Summary of Findings and Research Recommendations from the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative - The Oceanography Society
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
SPECIAL ISSUE ON THE GULF OF MEXICO RESEARCH INITIATIVE: TEN YEARS OF OIL SPILL AND ECOSYSTEM SCIENCE
Summary of Findings and Research Recommendations
from the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative
By Charles A. Wilson, ABSTRACT. Following the Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill in 2010,
Michael G. Feldman, Michael J. Carron, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI) was established to improve soci-
Nilde Maggie Dannreuther, ety’s ability to understand, respond to, and mitigate the impacts of petroleum pollu-
John W. Farrington, tion and related stressors of the marine and coastal ecosystems. This article provides
a high-level overview of the major outcomes of the scientific work undertaken by
Kenneth M. Halanych, Jennifer L. Petitt,
GoMRI. This i scientifically independent initiative, consisting of over 4,500 experts
Jürgen Rullkötter, Paul A. Sandifer,
in academia, government, and industry, contributed to significant knowledge
J. Kevin Shaw, John G. Shepherd,
advances across the physical, chemical, geological, and biological oceanographic
David G. Westerholm, Callan J. Yanoff, research fields, as well as in related technology, socioeconomics, human health, and
and Leigh A. Zimmermann oil spill response measures. For each of these fields, this paper outlines key advances
and discoveries made by GoMRI-funded scientists (along with a few surprises), syn-
thesizing their efforts in order to highlight lessons learned, future research needs,
remaining gaps, and suggestions for the next generation of scientists.
Sunset in the Gulf of Mexico
through a plankton sampler.
Photo by Steve Murawski
228 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1
INTRODUCTION by BP, along with the National Science different coastal areas within the Gulf
The articles in this special issue of Foundation’s Rapid Response Research and also to adjacent waters. GoMRI sci-
Oceanography provide an extensive over- (RAPID) grants program, the Natural entists have made major advances in
view of the Gulf of Mexico science com- Resources Damage Assessment, National observing, understanding, and modeling
munity’s accomplishments. Much of Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration all aspects of the physical environment.
the work discussed in this article was (NOAA) Sea Grant college programs, and These advances include development of
funded by the Gulf of Mexico Research several other federal, state, and nongov- new tools and methodologies for collect-
Initiative (GoMRI), created in response ernmental organizations that contributed ing, analyzing, and synthesizing data, and
to the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) to advances in oil spill science. techniques for capturing coastal to off-
disaster that began on April 20, 2010. shore deep-sea linkages and transport.
Zimmermann et al. (2021, in this issue) PHYSICAL PROCESSES
summarize the genesis and operation of Physical transport processes such as the Advances, Discoveries,
GoMRI, and McKinney et al. (2021, in circulation and mixing of waters largely and Surprises
this issue) describe the complexity of the determine the spatial distribution of Among many other advances, GoMRI
Gulf of Mexico ecosystem. Here, we pro- materials in the ocean. These processes contributed to the understanding of how
vide a high-level overview of the major establish the physical environment within pressure-induced processes affect gas-
outcomes of the studies conducted by which biogeochemical and other pro- saturated oil. Refinements of transport
GoMRI researchers whose work advanced cesses transform materials that include modeling tools have materially improved
existing paradigms in oil spill science and naturally occurring nutrients and human- abilities to predict Gulf of Mexico circula-
extended aspects of findings from previous mobilized contaminants. An understand- tion and oil transport, ecosystem connec-
studies. These outcomes, in combination ing of these physical driving forces and tivity, and ecological impacts. The appli-
with the other GoMRI synthesis products their influence on biological, geological, cation of detailed computational fluid
(https://research.gulfresearchinitiative. and chemical processes was significantly dynamics (CFD) modeling has resulted
org/ research- awards/ gomri- s ynthesis- advanced through improvements made in a transformational shift in the ability to
projects/) represent an important and by GoMRI researchers to models repre- model complex multi-phase (oil, gas, and
simultaneous accomplishment in advanc- senting the transport of materials. water) plumes using numerous meth-
ing the overall breadth of general scientific Boufadel et al. (2021, in this issue) ods over a wide variety of environmental
knowledge across the physical, chemical, review the physical processes that are conditions. CFD models demonstrated
geological, and biological oceanographic responsible for distributing oil, disper- the unexpected importance of Earth’s
research fields, as well as in related tech- sant, and related decomposition prod- rotation on the near-field plume dynam-
nology, socioeconomics, human health, ucts. These processes operate on a very ics, affecting both entrainment rates and
and oil spill response measures. wide range of scales, from the microscale detrainment levels.
With over 4,500 scientists and experts of droplets and bubbles; to small-scale GoMRI-funded scientists developed
involved with GoMRI, the program turbulence in buoyant plumes and the new biodegradable drifters and used
funded nearly 300 projects that resulted near-surface “mixed” layer; to the sub- them to measure and constrain mod-
in more than 1,700 peer-reviewed arti- mesoscale of fronts, convergent and diver- els of small and submesoscale ocean sur-
cles. These projects helped educate and gent flows, and small non-geostrophic face currents in unprecedented detail.
train some 1,400 MS and PhD students eddies; to the mesoscale of larger quasi- This advancement allowed researchers
and 1,050 undergraduates. While the geostrophic eddies; to the large-scale cir- to explore implications for oil transport
majority of researchers were located in culation of the Gulf of Mexico and its at a level of complexity that was novel to
the Gulf of Mexico region, the program interaction with the Atlantic Ocean and physical oceanography. Field observa-
included participation from researchers the Caribbean Sea. The circulation and tions and models of near-surface, sub-
in 43 states and 17 countries. This colos- mixing processes near the Gulf ’s coasts mesoscale processes, such as Langmuir
sal effort not only fostered collaboration are strongly affected by wind- and river- circulation, have shown the previously
among researchers located at institutions induced currents, and further modified under-appreciated importance of vertical
within the Gulf of Mexico region but also by its complex seafloor topography. Gulf rise velocity in controlling dispersion and
established national and international of Mexico physical processes are further surface distribution of buoyant materials
research connections that will facilitate characterized by strong linkages between such as oil.
future research endeavors. coastal/shelf and deeper offshore waters A new-found appreciation was devel-
GOMRI-funded research was inter- that dictate connectivity to the basin’s oped for the important role that river-
active, especially in the first few years, interior. This physical connectivity influ- induced fronts play in longshore and cross-
with research and related activities funded ences the transport of materials among shore transport, acting both as barriers to
Oceanography | March 2021 229
material transport and as convergence deposited on the continental slope within CHEMICAL AND
zones that guide transport along frontal a restricted depth range and consequently BIOGEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES
lines. Researchers now have explicit data impact organisms living there. Petroleum is an extremely complex mix-
on advection of pollutants along frontal ture of many thousands or more of gas-
pathways that link coastal areas, and on Future Research Needs/Gaps eous, liquid, and some solid constituents.
how both mesoscale and submesoscale While numerous advances have been The chemicals in oil are modified while
circulation features influence the open made, predicting the distribution of being transported to and through differ-
ocean. These new data greatly improved spill products remains challenging. We ent environments. These changes occur
scientists’ understanding of transport consider the following areas of further due to natural processes (e.g., photo-
because they were directly examined over research particularly important: oxidation and other forms of weathering),
a long period on a variety of scales. • Improving methods for both observ- biological transformations (e.g., microbial
For the larger (mesoscale and beyond) ing and modeling velocity profiles in degradation and decomposition), and via
spatial scales, predictive improvements the uppermost meter of water, where response measures (e.g., in situ burning).
have been made through use of high-reso- changes may be both large and transient The oil constituents and their reaction
lution regional modeling (improving from • Improving the time-varying estimation products are transported by processes
4 km to 1 km resolution). This advance of initial droplet size distribution as live described above (see section on Physical
incorporated river-estuarine coupling, the oil rises from the buoyant plume into Processes). Adding to the significance of
ability to resolve both the surface and the the far-field water column the DWH oil spill is the sheer quantity of
bottom Ekman layers, explicit consider- • Quantifying the impact of turbulent petroleum released from the Macondo
ation of Stokes drift, and the widespread thermal wind effects on frontal tur- petroleum reservoir in an uncontrolled
use and assimilation of operational mete- bulent intensities and the evolution of way, making it the largest incident of this
orological and reanalysis products. submesoscale fronts kind in history (Rullkötter and Farrington,
• Improving algorithms to achieve a 2021, in this issue.) The scale of the DWH
Lessons for the Future multiscale modeling approach for disaster, the time over which it occurred,
The use of river diversions was ineffec- simulating wetlands, estuaries, river- the geographical extent of the spread of
tive in achieving the objective of push- estuary coupling, riverine forcing, and oil, the weathering and biodegradation,
ing DWH oil away from coastal wetlands shelf exchanges, and their linkages with and the variety of ecosystems affected
and resulted in unanticipated deleteri- open ocean transport presented challenges to a comprehensive
ous ecological impacts. The potential • Improving understanding of the role understanding of the fates of the materials
consequences of diversions need to be of bottom-boundary dynamics, where released to the environment.
more carefully considered before they model parameterizations remain Resuspension, horizontal transport,
are implemented. underdeveloped and data scarce and redeposition moved sediment and
We also learned that accurate predic- • Collecting additional field data from seawater contaminated with weath-
tion of oil transport at the surface can only shelf breaks at critical locations to con- ered and biodegraded Macondo oil away
be achieved by using the best available strain exchanges between estuarine, from continental shelf areas to conti-
high-resolution models combined with coastal, and open ocean regions nental slope and abyssal areas, as well
real-time assimilation of comparable- • Integrating all model improvements as onshore. Continental slope sediments
resolution data and paying careful atten- into an operational Earth system mod- were also contaminated with deposition
tion to the effects of winds, waves, eling framework (ocean- atmosphere- from overlying waters or by impingement
Stokes Drift, and submesoscale motions waves-biogeochemistry) of the subsurface plume in some areas.
in the near-surface layers. The deploy- To sustain future growth and amplify Understanding these processes was
ment of large numbers of floats in real benefits, we recommend developing further complicated by the unprecedented
time was shown to be feasible and effi- and sustaining regional forecast sys- volumes of dispersant (Corexit 9500,
cient, and thus can provide an excellent tems that are based on a suite of appro- 9527) that were sprayed from planes and
source of additional information on near- priately scaled and nested ocean circula- boats onto surface slicks as well as applied
surface circulation. tion, atmospheric, and wave models. This directly at the wellhead through sub-
Scientists quickly learned that signif- system should be capable of strategically sea dispersant injection (SSDI) at about
icant quantities of contaminants from focusing on the key components of the 1,500 m water depth.
a deep spill can be carried laterally over land-ocean continuum and supported by The interrelationship between gas bub-
large distances in subsurface plumes as well-designed observing arrays targeting bles, oil droplets of various sizes, and early
both dissolved and particulate mate- process understanding, data assimilation, dissolution of petroleum components in
rial. These contaminants can then be and model validation. the water column immediately adjacent
230 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1to the damaged wellhead, with and with- cyclotron resonance mass spectrome- ied oiled sand and moving oil-sand accu-
out dispersants, was a major barrier for try (FT-ICR-MS), this underestimation mulations from shallow-water nearshore
trying to understand the spill. Although has been corrected so that we now have regions onshore. The degree of resus-
both vertical and horizontal plumes were a better understanding of the large num- pension following storms and hurricanes
anticipated, their scales and extents were bers and types of breakdown products needs to be accounted for in future plan-
not. The processes determining these (Rullkötter and Farrington, 2021, and ning for response, mitigation, and reme-
interrelationships were the subject of Farrington et al., 2021, both in this issue). diation activities.
modeling and laboratory simulations. Photo-oxidation products were found Despite the intense response efforts to
The expected dissolution of chemicals in to be significant components in weath- protect marshes, one of the most chal-
subsurface waters was confirmed by field ered oil on contaminated beaches and in lenging ecosystems for removal of oil, sig-
sampling and analyses at varying dis- marshes affected by the oil spill. Resultant nificantly oiled areas persisted (Rabalais
tances and depths away from the well site contamination of the surface sediments and Turner, 2016; Halanych et al., 2021, in
(Farrington et al., 2021, and Quigg et al., was very patchy, but measurable, in sev- this issue). One GoMRI project focused
2021, both in this issue). eral places and lasted in some areas for on Barataria Bay, Louisiana, and docu-
three years or more. Contamination of mented that initial oiling of marsh edges
Advances, Discoveries, the subsurface sediments persists and is was soon spread to greater areas within
and Surprises expected to be long lasting. the marsh by tides and storms and then
Significant progress in assessing the fate The microbial community was also tidal flows. Oil residue concentrations
of spilled petroleum components was a significant contributor to the fate of decreased markedly during the first few
made, and several important lessons Macondo oil. Hydrocarbon-degrading years but were still approximately a factor
were learned and discoveries made that microbes efficiently remove hydrocar- of 10 higher than background concentra-
could pertain to future spills of various bons from the water column, with some tions when last sampled eight years post
sizes. Over this past decade, scientists degradation products being directly spill. Weathered oil also remains buried
have followed the distribution and fate of incorporated into marine food webs. in the marsh sediments along the shore-
Macondo oil in the water column and sed- Surprisingly, microbially mediated MOS line (Halanych et al., 2021, in this issue).
iment. Scientific studies have described was documented as an important factor in Corexit 9500 dioctyl sodium sulfo-
the role of photo-oxidation of petroleum the biogeochemistry and fate of oil spilled succinate surfactant, or DOSS, compo-
compounds at the sea-air interface and to the marine environment in continen- nents were found at a considerable dis-
the roles particulates and microbes play in tal margin and deep ocean ecosystems. tance from the DWH well in the deepwater
the fates of hydrocarbons. These studies Similarly, the biogeochemical processes plume, with oil residues in sediments and
included various documented processes, of MOSSFA and its role in transport was also on some deep-sea coral communi-
such as marine oil snow (MOS) forma- better elucidated and exceeded marine ties. Future research should consider that
tion and marine oil snow sedimentation snow-associated oil transport estimates reaction products resulting from photo-
and flocculent accumulation (MOSSFA), of the past (Farrington et al., 2021, in this oxidation of surface slicks and films may
that expanded our understanding of issue). It was concluded that MOS and interfere with efficacy of dispersant appli-
hydrocarbon deposition and accumula- MOSSFA processes and associated bio- cations. Soluble chemicals from in situ
tion in sediments, fates on beaches and in degradation were also affected by inter- burning were found beneath the slick and
marshes, and bioaccumulation. actions of Macondo oil with dispersants. as residue within experimental simula-
Depending on sunlight irradiance The vulnerability of coastal ecosystems tions (Rullkötter and Farrington, 2021,
and weather conditions, photo-oxidation to oiling has been the subject of decades of in this issue).
was a significant process at the sea sur- research. The oiling of beaches is problem-
face in the breakdown and fate of spilled atic from human health, commercial tour- Lessons for the Future
oil. Despite earlier research in the 1970s ism, recreation, and aesthetic perspectives Several important lessons were learned
and 1980s noting the sensitivity of petro- (Sandifer et al., 2021, in this issue). Oiled regarding the conduct of and advances in
leum to photo-oxidation, the related beaches in the Gulf coast region were oil spill chemistry research. Newer analyt-
effects were downplayed and grossly subjected to extensive cleaning activities ical methods, for example, GC×GC-MS
underestimated in terms of mass balance during the DWH spill response. Despite and FT-ICR-MS as discussed in Rullkötter
significance over more than a decade these efforts, small residual oil particles and Farrington (2021, in this issue), pres-
(Transportation Research Board and in sand known as sand-oil aggregates and ent significant opportunities to advance
National Research Council, 2003). As a small tar patties remained for years and knowledge of the composition of crude
result of recent advancements in chemical can still be found. In part, this was due and fuel oils and their weathering and
analysis, especially Fourier-transform ion to the action of storms uncovering bur- biodegradation products. Concerning
Oceanography | March 2021 231chemical techniques, scientists should deposited as sediment, even in deeper • The high-molecular-weight chemicals be mindful of the lack of spatial unifor- waters (Rullkötter and Farrington, 2021, produced by photo-oxidation and mity in the molecular weight range and in this issue). microbial degradation processes (and individual compounds analyzed in field Concerning the application of surface perhaps subsequent chemical reac- samples and in mesocosm/ microcosm and subsea injection of dispersants, pat- tions of initial reaction products) need and laboratory experiments. Need for ent laws and confidentiality regulations further elucidation as does the role of this awareness also applies to the vari- initially made it difficult to obtain pre- such materials in sorption-desorption ability in chemical techniques, which cise data quickly and reliably on the actual reactions and bioavailability for lower- hampers cross- comparison of results chemical formulation of dispersants molecular-weight constituents of par- among different studies (i.e., variability used. This lack of information hampered tially weathered and partially bio- between FT-ICR-MS and gas chroma- research on the detection, decomposition, degraded oil. tography- mass spectrometry [GC-MS] fate, and effects of oil and dispersants in • Advanced analytical chemistry tech- used to detect and quantify hydrocarbon parallel laboratory and mesocosm studies. niques and advanced genomic/ compounds; Rullkötter and Farrington, proteomics analyses should be applied 2021, in this issue). The key new find- Future Research Needs/Gaps to both field samples and samples ings noted above, especially regarding Future efforts should seek out new ways from laboratory and mesocosm exper- photo- oxidation, MOS formation, and to further interpret and use the complex iments. Scientists reviewing the litera- MOSSFA, need to be incorporated in a data from FT-ICR-MS analyses of high- ture suggest that results would be more practicable manner into oil spill response, molecular-weight constituents of crude useful/meaningful if both techniques mitigation measures, and assessment oils, fuel oils, and their photo-oxidation were used for analysis of the same sam- models, with appropriate attention to the products. Beyond the large number of ples. This will maximize collection of various types of ecosystems and climates very useful elemental composition data rich data sets leading to new discov- where spills may occur. provided by FT-ICR-MS, there is the need eries in studies of the biogeochemical The development of extensive data for more exact chemical structures, for cycles/fates of spilled oil. archives has proven helpful for follow-on example, by combining FT-ICR-MS with • Improvements are needed in our research by the scientific community at other analytical techniques. This knowl- understanding of SSDI and its effects large in unraveling details of the biogeo- edge gap hampers the understanding of on physical processes that influence chemical cycles of Macondo oil chemi- reaction pathways, reaction rates, and oil and gas droplet sizes and how these cals. GoMRI data will be broadly used by the potential for effects of reaction prod- droplets interact with subsequent near- others for years to come (Zimmermann ucts on organisms and for human health field mixing processes. Future stud- et al., 2021, in this issue). Given the concerns. Additional areas of research ies should focus on the interactions of advances noted above, it is important to include the following list. gas and oil bubbles/droplets; how large employ this information for future spills • Field measurements accompanying oil droplets evolve to small droplets in in order to develop useful and accurate in situ burning of spilled oil are scarce both horizontal and vertical plumes; ways to detect, quantify, and budget the but are urgently needed to document interactions among oil, organisms, and fate of spilled oil over time. Bulk oil bud- the chemical composition and envi- exopolymer substances released by get estimates not based on compound- ronmental distributions of products of microorganisms (MOS and MOSSFA); specific analysis are thus problematic. this mitigation process (including sol- and determining whether SSDI reduces Moreover, any one compound may have uble organic compounds) and path- exposure of response workers to vola- successively different fates—a simple ways of transport of oil and combus- tiles at the air-sea interface. example is initial photo-oxidation at the tion product chemicals into the water • The experimental designs of labora- sea surface followed by partial microbial column and eventual deposition into tory and mesocosm experiments need degradation, incorporation into marine sediments, even in deeper waters. to be optimized to gain new knowl- snow, and deposition on the seafloor • Products of in situ burning need to be edge of fates and effects (including var- (Farrington et al., 2021, in this issue). further assessed for both atmospheric ious sublethal effects) of oil and oil dis- Proper measurements are needed in emissions and chemicals in the water persant mixtures beyond the standard the field to document the chemical com- column under slicks subjected to in acute toxicity testing. Also needed are position and environmental distribution situ burning. Of particular concern experiments to disentangle the effects of in situ burning products. It is equally are chlorinated aromatics (e.g., poly- of different chemical substances in oil critical to follow the transport pathways chlorinated dibenzodioxins) formed in or dispersants. of residues from burning as they enter chloride-bearing seawater or in air at • A better understanding is needed of the water column and are eventually the air-sea interface. how photo-oxidation products may 232 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1
interfere with the efficacy of disper-
sants in time and space, of the under-
lying fundamental physical chemistry
governing the efficacy of various dis-
persant formulations, and of how dis-
persants impact microbial accessibility
to oil at the water/oil interface.
• The utility of existing and newly devel-
oped dispersant formulations needs to
be improved for various crude oil and
fuel oil types and for various climatic
regimes and ecosystem types.
BIOLOGICAL AND
ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES
The DWH oil spill negatively impacted Stephan O’Brien, a PhD student at the University of Southern Mississippi and a GoMRI Scholar,
collects water samples at Main Pass, Alabama, for suspended sediment laboratory analyses.
a wide variety of Gulf of Mexico organ- Photo credit: Brian Dzwonkowski
isms and ecosystems. The primary drivers
of those impacts were oil and degraded
oil, oil mixed with dispersants, and man- strategies provided an in-depth and com- facilitated by organismal activities
agement responses related to the oil prehensive study of Gulf communities in (e.g., feeding, migration, etc.). Fortunately,
spill. Toxicological impacts upon organ- unprecedented detail and set the stage for microbial communities in the Gulf of
isms, generally characterized as lethal integrating genomic data and organismal Mexico (beaches, marshes, water column,
and sublethal, were heavily studied over biology with analytical chemistry and and sediments) were and are uniquely
the last 10 years in laboratory and meso- oceanographic modeling. Research com- primed for rapid response to oil spills.
cosm settings, as well as in the field, and munities are now better prepared for new Some oil-degrading microbes are capa-
included field-measured levels of expo- data-driven approaches to monitor and ble of nitrogen fixation, enabling them to
sure dosages. Impacts identified include restore ecosystem health. utilize hydrocarbon energy sources with-
immediate and gradual mortality, repro- out nutrient restriction and providing a
ductive failure, and influence on behav- Advances, Discoveries, strong selective advantage over other spe-
ioral, olfaction, vision, cardiac function, and Surprises cies. Moreover, some of these microbial
and gene response. Sublethal effects can Although many instances of organ- taxa are found to be ubiquitous in oil spills
be short term, long term, permanent, or ism and ecosystem recovery have around the globe (e.g., Macondimonas
even multi-generational (Murawski et al., been observed since the DWH oil spill diazotrophica). Bacteria are a primary
2021, and Weiman et al., 2021, both in (e.g., beaches), in some cases, spill food source for many organisms and
this issue) and can impact feeding, sur- impacts are ongoing and may have caused introduce oil-derived carbon into the
vival, reproduction, and future gener- shifts in the baselines of ecosystem inter- food web through metabolic pathways.
ations. Examples of the various doc- actions (e.g., deep-sea coral communi- Due to oil droplet sizes that resemble for-
umented impacts illustrate common ties). Exposure to polycyclic aromatic age bacteria, zooplankton were docu-
patterns and trends across organisms hydrocarbons alone may not sufficiently mented ingesting oil droplets and excret-
and/or their environments and show that characterize longer-term impacts of oil ing the oil in their feces, thus depositing
such impacts might translate to popu- spills on organisms because environmen- oil directly into food webs.
lation levels (Murawski et al., 2021, and tal impacts were spatially heterogeneous Research has revealed that deeper
Halanych et al., 2021, both in this issue). in nature. Rapid recovery tended to occur water communities continue to exhibit
The development and application of (to some extent) in high-energy envi- impacts. Species abundances in the mid-
advanced genomic and bioinformatics ronments, such as marshes and shallow- water mesopelagic zone showed major
tools enabled scientists to examine and water regions, whereas low-energy envi- sustained and persistent declines that
describe complex microbial communi- ronments, such as the deep-sea benthos, continued through 2019 (Murawski
ties, identify new species, redefine previ- will sustain documented impacts that et al., 2021, in this issue). Reduction
ously described species and genera, and may last for generations. in mesopelagic community numbers
quantify cellular responses across taxa. Transport of oil spill toxicants through- may have impacted cetacean migration.
These new omics-based technologies and out the northern Gulf of Mexico was As described above in the section on
Oceanography | March 2021 233Chemical and Biogeochemical Processes, impacts can be placed in meaningful Administration. Studies should include
MOSSFA was part of the natural micro- biological or environmental contexts is the investigation of previously unana-
bial systems’ responses to oil; some deep- dependent upon the deployment of ana- lyzed oil degradation compounds on
sea benthic habitats were smothered lytical chemistry tools. marine organisms and associated sea-
by the accumulation of MOSSFA and The DWH spill caused major alter- food safety for humans.
will take decades to recover. Deep- sea ations in microbial community struc- • Develop methods to define microbial
corals showed considerable long- term ture and function. Researchers found that biomarkers of ecosystem health that
impacts from spilled oil, but also showed novel gene expression, species composi- will lead to the ability to detect ecosys-
signs of recovery (Halanych et al., 2021, tion and metabolic capabilities involved tem disruption, predict risk, guide mit-
in this issue). in hydrocarbon degradation and nitro- igation strategies, and assess restoration
Oiled marshes and associated com- gen fixation emerged to dominate eco- efforts in the face of diverse threats.
munities showed unexpected resilience systems ranging from the deep sea • Make progress on translating omics
and recovery over time since the spill. to salt marshes. data from observations of novel genes
However, dolphins in Barataria Bay— Specific mechanisms behind many and species into metabolic activity, cur-
where oil entered the marsh—suffered organismal and ecological impacts can rently the greatest hurdle to accurately
adverse effects, including reduced repro- now be elucidated through the use of predicting biochemical outcomes.
ductive success (20% vs. 70%), chronic genomic tools, which may yield insight • Develop more detailed and complete
lung damage, and modified endocrine into yet unknown long-term implications. predictive models for biological sys-
responses. In addition to the impacts tems that should integrate biological
documented for dolphins, novel sub- Future Research Needs/Gaps data and response with chemical, geo-
lethal impacts of hydrocarbons and dis- To complement the many advancements logical, and physical parameters.
persants were observed and connected to made over the last 10 years, we recom- • Conduct extensive and regular sam-
fish olfaction, metabolic fatigue, immune mend the following further studies of pling in diverse ecosystems around the
response, and neural system issues, biological and ecological processes and globe to document the normal, or base-
among others. An associated short- actions to insure long-term monitoring. line, state of microbial and other com-
term decrease in abundance of coastal • Conduct long-term monitoring and munities prior to a crisis in order to
fishes may have accelerated invasion by assessment to provide baseline data plan intelligent mitigation strategies
non-native lionfish. for understanding and mitigating the aimed at restoring native communities
While many species suffered, several impacts of oil spill toxicants. Biological and their ecosystem functions.
targeted commercial species (includ- systems of note are:
ing shrimp, crab, and some fish) showed ° The Barataria Bay, Louisiana, dolphin TECHNOLOGICAL
remarkable resilience in the wake of the population, including its reproduc- DEVELOPMENTS
spill. The closure of commercial fisheries tive success and endocrine response The severity and unusual circumstances
at the time of the spill did not appear to recovery. of the DWH incident called for innova-
have long-term ecological effects. ° Mesopelagic communities from tive technological developments to miti-
plankton to nekton to apex preda- gate and investigate the fate and impacts
Lessons for the Future tors, notably the effects of commu- of the released material and the physi-
Biological systems are highly complex nity change and recovery on associ- cal, chemical, and biological processes
and interconnected. These linkages can ated cetaceans and pelagic predators. involved. The technological develop-
aid microbial decomposition of oil or ° Barataria Bay wetlands, with empha- ments highlighted in Dannreuther et al.
result in damaged ecosystems resetting sis on reoiling events. (2021, in this issue) represent only a small
to a different stable state. In the event of ° Deep-sea benthos and coral habi- sampling of such developments. However,
an oil spill, oil-degrading microbes can tats that are subject to slow rates of this small representation demonstrates
act as essential and natural first respond- growth and low fecundity. the collaborative and interdisciplinary
ers, providing critical ecosystem cleanup, • Investigate the impact(s) of various nature of innovation with application to a
transport, and stabilization functions. components of dispersants on biologi- wide range of scientific endeavors.
Traditional measures of damage to cal systems.
a biological system may not be the best • Conduct longer-term studies on sea- Advances, Discoveries,
indicators of toxicant impact. Sublethal food contamination and associated and Surprises
organismal impacts can turn up in any sensory and chemical testing tech- Technological advancements were ap-
system or function of an organism’s niques through collaborations between plied to obtain measurements of the
body. The degree to which toxicological NOAA and the US Food and Drug subsurface dynamics of oil and gas
234 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1droplets that could then inform estima- tinguish oil and gas droplets in a mixed training exercises may improve the aca-
tions of droplet size distribution, a crit- release that can inform estimations of oil/ demic community’s understanding of the
ical component in predicting the trans- gas ratios. Additionally, a novel approach needs and challenges that the response
port and fate of a subsurface oil spill. that can distinguishing crude oil from community faces and, thus, can shape
Some measurements were made in labo- non-fossil-fuel carbon sources was applied academic research and encourage devel-
ratory experiments that combined exist- to estimate the amount of Macondo oil opments to be application focused.
ing imaging techniques with new or deposited on seafloor sediments.
enhanced technologies that simulated New techniques were applied to Future Research Needs/Gaps
oil and wave interactions. Other mea- improve the understanding of sublethal Innovative technological developments
surements were made in experiments impacts from an oil spill on fish. This will continue to be driven largely by need
that combined initial blowout condi- yielded new insights on the degree to and circumstance. Specific suggestions
tions with high pressure, mixing forces, which transcriptomic response to oil is for future development include:
and jet stream dynamics. Measurements dependent on tissue type. For example, • Continue to advance the process-
were also conducted in the field using oil-induced impairments to heart cells ing efficiency of large data sets as the
new deep-sea imaging techniques trans- are linked to a fish’s ability to capture food technologies used to acquire those
ported by a remotely operated vehicle and escape predation. data become increasingly efficient and
to the ocean floor that recorded oil and Advancements in new dispersant affordable.
gas droplets and bubbles rising from technologies offer the potential for safer • Continue collaborations with legal
natural hydrocarbon seeps. Additionally, and more effective alternatives to exist- authorities, response agencies, and
the inclusion of oil biodegradation pro- ing chemical dispersants used in oil spill industries that have testing and
cesses in spill simulation scenarios to response. Scientists revealed that oil/ production-scale capabilities to enable
predict the amount of oil that may reach water emulsions created by carbon black the use of alternative dispersant tech-
the ocean surface provided insights that particles are more stable and last longer nologies in large-scale oil spill response.
can inform response decisions, especially than emulsions created by Corexit. • Incorporate the latest technological/
those related to dispersant use. Another discovery showed that clay par- chemical measurement techniques into
Advancements were made in track- ticles loaded with nontoxic surfactants safety devices worn by response work-
ing and visualizing the dynamic nature can be rendered more effective by the use ers to assess levels of exposure to chem-
of currents at or near the ocean’s sur- of a stoppering agent that allows for the icals of human health concern.
face, including the potentially different slow release of the surfactant. • Increase the use of remotely operated
velocities of multiple currents that run technologies to improve the safety and
just beneath the surface. These discov- Lessons for the Future cost efficiency of conducting in situ bio-
eries were made possible by new biode- Cross-disciplinary and multi-institutional logical experiments in the environment,
gradable GPS-enabled drifters along with collaborations can enhance technolog- such as using drones to gain access to,
drogues, drones and aerostats equipped ical developments and increase aware- and sample, contaminated areas.
with cameras, and the novel combination ness of, and communications about, the • Focus on development of nanoscale
of sensing instruments that mitigated resulting innovations. Such collaborations assessment technologies for genomics.
each other’s blind spots. These innova- may include the involvement of spill- • Improve visualization techniques for
tions improved our understanding about response operational scientists directly multiple types of data to help under-
the significant transport role that sub- with academic research projects, which stand and convey the complexity and
mesoscale processes play and provided could improve the chance that technolog- scale of disasters like DWH.
data that informs near-real-time trans- ical developments and resultant data can
port forecasts during an oil spill. immediately inform response decisions SOCIOECONOMIC AND PUBLIC
Several technological modeling devel- during an oil spill. Technological develop- AND HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES
opments enabled advancements in quan- ments designed for use during a marine oil The DWH oil spill, according to the
tifying the fate of oil from a marine spill. spill can benefit from collaborations with National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Such models simulated oil transport via institutes that have facilities for oil-in- Pollution Contingency Plan, is the only
aggregation with floating particulate mat- water tests, such as the European research declared spill of national significance in
ter, such as MOS processes, and via oil/ organization SINTEF, the SouthWest US history. DWH caused significant and
particle/mineral interactions that allowed Research Institute, and the US National lasting adverse impacts on the health and
for the inclusion of transport processes Oil Spill Response & Renewable Energy well-being of people and their communi-
not previously accounted for in oil spills. Test Facility Ohmsett. Including academic ties in the Gulf of Mexico region. These
In situ imaging techniques can now dis- researchers in spill response preparedness impacts compounded and exacerbated
Oceanography | March 2021 235for community members who are not
directly involved in spill operations but
are vulnerable to indirect spill effects
such as social and economic impacts.
Unfortunately, well-structured and fund-
ed human health services and data col-
lection associated with large oil spills
were lacking compared to those for envi-
ronmental effects. US oil spill response
protocols focus on mitigating the envi-
ronmental pollutant but generally lack
formal mechanisms, developed with pub-
lic input and support, for assessment of
impacts on humans and communities
and recovery of damages. Furthermore,
insufficient involvement of the public in
Graduate student Fanny Girard of Penn State, a GoMRI Scholar, digitizes a high-definition image of communicating health and safety infor-
a coral colony to quantify impacts, growth, and recovery. Photo credit Cherisse DuPreez
mation resulted in increased anxiety and
distrust of authorities.
the negative effects of Hurricane Katrina consumption. Parents were concerned
and previous disasters in the Gulf, and, about children as they played on beaches Lessons Learned
in turn, may add to effects of subsequent that may have been contaminated with In the event of another disaster, the les-
disasters as well as ongoing threats from oil. Some residents reported more stress sons learned from the DWH oil spill need
chemical pollution, oil seeps, and harm- from navigating the legal and claims pro- to be applied to future human health
ful algal blooms. Studies to date, and cesses following the spill than from the assessment and recovery. Researchers
those still underway, have shown various spill itself. The breadth and severity of should be aware that large oil spills are
adverse mental, physical, and community mental, physical, and community health associated with a broad range of men-
health effects in some individuals who effects, perceived effects, and anxiety tal and physical health impacts and may
responded to the spill and/or participated about potential effects were significant amplify the adverse effects of both prior
in clean-up efforts, as well as some coastal and, in some cases, were long lasting. and future traumas. Such impacts are
residents in all five Gulf states (Sandifer most pronounced among vulnerable peo-
et al., 2021, in this issue). Advances, Discoveries, ple and those individuals and commu-
Additionally, the spill had socio- and Surprises nities dependent upon natural resource-
economic impacts, especially to the tour- During initial post-DWH public health related industries.
ism and recreational sectors, and those data collection, except for information These health impacts occur through
dependent on living resources, such as available about US Coast Guard person- both direct contact with spilled oil and
fishing. These effects also harmed the nel (Rusiecki et al., 2018), researchers indirect exposures to it, such as a spill’s
health and well-being of individuals and were faced with the reality that baseline social and economic effects. Also, health
communities that were primarily depen- health and socioeconomic data against studies on oil spill response workers tend
dent upon natural resources for employ- which to compare spill effects were woe- to be slow to start and inadequate in dura-
ment and as a way of life. Residents who fully inadequate. As a result, this scarcity tion and depth; health studies for those
were already disadvantaged, low-income, of systematically collected and curated not involved in spill response are even
and of minority ethnicity or otherwise health and socioeconomic data made it less adequate. While there is an increas-
vulnerable were most affected. Negative difficult to characterize individual, com- ing awareness of the need to deal with
perceptions about the safety of Gulf sea- munity, and societal impacts and to con- indirect health impacts associated with
food and its marketability persisted long nect outcomes with their causes. The oil spills, structured programs and secure
after data demonstrated its safety accord- need for ongoing data collection of these funding to do so are lacking.
ing to regulatory protocols in place at that sorts was further emphasized when stud-
time. These perceptions caused consum- ies revealed that secondary events occur Future Research Needs/Gaps
ers to question the potential for exposure in the periods between major disasters. Recommendations for future research
to toxic oil-related chemicals during the This information made it evident that and study regarding socioeconomic
spill and clean-up, as well as from seafood health services are especially important and public and human health issues are
236 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1outlined in Sandifer et al. (2021, in this propel advances in spill response, damage issue). Response decision-makers are typ-
issue). Some of the most critical actions assessment, and quantifying resources ically faced with new and alternative tech-
recommended are: at risk, but research gaps remain. The nologies, in addition to dispersants, that
• Implement the health observing system nexus between operational response and require quick evaluation. While there is
framework (Sandifer et al., 2021, in this research involves many entities, includ- a process for evaluation, deploying new
issue). This will require participation of ing state and federal agencies, industry, methods or untested equipment during
a diverse group of health professionals academia, and nongovernmental organi- an emergency can have adverse impacts
and government, institutional, and pri- zations (Halanych and Westerholm, 2021, and increase liability. During the DWH
vate sector entities. in this issue). In future efforts, industry spill response, numerous alternatives
• Collect and analyze health, environ- and government should continue to col- were proposed and some, such as fresh-
mental, and socioeconomic data to laborate with academia to improve oper- water diversion, were utilized. The diver-
identify cause-and-effect links between ational response. sion, which was designed to minimize
spills and health outcomes to improve State-of-the-art fate and transport damage to coastal wetlands by keeping oil
preparation, response, recovery, and models were developed and utilized offshore, instead demonstrated a trade-off
damage assessment. during the DWH event to predict landfall decision that had unintended and severe
• Develop robust mechanisms for dia- and assist strategic deployment of response ecological consequences.
logue among oil spill and other disaster resources, but these models had limita-
preparedness authorities and research- tions. Because the DWH incident was an Lessons for the Future
ers prior to disaster events. undersea blowout, the few available three- The operational response command
• Improve toxicological profiles for oil dimensional operational models were structure must continually strive to
spill chemicals, including dispersants, inadequate for capturing droplet for- develop and evaluate new scenarios that
in humans, prioritizing vulnerable mation and circulation at depth, which can be incorporated into spill planning
human populations. limited the federal government’s deep- and exercises. Often, plans and models
• Improve human exposure and effects sea blowout oil spill modeling capability. are based on past assumptions of expected
models and human health risk Since the DWH incident, improvements spill impacts (e.g., specific amount and
assessments. in spill modeling have included the addi- type of oil, specific location, what addi-
• Substantially increase research on tion of weathering parameters, enhanced tional injury might result from response
models of human health and socioeco- three-dimensional capability, faster pro- actions). However, more work needs to
nomic effects and integrate them with cessing, new algorithms, and more user- be done on the few models that currently
oceanographic and ecosystem models. friendly displays on a variety of platforms allow comparative predictive modeling
• Increase transdisciplinary research on (Westerholm et al., 2021, in this issue). of alternative mitigation scenarios and
the human dimensions of oils spills and Other modeling needs remain, as there are the expected impacts of using, not using,
other disasters. no fully quantitative models that can sim- or combining specific technologies. For
• Improve personal protective equip- ulate oil spill impacts across all the phys- example, “what if dispersants or in situ
ment supply and its utilization for ical, chemical, biological, socioeconomic, burns are not utilized?” In those cases,
responders. and human health knowledge domains. the plans and models need to evaluate
As a result of the DWH Natural the expected impacts and recovery times
PREPAREDNESS, PLANNING, Resource Damage Assessment and for the oil (and its products) that might
AND ADVANCES IN GoMRI research, improvements in sam- now reach nearshore and coastal envi-
OPERATIONAL RESPONSE ple collection, use of genomics, and exten- ronments. By updating plans and models,
ISSUES sive toxicity testing have all led to a bet- future response leaders can better pre-
Planning and preparing for oil spills are ter understanding of the Gulf of Mexico dict real-time impacts that optimize the
key to expediting clean-up and minimiz- ecosystem (Murawski et al., 2021, and deployment of response resources and
ing environmental harm during an actual Halanych et al., 2021, both in this issue). that allow them to make difficult trade-
event, but response leaders are often Multidisciplinary researchers continue off decisions on these alternatives.
faced with time-critical and complex to discuss the nexus between laboratory As research brings new capabilities to
options that inevitably create trade-offs research and mesocosm studies on toxic- bear, the command structure will also
(Westerholm et al., 2021, in this issue). ity, dispersion, microbial degradation, and need to evaluate these alternatives and
Determination of oil fate and transport other spill impacts and how these should incorporate them into their existing spill
and associated environmental impacts be incorporated into the planning process response plans. This might include intro-
accurately and promptly is imperative. and environmental trade-off discussions ducing microbes to enhance biodegrada-
Over the last 10 years, research helped (Halanych and Westerholm, 2021, in this tion (natural and engineered), new dis-
Oceanography | March 2021 237persant or chemical herding formulations, oxidation and their effects on emul- CONCLUSIONS
more efficient in situ burning, uncrewed sions, oil solubility, and toxicity, The human tragedy and ecological
equipment for sample collection and dis- including sublethal impacts. This also impacts of DWH will persist for years/
persant applications, and detection and includes modeling the expected inter- decades to come and will never be for-
imaging technologies that could safely action of response alternatives, such gotten. Yet, this tragedy has taught those
increase operational windows to a con- as dispersants, for these processes involved to be safer, smarter, and bet-
tinuous 24/7 response. Communicating and any changes that would occur ter prepared for managing offshore
these options and engaging the public over time in microbial degradation or resources. The subsequent funding by
as early as possible will promote under- photo-oxidation. BP, which led to the establishment of
standing and may have profound bene- • Quantifying and reducing the uncer- GoMRI, demonstrated that an indepen-
fits for addressing societal concerns and tainly of forecasts, as well as including dent, science-based research program
mental health issues. other domains of knowledge such as can successfully bring diverse groups of
Prior to a spill, federal agencies must biological ecosystems, socioeconomics, scientists together to achieve common
work with stakeholder groups and seek and human health, are critical for devel- goals. This cross-pollination of differ-
expert opinions that allow for a clear value opment of accurate models. GoMRI ent disciplines yielded advances and real-
system relative to oil impacts. These agen- has explored a framework for assessing world impacts that benefit understand-
cies and the command structure during a quantitative model that simulates oil ing of the Gulf of Mexico as well as other
the spill will need to communicate this spill impacts across these domains, but locations where marine oil exploration
process more effectively to explain how the model itself does not yet exist. and extraction occurs. The past 10 years
and why certain decisions were made. • Future models will need to be scalable of effort and attention have reinforced
and incorporate combinations of all how important and understudied coasts
Future Research Needs/Gaps response options over time, evaluat- and the open ocean remain. It was imper-
The ultimate goal of GoMRI was to ing and comparing the expected ben- ative to use the best science available to
improve society’s ability to understand, efits and impacts while accounting for fully understand environmental impacts
respond to, and mitigate the impacts of the predicted and often changing envi- and determine the appropriate means to
petroleum pollution and related stress- ronmental factors associated with spe- ameliorate those impacts through resto-
ors of the marine and coastal ecosystems, cific spill locations. ration. Filling critical data gaps, some of
with an emphasis on conditions found in • As seen in DWH, when restoration which are highlighted above, will be nec-
the Gulf of Mexico. As highlighted in this alternatives are implemented, long- essary to support better future restoration
issue, GoMRI has significantly increased term impacts on marine and estua- and response decisions while also estab-
the ability for the response community rine habitats must be considered and lishing new baselines that require long-
to react, respond, and mitigate future monitored. term studies (Wiesenburg et al., 2021,
spills; however, there are several areas • Modeling restoration alternatives in this issue).
that require additional research, focus, should include even more com- GoMRI research has built a foundation
and funding: plex processes associated with nutri- of knowledge and tools that will enable sci-
• High-resolution oceanographic models ent overloads and land use manage- entists to play key roles in guiding future
do not yet exist for all areas where spills ment, climate change impacts, natural oil spill response and Gulf of Mexico sci-
might occur. A system is needed that erosion, and future energy develop- ence with data-driven strategies. The cre-
can quickly employ a high-resolution ment. Based on the DWH incident, it ation and preservation of a permanent
operational regional model, nested is imperative to develop new classes of data archival system (Zimmermann et al.,
within the existing larger-scale oper- predictive numerical models to explore 2021, in this issue) will prove invalu-
ational models. Future models must the effects of planned large-scale proj- able in the future and support the new
also capture spatially variable and non- ects, such as freshwater diversions. mindset of open-source data in science.
isotropic diffusion as well as vertical Such models would integrate estuarine, Government and private supporters of
transport associated with MOSSFA. coastal, and shelf hydrodynamics, such science should be encouraged to require
While simplified MOSSFA models can as riverine forcing, and incorporate that future research grants, awards, and
currently be incorporated into opera- ecological processes and outcomes, contracts submit collected data to open-
tional models, improved parameteriza- thus allowing for better predictions of source data portals.
tions of processes such as subgrid-scale both the short-term effectiveness as a GoMRI presented a rare opportu-
diffusion are still lacking. spill countermeasure and the expected nity to successfully assess and follow spill
• Fate models can be improved by incor- outcome of long-term habitat resto- impacts and synthesize findings across
porating biodegradation and photo- ration projects. academia, industry, and government. The
238 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1You can also read
