However, the
for the technologies are made, such authors accept no liability whatsoever for the accuracy of this material, the content of any other document
as the proportion of cars that will be [or website] referred to, or its interpretation thereof.
powered by hybrid engines by 2025.
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 15Dublin‘s Sustainability Challenge
‘
Dublins Sustainability
Challenge
C ities are the largest contributors to
global climate change. Although they
cover just 1% of the earth’s surface, they
case study. While Dublin has a range of
sustainability issues common to many
other urban areas, the city faces its own
at 9.7 tonnes are higher than many other
developed cities. In London the per capita
emissions are 6.3 tonnes per annum, while
account for 80% of the world’s greenhouse unique challenges. smaller cities, which are more comparable
gas emissions and consume 75% of energy Unlike other European countries, Ireland to Dublin such as Munich and Edinburgh,
used. Their population density gives rise experienced rapid economic growth during emit 8.5 and 7.5 tonnes per annum
to a number of environmental challenges the 1990s, which was preceded by a period respectively.*
ranging from potential water shortages to of lack of infrastructure spend. This created While cities and urban areas are part
trapped heat between buildings. That is its own environmental side effects. Greater of the climate change challenge, they can
why sustainable solutions for metropolitan prosperity brought with it a construction also offer opportunities for sustainable
areas are more important than ever. boom, an increasing population, urban living. Through better transport planning,
As the capital and economic hub sprawl and severe traffic congestion, all better building design and retrofitting,
of Ireland and home to a quarter of its of which contributed to an increase in along with more efficient energy generation
population, this report draws extensively emissions in the Dublin area. and usage, cities by their population
on the experience of Dublin as a primary As a result, Dublin per capita emissions density and economies of scale, can foster
*
Figures quoted from 2006
16 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 2025greener lifestyles. in Stockholm. Dublin’s low performance undertaken many initiatives to address
The Government’s Transport 21 arises mostly from wasted heating energy, environmental issues, including Dublin City
strategy, which is designed to address which results in the city emitting more Council’s programme for sustainability and
Ireland’s transport infrastructure deficit, CO2 per person than Stockholm, despite its the activities of CODEMA.
includes plans to improve public transport milder climate. CODEMA’s ‘Energy Smart This report seeks to support Dublin and
in Dublin and ease congestion in the city. Community’ plan to retrofit clusters of other cities in theirs efforts, by examining
Transport emissions have seen the most houses of the same type and age to make how technology can help create a
notable increase over the past decade and them more energy efficient, testify to sustainable future. We invite you to consider
currently account for 23% of Dublin’s total Dublin’s ambitions towards sustainability. the solutions offered in the following
emissions at 2.9 Mt CO2 - 87% of which can CODEMA is a leading agency for energy and chapters in the areas of energy, transport,
be attributed directly to private cars and sustainability in Dublin. buildings and lighting, water and waste,
road freight. While many stakeholders influence where we present the first comprehensive
A large amount of Dublin’s emissions come sustainable policy, the advantage of cities analysis of costs and CO2 abatement
from buildings - annual per capita tonnes is that they have the opportunity to take potentials of various technologies for the
from these are 5.4 tonnes compared to 2.6 a holistic approach. Dublin has already Dublin region.
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 17Energy
Energy
T his section summarises the abatement
potential and abatement cost of
technological levers, which could be
• Of those examined, the lever that would
have the largest impact on Dublin’s
emissions, would be the increase in the
MW) would provide substantial potential
for emission abatement at 0.03 Mt CO2.
This would lead to savings of up to €90
implemented both at a regional level share of renewables feeding the national per tonne abated.
(throughout the four county councils) grid to 40% by 2020. This would lead to • Addition of biomass boilers to the district
and nationally, in order to reduce carbon an abatement of 1.34 Mt CO2 for Dublin heating system (approximately 5% of
emissions in the energy sector. The main alone, which accounts for 40% of the the installed district heating system’s
issue Ireland faces in the energy supply total savings outlined in this report. The capacity) would lead to an abatement of
sector is the high proportion of fossil fuels investment required to implement the 0.01 Mt CO2.
in the national grid mix. In 2006, 92.5% of required capacity in the period up to
the Irish grid was supplied with electricity 2020, is estimated to be €9.45bn [15]. With regard to electricity consumption,
generated by fossil fuels, 45.3 % of which • The implementation of a citywide district Dublin does not rank as particularly wasteful
was from natural gas. heating system in Dublin offers the next from a global perspective, compared to
highest abatement potential. This system other developed cities. The average Dublin
Key findings: would abate 0.15 Mt CO2 in 2025, while resident uses 5.65 MWh annually, which
• The CO2 emissions associated with the utilising heat resulting from electricity is less than equivalent personal usage
supply of energy in the Dublin region, generation that would otherwise be in New York, Tokyo or Paris, all of which
in which fossil fuels currently play a unused and wasted. consume more than 6 MWh per capita, but
dominant role, could be reduced by 1.53 • Installation of a number of gas fired slightly higher than that of Londoners at
Mt by 2025, if all measures outlined in combined heat and power (CHP) plants 5.3 kWh [1].
this section were implemented. (with thermal capacity range of 0.5-10 However, carbon emissions associated
Summary of energy technological levers Abatement Abatement Required
potential costs investment
Lever name Brief description Mt CO2 in 2025 €/t CO2 €m
ENERGY
Renewable electricity Increasing the share of renewables, which supply 1.34 -110 9450
generation the Irish grid to 40% by 2020
District heating Implementation of district heating system of 0.15 -200 7801
thermal capacity 535MW
Gas fired CHP Implementation of a number of gas fired CHP plants 0.03 -90 27
each with capacities of between 0.5-10MW Total
capacity 100MW
Commercial/domestic Incorporation of biomass boilers district heating 0.01 -50 4
biomass system with installed capacity 26MW
Figure 4.1
1
There are many factors which influence the required investment for the district heating system such as retrofitting the power stations at Poolbeg.
Due to the complex nature of the network the total investment given is a rough estimate.
18 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Dublin Edition – a view to 20251% 47% Gas
3%
3%
1% Hydro
24% 3% Wind
1% Other
renewables
47%
3% Electricity
8% imports
24% Coal
13%
8% Peat
13% Oil
Figure 1.2
component of any sustainable electricity
Electricity - Comparison of emission drivers supply strategy.
This chapter deals with the technology
options that can make electricity production
0.8 for the greater Dublin area less carbon-
0.7 intensive, initially by considering those levers
Dublin
that the city can influence directly at a local
0.6
level, before considering what could be
0.5
achieved at a national level. Four technological
0.4 London levers were considered as follows: power
New York
0.3 generation through renewable sources, gas
engine CHP, commercial/domestic biomass
0.2
and district heating as outlined in Figure
0.1 1.1. Considering all of these strategies,
Paris
0 the technology levers outlined in this
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
chapter offer a total abatement potential of
Quantity demanded (MW/person and year 2005)
approximately 1.53 Mt CO2.
Power Generation Dublin: Dublin city
Figure 4.2
contains four generation sites all located
Figure 1.1 in the Dublin docklands area. The four
with electricity use in Dublin are directly approximately 80% of French electricity is stations have a combined capacity of
driven by the carbon intensity of Ireland’s generated through nuclear power. approximately 1600 MW and currently
grid mix. Over 90% of Irish electricity Given increasing energy demand, supply approximately 22% of total Irish
comes from fossil fuels as follows: 46.4% the volatility of world energy prices and electricity production. The Electricity Supply
natural gas, 24.3% coal, 13.3% oil and 8.5% Ireland’s vulnerability to security of supply Board (ESB) operates three stations in the
peat. Renewables account for 4.5% of the issues and the unsustainable nature of Poolbeg area, an older thermal station (461
total and electricity imports make up the CO2 emissions over the long-term, Dublin MW) and a combined cycle gas station
remainder [32]. should assess its energy supply options and (470 MW) at Poolbeg as well as a 266 MW
Overall, the proportionate use of fossil fuel take this opportunity to improve the overall gas fired station at North Wall. The ESB has
in Ireland is significantly higher than in other sustainability of the city. announced that the thermal station will be
countries. As a result, Dublin’s electricity has decommissioned in the next five to 10 years,
the highest carbon intensity, at 0.54 tonnes of Identified reduction potential: It is with an estimated reduction in emissions
CO2 per MWh, among the cities reviewed for important to highlight that the megawatt of 0.9 – 1.3 Mt CO2 per annum. This is in
this study [33]. This surpasses that of London avoided – or ”negawatt” as it has been line with the White Paper forecast, which
by nearly 35% (0.4 tonnes CO2 per MWh) and termed, is by far the most effective and assumes from 2008/2009 onwards, that no
is considerably higher than Paris (0.07 tonnes sustainable way to secure low-carbon electricity in Ireland will be generated by oil-
CO2 per MWh), which has one of the lowest electricity supply, given that many options fired systems [7]. In addition to the three ESB
carbon intensive electricity mixes [1]. This for making power generation less carbon- stations on the Poolbeg Peninsula, another
can be attributed to the role nuclear energy intensive are expensive [34]. Demand company, Synergen, houses a 400 MW
plays in electricity generation in France; reduction should, therefore, be a key gas-fired combined cycle plant [35].
Dublin Edition – a view to 2025 Sustainable Urban Infrastructure 19Energy
At a city-level, Dublin has a range of renewable sources provides the most alternative energy source can be found in
options available for introducing less carbon- effective way of reducing greenhouse gas the Ringsend wastewater treatment plant,
intensive technologies for power generation, emissions from power generation. If Ireland where the city is recovering the methane
which are summarised in Figure 1.1. The meets its 2020 target of 40% renewables that is formed when sludge is treated and
National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) contribution to the national grid, it will result the methane gas is burned for electricity
has set the following targets for energy in a reduction of 4.00 Mt CO2 nationally or production.
supply in Ireland between 2007 and 2020 as 1.34 Mt CO2 for the Dublin region (assuming However, the overall carbon abatement
follows [27]: all areas within Ireland are supplied with an potential of some of these technologies
• 15% of electricity to be generated from equal proportion of electricity generated is relatively limited and the potential for
renewable sources by 2010 and 33% from renewable sources) [15]. To achieve their installation varies largely according
by 2020. (Since the publication of the this, renewable power connected to the to climate. For instance, solar energy
strategy the 2020 target has been system will have to increase four-fold production in southern European latitudes
increased to 40% by the Irish Government, between now and 2020, from the current would be twice as productive compared to
some 20 % above the EU target). capacity of almost 1,200 MW to an estimated Ireland. Despite these issues, the uptake of
• Biomass to contribute up to 30% of energy 5,000 MW, consisting mostly of wind power. renewable energy remains high.
input at peat stations by 2015. Onshore wind energy accounts for the By contrast, the introduction of
• Combined heat and power: 400 MW highest percentage of electricity produced combined heat and power (CHP) in its
installed capacity by 2010, 800 MW by by renewable sources in Ireland (65.5%) various forms, gas-engine, biomass, waste
2020. [32]. However, due to relatively low winds to energy, etc, collectively offer far greater
• National Ocean Energy Strategy – this speeds in the Dublin region (less than the abatement potential, approximately 0.19
is a four phase strategy which provides required 5.5 m.s-1), coupled with planning Mt CO2 annually by 2025. In the right
support for the development of a 10 MW and technology issues, the widespread circumstances, CHP can be an economic
pre-commercial grid connected to a full- deployment of wind generation in the Dublin means of improving the efficiency of
scale array of ocean energy converters region has not been feasible. energy use and achieving environmental
between 2011 and 2015, the results of Besides wind, solar energy is the most targets for emissions reduction. CHP usually
which will determine the total capacity high profile of renewable technologies involves the burning of fossil fuels, but heat
that will be feasible for Ireland. to date. Solar thermal power is another and electricity can also be produced from
These targets, though not all applicable electricity generation alternative to fossil biomass (including biogas and waste). Of
in Dublin, will at the very least indirectly fuels. Solar roof panels for hot water the various CHP options, gas-engine holds
affect the carbon intensity of the electricity production have been installed in existing the greatest potential for the greater Dublin
consumed in the Dublin region and its buildings within some recent developments region, particularly for mixed residential and
associated emissions. in the Dublin region, such as the York Street commercial use.
Increasing electricity generation from redevelopment initiative [29]. Another In order to stimulate the development
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