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WORKING PAPER 2019-12
Spain’s booming hybrid electric
vehicle market: A summary of supporting
policy measures
Authors: Sandra Wappelhorst
Date: May 2019
Keywords: Hybrid electric vehicles; incentives; policy measures
Introduction (PHEVs), but the electric power train is 2009. This development was mainly
capable of moving the vehicle on its driven by substantial tax exemptions:
Sales of hybrid electric vehicles own, unlike in mild HEVs. Compared From mid-2006 until 2010, purchasers
(HEVs) in the Spanish market have
to a conventional gasoline and diesel of HEVs received a one-time bonus on
seen a much faster uptake than in
car, HEVs can reduce fuel consump- registration, ranging between €2,500
most countries of the European Union
tion and CO2 emissions by up to 35% and €6,000 depending on the year.
(EU). Between 2017 and 2018, sales
(German, 2015). In contrast to battery Until 2014, owners of a gasoline HEV
of hybrid electric passenger cars
electric vehicles (BEVs) and PHEVs, emitting less than 110 g CO2/km also
increased by 36% to almost 75,800,
another advantage is that HEVs do not were exempt from paying the regular
one of the highest absolute sales num-
rely on recharging infrastructure. motor vehicle tax. In addition, in 2008,
bers recorded among the EU Member
a lower rate for taxing low-emission
States (European Automobile Manu- Figure 1 compares the HEV market
company cars was introduced. For
facturers Association [ACEA], 2019a). share in selected EU countries from
This paper provides an overview of example, the rate for a gasoline HEV
2001 to 2018. The countries reflect
the development of the HEV market in emitting up to 95 g CO2/km was 14%
those markets where absolute HEV
Spain. It quantifies the growth in HEV of the catalogue price compared to
sales exceeded 20,000 in 2018.
sales across Spain and its regional 25% for a conventional gasoline or
Among those countries were France,
markets, and describes key policies at diesel car (Tax and Customs Admin-
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain,
the national, regional, and local levels. istration, n.d.; International Energy
and the United Kingdom. As shown
Agency, n.d.).
HEVs represent a viable interim solu- in Figure 1, Spain plays a major role
tion for the transition to a low-carbon in growing the HEV market in the EU. A combination of national, regional, and
transport system, helping to achieve With almost 75,800 HEVs sold in 2018, local policies distinguishes the Spanish
global greenhouse gas (GHG) and Spain accounted for 13% of the HEV market from other European markets.
local air pollution reduction targets. sales in the EU, over 4 percentage These include environmental car label-
At the same time, HEVs can help vehi- points more than its almost 9% share ing, incentive programs for purchasing
cle manufacturers reduce the aver- of total passenger car sales. Sales of low-emission vehicles, access to low-
age carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions hybrid electric passenger cars have emission zones (LEZs), and discounts
of their new car fleets to ensure com- climbed steadily in Spain since 2001, on parking and road tolls. The impact
pliance with regulations, such as the with the exception of a slight drop of these policies has been reinforced
EU CO2 target of 95 grams (g) of CO2 between 2012 and 2014, and have sig- by the announcement and implemen-
per kilometer (km) for 2021 (Interna- nificantly increased since 2014. By the tation of bans for high-emission vehi-
tional Council on Clean Transportation, end of 2018, HEV sales reached 5.7%. cles in urban centers. All of these key
2019). From a technological perspec- This share was surpassed only by Swe- policies have helped to spur and shape
tive, HEVs are powered by an internal den (5.8%), Lithuania (7.2%), and Fin- the HEV market in Spain.
combustion engine running on gaso- land (9.8%), however fewer vehicles in
line or diesel with one or more supple- terms of absolute numbers were sold The following sections describe the
mentary electric motors fed by energy in these markets due to their smaller development of the Spanish HEV
stored in batteries. The battery cannot market size (ACEA, 2019a). In the market, focusing on policies that
be recharged from the electricity grid, Netherlands, similarly high HEV mar- may be associated with their con-
unlike in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles ket shares were recorded as early as tinuous uptake.
© INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION, 2019 WWW.THEICCT.ORG
SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
Market Development 6% Sweden (5.8%)
Spain (5.7%)
HEV sales in Spain increased from 5%
Netherlands (4.6%)
0.7% in 2010 to 5.7% in 2018. Fol- Italy (4.3%)
lowing the diesel emissions scandal, 4%
France (4.2%)
Market share
European Union (3.8%)
Spain saw a major drop in new diesel United Kingdom (3.4%)
registrations with a decrease of 21% 3% Germany (2.9%)
between 2015 and 2018. This paved
the way for a corresponding increase 2%
in sales of gasoline vehicles and HEVs
1%
by almost 18% and 3%, respectively
(Mock, 2018; ACEA 2019a, 2019b). 0%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Figure 2 and Figure 3 provide a
closer examination of HEV registra- Figure 1. Market share of new hybrid electric passenger cars in selected EU countries
tion and market share by regional up to the end of 2018 (Mock, 2018; ACEA, 2019a, 2019b).
markets in Spain, including the 17
autonomous communities and Madrid 2018 +69%
2017
the two autonomous cities Ceuta
and Melilla. Figure 2 shows that in Catalonia +6%
2018, the greatest number of HEVs
Andalusia +29%
were registered in the community
of Madrid with almost 30,400 new
Valencia +28%
HEVs sold. This was followed by the
communities of Catalonia (approx- +29%
Galicia
imately 12,400), Andalusia (more
than 8,400), and Valencia (6,200). +33%
Castile and León
T h e g row t h ra te s f ro m 2 0 1 7 to
2018 show wide variations, ranging Basque Country +16%
between -1% (Ceuta and Melilla) to
+99% (Canary Islands). In fact, 12 Castilla-La Mancha +29%
out of the 19 autonomous communi-
Balearic Islands +16%
ties saw HEV growth of more than
25% (Asociación Española de Fabri-
Canary Islands +99%
cantes de Automóviles y Camiones
[ANFAC], 2018, 2019a). +27%
Murcia
In terms of market share, three Span-
Aragon +8%
ish communities registered the high-
est HEV shares in 2018 (see Figure 3). +26%
Asturias
In Catalonia, La Rioja, and Ceuta and
Melilla the share was more than 5%. +26%
Extremadura
Despite accounting for the highest
relative shares of new HEV registra- Cantabria +28%
tions in 2018, the autonomous com-
munity La Rioja and the autonomous Navarre +31%
cities Ceuta and Melilla recorded
the lowest number of HEV sales in La Rioja +18%
absolute numbers—about 420 and
-1%
135 respectively—because of the Ceuta and Melilla
relatively small size of the market.
0 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 24,000 28,000 32,000
On the contrary, Catalonia had the
Registrations (absolute)
highest HEV share and at the same
time the second highest number of Figure 2. New HEV registration in the Spanish autonomous communities/cities from
total HEV registrations with 12,400 2017 to 2018, including hybrid electric quadricycles, commercial and industrial vehicles,
(ANFAC, 2019a). and buses (ANFAC, 2018, 2019a).
2 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2019-12
SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
The number of vehicles sold is also Autonomous
closely linked to the availability of dif- communities Asturias
Cantabria Basque
of Spain Country
ferent models on the market (Slowik Galicia
Navarre
& Lutsey, 2018). Figure 4 shows the La Rioja
total number of HEV registrations in Share of hybrid Castile and León Catalonia
relation to HEV models available in electric vehicles
Aragon
in 2018
Spain, plotted for the 2001 to 2017
time frame (Mock, 2018). The figure < 3.0%
illustrates that between 2001 and 3.0 - 3.9% Madrid
2011, both the number of HEV regis- 4.0 - 4.9%
trations and the availability of HEV > 5.0% Extremadura Castilla- Valencia
La Mancha
models continously inceased. Despite Balearic Islands
an increasing number of HEV models
available on the Spanish market, HEV Murcia
registrations stagnated between 2011 Andalusia
and 2013. Starting in 2014, HEV regis-
trations went up significantly whereas
model availability dropped in 2016. Canary Islands
The development since 2011 indicates Ceuta
150 km
Melilla
that other aspects in addition to 100 mi
model availability seem to influence
consumers’ purchase decisions. Figure 3. Share of newly registered HEVs by Spain’s autonomous communities in 2018,
includings hybrid electric quadricycles, commercial and industrial vehicles, and buses
Next to the increasing offer of HEV (ANFAC, 2019a).
models, the development of the HEV
market in Spain as described above is 60,000
based also on a comprehensive mix 55,000
of policy measures at the national, 50,000 29
Registrations (absolute)
28
regional, and local levels. The follow- 45,000 26
24
ing sections describe in more detail 40,000 23 23
the underlying factors that may have 35,000
contributed to spurring the HEV mar- 30,000
16
25,000
ket in Spain.
20,000 12
Availability of HEV
15,000 models in Spain
Policy Background 10,000 5 5
7
4 Registrations of
According to the Effort Sharing 5,000 3
HEVs in Spain
1 1 1 1
Regulation, which requires each 0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Member State to reduce GHG emis-
sions, Spain must reduce national Figure 4. Sales of HEVs in relation to HEV models available in Spain, from 2001 to 2017
GHG emissions by 26% by 2030 com- (Mock, 2018). Due to a lack of robust data on HEV model availability in Spain, we consider
pared to 2005 levels (European Com- the number of different HEV models customers bought. We assume that if a HEV is for
mission [EC], 2018). However, at the sale on the market, it will likely be purchased at least a certain number of times.
national level, the Spanish govern-
of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) shall be measure specifically aiming at the
ment has not set a binding CO2 reduc-
reduced by 41% compared to 2005 uptake of HEVs in taxi fleets through
tion target for the transport sector.
levels in 2020, and by 62% as of 2030 incentive programs (City Council of
Despite this lack, there are various
(Government of Spain, 2017). Madrid, 2017). The strategy calls for
programs and strategies defining
local, regional, and national policies grants for the acquisition of clean
Policies for the uptake of HEVs can vehicles or the renewal of munici-
to reduce GHG emissions from trans-
be found mostly at the regional or pal fleets including HEVs. The Plan
port, such as the Climate Change and
Clean Energy Strategy 2007–2012– local level, such as part of local mobil- for Energy, Climate Change and Air
2020 (Government of Spain, 2007a). ity strategies. For example, the Air Quality of Barcelona 2011-2020 also
Meanwhile, the National Plan for Air Quality and Climate Change Plan encourages new technologies, specif-
Quality 2017–2019 defines reduction (short Plan A) of the city of Madrid, ically the increased incorporation of
targets for specific pollutant emis- approved by the City Council in HEVs in municipal fleets (City Council
sions, for example that emissions September 2017, includes a policy of Barcelona, 2011).
WORKING PAPER 2019-12 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 3
SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
Environmental Table 1. Classification for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles in Spain
(Ministry of Interior, 2016).
Car Labeling
Classification Badge Eligible cars
An important measure spurring
• Battery electric vehicles (BEVs)
alternative fuel vehicle adoption
• Range extended electric vehicles (REEVs)
and improving air quality in cities Zero-emission
label • Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) with
and regions in the Spanish market is
minimum range autonomy of 40 km
environmental car labeling. In April
• Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs)
2015, the Spanish traffic authorities
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) with
(DGT) published a guideline for label- a range autonomy less than 40 km
ing zero-emission vehicles. This was
ECO label • Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
followed in April 2016 by a directive
• Liquified petroleum gas vehicles (LPGs)
classifying vehicles in four catego-
• Compressed natural gas vehicles (CNGs)
ries according to their level of pollu-
tion (see Table 1) (Ministry of Interior,
General Directorate of Traffic, 2015). • Gasoline Euro 4, 5 and 6
C label
According to this directive, HEVs are • Diesel Euro 6
classified under the ECO label. The
four different categories of the envi-
ronmental car labeling are applied
to determine, for example, local and • Gasoline Euro 3
B label
regional subsidy amounts for the pur- • Diesel Euro 4 and 5
chase of a new vehicle or to regulate
access to LEZs such as in Madrid or
• Gasoline cars produced before 2000
Barcelona (see following sections). A label No badge
• Diesel cars produced before 2006
The labels are stickers that gener-
ally can be voluntarily displayed on
the windshield. In Madrid, since April vehicle including HEVs. These ben- to individuals, freelancers, and small-
2019, the labels have been manda- efits were granted in the framework and medium-sized businesses (Gov-
tory for owners of all motor vehicles of the Renove Plan (1994–1996) and ernment of Spain, 2008a, 2008b).
that access, circulate, or park in the PREVER Program (1997–2007) (Gov-
municipality of Madrid (City Council ernment of Spain, 1994, 1997). Between 2009 and 2010, the Plan
of Madrid, 2018a). 2000 E provided grants for the pur-
In November 2008, the Spanish gov- chase of new passenger cars and
ernment announced a new aid pro- commercial vehicles as well as used
Incentives and gram under the name VIVE Plan vehicles up to 5 years old. Purchas-
Other Benefits (Innovative Vehicle-Ecological Vehi- ers of a passenger car emitting up to
cle). The 2-year program aimed at 149 g CO2/km, including HEVs, could
In the past, the Spanish central,
replacing vehicles older than 10 or receive a minimum one-time bonus
regional, and local governments have
15 years in favor of a new or second- of €1,500, the cost of which was split
introduced a variety of programs to
hand passenger car with a maximum between the national government
promote the purchase of alternative
age of 5 years. Special financing con- (€500) and the car manufacturers
fuel vehicles (AFVs), including natu-
ditions were offered to purchasers or importers (€1,000) (Ministry of
ral gas-powered vehicles using liqui-
of passenger cars rated up to 140 g Industry, Tourism and Trade, 2009).
fied petroleum gas (LPG) and com-
CO 2/km. This benefit included that In addition, autonomous communi-
pressed natural gas (CNG), HEVs, and
the first €10,000 of the amount of ties could supplement that amount
electric vehicles—BEVs, PHEVs, range
the vehicle’s purchase price could with additional funding. For example,
extended electric vehicles (REEVs),
be financed without cost, which is to Aragon, Asturias, Cantabria, and Mur-
and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs).
say with an interest rate of 0%. For cia provided additional funding. In
example, the purchaser of a vehicle contrast, Madrid and La Rioja did not
INCENTIVES AND BENEFITS AT with a purchase price of €20,000 contribute to the plan, rather incen-
NATIONAL/REGIONAL LEVEL would have paid a monthly fee of €63 tivizing the acquisition of low-emis-
Between 1994 and 2007, the Span- instead of €125, assuming an inter- sion vehicles by providing exemp-
ish government provided benefits on est rate of 7.5%. The maximum pur- tions on registration tax. In the case
registration tax for the replacement chase price was capped at €30,000. of Galicia, the decision was in favor of
of an older vehicle in favor of any new Eligibilty for the grants was limited its own regional funding program for
4 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2019-12SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
passenger cars including HEVs. Grant a national one-time subsidy of providing grants for scapping an
eligibilty extended to individuals as €1,000, whereas those in the mar- old car in favor of a low-emission
well as micro-, small-, and medium- ket for a vehicle equal to or heavier vehicle including HEVs. The latest
sized businesses (“Plan 2000 E,” than 2,500 kg were eligible to program, TAXIFREE 2018, pro-
2009). receive €2,000. The program was vided grants for HEVs of €1,000
divided into four phases. The first for taxis or €3,000 for eurotaxis
In 2012, the Spanish government set phase (PIMA Aire 1) started in Feb- adapted for people with reduced
up two further national scrapping ruary 2013 with the last one (PIMA mobility that were registered
schemes to promote the substitu- Aire 4) commencing in November between June 2017 and July
tion of old vehicles including financial 2014 (Associació Empresarial de 2018, but only for those running
assistance for the purchase of HEVs: Tallers de Reparacio i Venedors on gasoline fuel (City Council of
d’Automoció [ASTAVE] 2014, 2015; Madrid, 2016, 2018b, 2018c).
• One program entitled PIVE (Effi-
Plan PIMA-Aire, n.d.).
cient Vehicle Incentive Program)
2. At a regional level, the autono-
included eight separate cam- Between 2009 and 2017, additional mous community of the offers
paigns, the first one (PIVE 1) national programs provided incen- two plans that do include grants
started in October 2012 and the tives in the form of one-time bonus for HEVs—the PIAM Plan (Auto-
last program (PIVE 8) began in payments for the acquisition or lease taxi Incentive Plan) and the PIV-
May 2015. The program aimed at of low-emission vehicles. These pro- CEM Plan (Incentive Plan for light
incentivizing the scrappage of pas- grams—Plan MOVELE, Plan MOVEA, commercial, efficient, auxiliary
senger cars over 12 years old and and Plan MOVALT—included a total and service vehicles). The PIAM
light commercial vehicles more of 10 separate rounds of funding. Eli- Plan, first launched in November
than 10 years old, then replacing gible vehicles for a grant included 2013, initially provided €2,000
them with any new vehicle, includ- A F Vs , h oweve r H E Vs we r e n o t for licensed taxi services replac-
ing AFVs and conventional gaso- included in these programs (Gov- ing a vehicle with a new HEV. In
line and diesel vehicles. Under this ernment of Spain, 2011; Ministry of 2018, the grant aid was €3,000
scheme, buyers of a HEV origi- the Presidency, 2015; Ministry of the for vehicles eligible for an ECO
nally received a one-time bonus Presidency and for territorial admin- label, including HEVs (Commu-
of at least €2,000—a €1,000 sub- istrations, 2017; Plan MOVALT Vehícu- nity of Madrid 2013, 2018). In
sidy funded by the national gov- los, n.d.). A new scrapping scheme 2014, the autonomous commu-
ernment plus a minimum discount (MOVES Plan) was approved in mid- nity of Madrid also launched a
of €1,000 provided by the manu- February 2019, granting aid for the plan for the renewal of light com-
facturer/importer at the point of purchase of electric vehicles. Like the mercial vehicles aiming at small-
sale. For the seventh phase of the previously mentioned programs, pur- and medium-sized companies
scheme (PIVE 7), the minimum chasers of a HEV do not benefit from and self-employed workers (PIV-
total incentive was reduced to a one-time bonus payment granted CEM Plan). In 2018, purchasers
€1,500, again split equally between by the national government (Govern- of a light commercial vehicle eli-
government and the manufactur- ment of Spain, 2019). gible for an ECO label including
ers. During the PIVE program term
HEVs received a one-time pay-
between October 2012 and July INCENTIVES AND BENEFITS ment of €3,000 (Community of
2016, more than 15,700 purchasers AT THE REGIONAL AND Madrid 2014, 2018).
of HEVs—which is to say almost LOCAL LEVELS
every fourth purchaser received 3. In the autonomous community
approval for grants. (“Beneficiarios Some regional and local authori-
of Catalonia, taxi services, vehi-
ayudas,” n.d.). ties in Spain also provide financial
assistance for the acquisition of new cles for commercial use, and
• The second scrapping program, low-emission vehicles. Four specific other service vehicles that oper-
called PIMA Aire (Plan for Promo- examples are: ate in the region’s special areas
tion of the Environment), aimed of atmospheric protection also
to replace commercial vehicles at 1. The city of Madrid grants help receive a one-time grant on car
least 7 years old with new vehicles for the renewal of the local vehi- purchase. In 2018, buyers of a
up to 1 year old. Buyers of commer- cle fleet in different programs. gasoline HEV with emissions of
cial AFVs, including HEVs weigh- Over the years, the city has for up to 60 milligrams (mg) NO x/
ing less than 2,500 kg, received example targeted the taxi sector, km, and which fulfills the Euro 6
WORKING PAPER 2019-12 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 5SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
emissions limit1 or higher, quali- variant, or €17,150 for the hybrid elec- 3. Castile and León was the first
fied for a subsidy of €1,000 per tric variant. Only in the city of Madrid autonomous region in Spain to
car. The regulatory base for sub- and the autonomous community of implement an aid program for the
sidies for the promotion of the Castilla-La Mancha would the €3,000 acquisition of AFVs. In Decem-
acquisition of low-emission vehi- bonus make the purchase cost of a ber 2001, it was ratified that com-
cles was first approved by the hybrid electric car similar to the com- panies, self-employed persons,
regional government of Catalonia parable gasoline Toyota Yaris model. individuals, associations, and
in October 2014 (Government of In the Basque Country and Catalo- nonprofit organizations as well
Catalonia, 2016, 2018). nia, the hybrid variant would still cost as local entities could receive
€450 or €1,700 more, respectively. a grant for the acquisition of a
4. The government of the autono- HEV up to a maximum amount
mous community Castilla-La In the past, other Spanish regions of €4,800 (Board of Castile and
Mancha also offers funding for offered one-time bonus payments León, 2001).
the acquisition of alternative fuel for the purchase of a HEV. These
vehicles including HEVs, targeted included the following examples, 4. The autonomous region of
at companies, individuals, and which also represent only a sample Extremadura set the regulatory
local entities alike. The one-time of autonomous communities and rel- base for purchase incentives
bonus amount for the purchase evant actions: including HEVs in April 2009. The
of a HEV in this case is €3,000 for grant amount was 15% of the vehi-
1. In 2008, the Valencian Energy cle’s price including VAT, with a
applications submitted between
Agency announced a program maximum aid of €2,300 for HEVs.
August 2018 and May 2019. The
to incentivize the acquisition of Eligible persons included individu-
regulatory base for the subsi-
energy efficient vehicles. Under als or micro-, small-, and medium-
dies was established in early 2016
the program CO2TXE 2008 pur- sized businesses. Between 2009
(Castilla-La Mancha, 2018; Min-
chasers of a HEV received a and 2012, about 120 purchasers
istry of Economy, Business and
maximum bonus of €2,000. Eli- of HEVs received incentives in
Employment, 2017).
gible for a grant were legal enti- the autonomous community of
5. In February 2019, the Basque ties or natural persons whether Extremadura (Board of Extremad-
government announced a new they were private or public. The ura, 2012; “Las ayudas para la
aid plan for the renewal of the program was relaunched on a compra,” 2012).
regional vehicle fleet. Scrapping yearly basis between 2009 and
a car at least 10 years old in favor 2011, with HEVs receiving a maxi- In addition to national, regional, and
of a HEV will be financially sup- mum bonus of €2,300 (Valencian local incentives in the form of one-time
ported with a one-time grant Community, 2008, 2009). bonus payments on car purchases,
amount of €2,250. The maximum some regional and local authorities
2. Andalusia incentivized the pur- in Spain provide additional incentives
price for a new HEV is capped at
chase of a HEV starting in August for drivers of low-emission vehicles,
€25,000. Individuals, companies,
2005. Initially, 50% of the price dif- further reducing the cost of own-
and municipalities are eligible for
ference between a conventional ing a low-emission car compared to
these grants (Basque Govern-
vehicle and a hybrid car was cov- conventional gasoline or diesel cars.
ment, 2019).
ered by the Andalusian Energy For example, the government of the
These local and regional incentive pro- Agency, with a maximum one- autonomous community of Catalonia
grams, of which only a selected sam- time bonus of €3,000. Compa- offers discounts on motorway tolls for
ple have been mentioned, reduce the nies, administrations, and individu- low-emission vehicles including HEVs.
costs of new vehicle acquisition. As an als all benefited from the bonuses. Drivers of HEVs that meet Euro 6 or
example, the Toyota Yaris, available as Between 2008 and 2010, almost higher are granted a 30% discount
a gasoline as well as a hybrid electric 1,700 HEVs were subsidized by on the regular road toll, reducing the
variant on the Spanish market, has a the Andalusian Energy Agency, costs for using road infrastructure
sales price of €14,450 including value the majority in the city of Seville (Department of Territory and Sustain-
added tax (VAT), for the gasoline (about 580) and Malaga and Cádiz ability, n.d.).
(about 280 and 250, respectively).
1 Euro Emission Limits define limit values About 340 subsidies across Anda- The city of Madrid also offers dis-
for exhaust emissions of new passenger lusia were requested by the taxi counts on parking that apply specifi-
cars and light commercial vehicles sold in sector within these two years cally to drivers of HEVs. In mid-2014,
Europe. Emission limits range from Euro 1 to
Euro 6, with Euro 6 differentiating between (Bolaños, 2006; “Unos 1.700 anda- the city introduced a regulated car
Euro 6a, 6b, 6c, and 6d. luces,” 2019). parking scheme in certain areas of
6 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2019-12SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
the city aimed at making better use €4,500
of public space, easing parking con- Spanish mainland
€4,000 and Balearic Islands
gestion, and reducing the number of Canary Islands
€3,500
high-emission vehicles entering these
€3,000
zones. The parking fees are com-
posed of a base rate with discounts €2,500
or surcharges dependent on a vehi- €2,000 Volkswagen
Tiguan
cle’s emission level. If driving a HEV, €1,500
the base parking rate is reduced by €1,000 Toyota
Prius
50% (City Council of Madrid, 2018d). €500 hybrid
€0 Ceuta and Melilla
Tax Incentives 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
CO2 emissions (g/km)
and Benefits
Figure 5. One-time registration tax in the autonomous communities/cities of Spain
Both buyers and owners of HEVs for 2019 based on a car with a sales price of €26,000 (average sales price of a newly
in Spain also benefit from certain registered car in Spain in 2017) (ACEA, 2018).
tax exemptions.
5 illustrates the registration tax appli- of Spain, 2004). The length of time
TAXES ON CAR PURCHASE cable to the autonomous commu- that the reduction rate applies var-
nities on the Spanish mainland, the ies widely. For example, in the city
Purchasers of a new car in Spain pay
Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, of Madrid, the benefit is 75% during
21% VAT on car purchases, although
and the cities of Ceuta and Melilla for the first six years after registration.
there is an exemption for the Canary
a car purchase price of €26,000, the In the city of Seville, the same reduc-
Islands. In March 2019, the Parlia-
average price of a new vehicle regis- tion applies but only for the first four
ment of the Canary Islands approved
tered in Spain in 2017 (Mock, 2018). years, whereas cities such as Barce-
the proposal of a law that eliminates
For example, the purchaser of a Toy- lona grant a 75% reduction for HEVs
the 7% General Indirect Canary Tax
ota Prius hybrid in this price segment, (gasoline hybrid up to 120 g CO2/km)
(IGIC) on goods and services (similar
emitting 112 g CO2/km (according to without a time limitation. In contrast,
to VAT) for alternative fuel vehicles
the New European Driving Cycle, or the city of Valencia does not provide
including HEVs with emissions up
NEDC) would not have to pay reg- reductions on ownership tax for HEVs
to 110 g CO2/km, reducing the initial
istration tax across Spain. In con- (City Council of Madrid 2018e, 2018f;
vehicle costs (ANFAC, 2019b).
trast, the registration tax would be City Council of Sevilla, 2018; Munici-
Buyers of a new car in Spain pay a about €1,000 or €1,250 for a vehicle pal Tax Institute of Barcelona, 2018;
one-time registration tax to the equivalent in price but with emissions City Council of Valencia, n.d.).
National Tax Agency when register- between 121 and 159 g CO2/km (e.g.,
Figure 6 illustrates the ownership tax
ing a vehicle for the first time. The the Volkswagen Tiguan, emitting 128
to be paid in the two largest Spanish
tax is based on a vehicle’s CO2 emis- g CO2/km according to NEDC).
cities in terms of population, Madrid
sions and is divided into four bands. (for the first six years of ownership)
Each tax band defines a certain per- TAXES FOR OWNING A VEHICLE
and Barcelona. In Madrid, yearly rates
centage applied to the sales price. In addition to tax exemptions on for conventional gasoline and diesel
Since January 2008, registration tax registration of cars emitting up to passenger cars range between €20
is based on CO2 emissions. Vehicles 120 g CO 2/km, many municipalities and €224, and between €23 and €217
emitting up to 120 g CO 2 /km are or regions in Spain offer reductions to in Barcelona, whereas yearly rates for
exempt from the registration tax. owners of a HEV on the annual own- eco-friendly vehicles are only €5 to
Above 120 g CO 2/km, the tax rates ership tax. The rate payable depends €56 in Madrid and €6 to €53 in Bar-
range from 4.75% to 14.75% for buy- on the taxable horsepower of a car, celona. For example, in Madrid the
ers on the Spanish mainland or the the vehicle age, and the municipality owner of a hybrid Toyota Yaris with a
Balearic Islands, whereas rates for in which the car is registered. Gener- taxable horsepower of 11.2 pays annu-
the Canary Islands are slightly lower. ally, each city in Spain sets its own ally just €15 for the first six years.
The cities of Ceuta and Melilla do not rates. The reduction rate city councils The owner of the same model in the
levy tax on new registrations (Gov- can apply for HEVs can be as much as gasoline version with the same tax-
ernment of Spain, Tax Agency, n.d.; 75%, based on a decree by the Span- able horsepower would pay a higher
Government of Spain, 2007b). Figure ish government in 2004 (Government yearly rate of €59.
WORKING PAPER 2019-12 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 7SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
TAXES FOR CONSUMING FUEL €240 Madrid Conventional
€220 gasoline and diesel
In general, fuel taxes in Spain are the €200
Barcelona vehicles
sum of three components: 21% VAT; a €180
general state tax, which is 30.7 cents €160
per Liter (ct/L) for diesel fuel and €140
a higher rate of 40.1 ct/L for gaso- €120
Toyota
line fuel (unleaded 95 gasoline); and €100 Yaris
gasoline
a special hydrocarbon state tax of €80
Madrid Eco-friendly,
7.2 ct/L (applied to both fuels). As €60 electric and hybrid
Toyota
€40 Yaris Barcelona electric vehicles
a consequence of the lower general hybrid
€20
tax for diesel fuel, the taxation share
€0
in the consumer end price for fuel is 1 5 10 15 20 25 30
only 48% for diesel versus 55% for Taxable horsepower (hp)
gasoline as of March 18, 2019 (Head
Figure 6. Annual ownership taxes for car owners living in Madrid (first 6 years) and
of State, 2018; State Agency, 2018;
Barcelona in 2019.
EC, 2019a).
Because HEVs can reduce fuel con- €24,000
sumption by up to 35%, total costs Fuel price (pre-tax)
€22,000
(including taxes) are lower if compar-
Taxes (€)
Fuel price (tax)
ing a conventional diesel car with a €20,000
Ownership tax
diesel HEV, or a conventional gaso-
€18,000
line car with a gasoline HEV, respec- Value added tax
tively. Although diesel HEVs benefit €16,000
Base price
from cost advantages on fuel costs €14,000
compared to gasoline HEVs, because
€12,000
of the lower fuel taxes, the effect of
this difference on purchase decisions €10,000
is negligible due to a lack of diesel €8,000
HEVs on the market.
€6,000
COMPARISON OF TAXATION €4,000
LEVELS ON OWNERSHIP COSTS
€2,000
The effects of different taxation levels
€0
on ownership costs from the perspec- Gasoline Diesel HEV
tive of a private consumer are illus- Toyota Yaris Ford Fiesta Toyota Yaris
118 g CO2/km, 109 g CO2 /km, 89 g CO2/km,
trated in Figure 7. For comparison, we
82 kw, 1,496 cm3 88 kw, 1,499 cm3 74 kw, 1,496 cm3
chose a Toyota Yaris, which is avail-
able as a gasoline and gasoline hybrid
Figure 7. Four-year consumer ownership costs for a private car registered in the city
electric model on the Spanish market,
of Madrid.
and a diesel car, the Ford Fiesta. We
have assumed a four-year ownership
gasoline and diesel vehicle was multi- three vehicle models—including base
period and a 6% discount rate, in line
plied by adaption factors of 1.5, 1.36, price and VAT (registration tax does
with similar studies (Wappelhorst,
and 1.40, respectively (Riemersma & not apply because the selected vehi-
Mock, & Yang, 2018). We consider
Mock, 2017; Plötz, Funcke, & Jochem, cles emit less than 121 g CO2/km)—the
the one-time costs on car purchase
2017). Fuel prices as of February 25, hybrid electric Toyota Yaris turns out
(base price, VAT, registration tax),
2019, were used, assuming an aver- to be more than €2,700 more expen-
annual cost of ownership (ownership
age distance traveled per year of sive than the gasoline model, but
tax), and fuel costs, differentiated by
13,000 km2 (ACEA, 2017; EC, 2019b). more than €3,100 cheaper than the
pre-tax and tax price. The quoted
CO 2 emission levels of the cars are diesel Ford Fiesta. After the first four
Considering these assumptions and
according to NEDC. To reflect vehicle years of ownership, the Toyota Yaris
comparing acquisition costs of the
real-world consumption for fuel cost hybrid is the second-costliest option,
calculation, the NEDC fuel consump- 2 Official statistical data for Spain was not at €20,900, resulting in a four-year
tion for the HEV and conventional available, so the European average was used. cost advantage of almost €2,800
8 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2019-12SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
toward the diesel and a cost disad- Table 2. Reduction rates for low-emission vehicles when taxing the benefit in kind
vantage of approximately €1,900 (Government of Spain, 2015).
toward the gasoline car. Hence, this
Price limit
particular case provides an indica-
Type of vehicle before taxes Reduction
tion that vehicle taxation for private
Euro 6 < 120 g CO2/km €25,000 15%
households alone does not offer
enough benefits for consumers to opt Hybrid electric vehicles, or powered by an
internal combustion engine (ICE) that can €35,000 20%
for a HEV. use alternative fossil fuels (LPG, CNG)
BEV, PHEV with a minimum electric drive
TAXES FOR THE PRIVATE USE €40,000 30%
range of 15 km, REEV
OF A COMPANY CAR
In addition to tax benefits for HEVs uniting and extending these zones, expanded until restrictions become
in private ownership, there are also was introduced in November 2018 permanent in 2020 (City Council of
advantages for company car users. with the aim of reducing both air pol- Barcelona, 2018).
For example, employees in Spain pri- lutant emissions and traffic noise, as
vately using a company car usually well as increasing availability of pub- RAISING AWARENESS
must declare the “benefit in kind” as lic space in the central Madrid area.
Another important aspect of stimu-
income on their tax calculations. In Full access to the Central Madrid
lating low-emission vehicle sales and
such cases, employees benefit from LEZ is granted to residents, people
general uptake is informing people
reduced income tax rates on hybrid with reduced mobility, safety and
and raising public awareness about
cars compared to a conventional emergency services, and owners of
the benefits of electrified power
gasoline or diesel car. Generally, vehicles with zero-emission or ECO
trains. A wide range of information
the yearly taxable benefit in kind is labels, including HEVs. In contrast to
and awareness raising campaigns
20% of the vehicle’s purchase price zero-emission vehicles, parking for
and channels have been deployed
including taxes. However, since July vehicles with an ECO label is limited
at national, regional, and local levels
2015 tax reductions can be applied to two hours. Owners of a vehicle
to promote HEVs including internet
to low-emission vehicles. In the case with a B or C label (gasoline and die-
sel cars) may enter the zone, but are platforms, brochures, advertisements,
of HEVs, the reduction is 20% of the
only permitted to park in car parks personal or direct mail information.
benefit in kind capped at a purchase
price of €35,000 (see Table 2) (Gov- and not on-street. Owners of a gaso- The following paragraphs provide a
ernment of Spain, 2015). An example line vehicle registered before 2000 selection of these measures.
of the benefit-in-kind calculation is as or a diesel vehicle registered before
To support the national funding
follows: Assuming a purchase price of 2006 with no label are completely
allocations described earlier in this
€20,000 (base price plus VAT) and banned from entering the LEZ (City
paper, the Spanish government has
the vehicle being used 220 days per Council of Madrid, 2018g; 2018h).
set up an accompanying homepage
year for business and 145 days per
Access for passenger cars to Barce- that provides motorists with infor-
year for private purposes, the yearly
lona’s LEZ, which includes most of mation about alternative drive tech-
benefit in kind amounts to €20,000 *
the city of Barcelona and parts of nologies and helps publicize the
20% * (145 days / 365 days) = €1,589.
the adjacent municipalities, is also purchase-incentive programs them-
In the case of a HEV, this amount can
restricted with the aim of combating selves. Because the current program
be reduced by 20% to €1,271 for an
the negative health effects of traffic excludes HEVs from national fund-
annual tax reduction of €318.
pollution. Starting in December 2017, ing, the homepage does not include
restrictions apply during episodes of information about HEVs specifically
Urban Access elevated atmospheric pollution, in (Government of Spain, 2018b). In
Regulations other words when suspended particu- the past, when HEVs could receive
late matter (PM10) or nitrogen dioxide grants, information was provided
Some Spanish cities have introduced
(NO 2) emissions rise above defined likewise. At the regional level, the
urban access regulations to improve
maximum levels. During these inci- city of Barcelona, its metropolitan
congestion, pollution, noise, and/or
dents, vehicles with no environmen- area, and the government of Cata-
accessibility.
tal car label are not allowed to enter lonia have set up an internet plat-
In the case of Madrid, restricted the LEZ. For labeled cars, access is form called LIVE platform (Logis-
access regulations to defined inner- progressively restricted in descend- tics for the Implementation of the
city centers, so called Residential Pri- ing order (B, C, ECO, zero-emission) Electric Vehicle) that does include
ority Zones, were first established in according to the severity of the pol- information about HEVs. Launched
2005. A LEZ, termed Central Madrid, lution episode. This regulation will be in 2011, the homepage explains the
WORKING PAPER 2019-12 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 9SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
various financial assistance schemes vehicle technologies available, includ- campaigns when they introduced new
and other incentive programs— ing HEVs (Live, 2018). access regulations or anti-pollution
national, regional, and local—for the measures, also affecting drivers of a
purchase and operation of alternative The city of Madrid as well the the City HEV (City Council of Madrid, 2018i;
fuel vehicles in Spain. It also offers a Council of Barcelona and its Metro- Open Metropolis Barcelona, 2017). A
cost comparison tool for the different politan Area, carried out information range of further actions were taken
Registrations (yearly) National scrapping
program: Aid of €1,000 or
80,000 €2,000 (PIMA Aire 2)
National scrapping
75,000 National/regional measure to promote HEVs National scrapping program: Aid of €1,000 or
program: Aid of €1,000 or
Regional/local measure to promote HEVs €2,000 (PIMA Aire 1)
€2,000 (PIMA Aire 3)
70,000
National/regional scrapping
65,000 program: Reduced loans Catalonia: National scrapping
(VIVE Plan 2008-2010) 30% reduction program: Aid of €2,000
60,000 on road tolls (PIVE 4)
55,000 National/regional aid
plan: Minimum aid of
Barcelona:
50,000 €1,500 (Plan 2000 E)
Plan for Energy, National scrapping
Climate Change program: Aid of €2,000
45,000 Extremadura: and Air Quality (PIVE 3)
Maximum aid 2011-2020
40,000 of €2,300
National decree regulating Catalonia:
35,000 that cities can provide a Internet
reduction on ownership tax platform to National scrapping
30,000 for HEVs up to 75% Valencia: Maximum aid
of €2,000 (Program
raise awareness program: Aid of €2,000
National (PIVE 2)
(LIVE Platform) scrapping
CO2TXE 2008)
25,000 program:
Aid of
Andalusia:
20,000 Information about
€2,000
(PIVE 1)
National scrapping
aid program Registration tax program: Aid of
exemptions for
15,000 vehicles up to
€2,000 (PIVE 5)
Castile and León: 120 g CO2/km See details based on
Andalusia:
10,000 Maximum aid of
Maximum aid
quarterly registrations
€4,800 from Q1/2014 to Q4/2018
of €3,000
5,000 Madrid (autonomous community):
Aid of €2,000 (PIAM Plan)
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Registrations (quarterly)
22,500 Madrid (autonomous community): Madrid (city):
Aid up to €3,000 (PIVCEM Plan 2018) Preferential access to
21,000 Low Emission Zone
Madrid (autonomous Madrid (autonomous community):
19,500 community): Aid of €3,000 (PIAM Plan 2018)
Aid of €3,000
18,000 (PIVCEM Plan)
Madrid (city):
Aid up to €3,000 Madrid (city):
16,500 (TAXIFREE 2017) Information
campaign about
Low Emission Zone
15,000 Castilla-La Mancha:
National scrapping Regulatory base for Catalonia:
Aid of €1,000
13,500 program: Aid of
€1,000 or €2,000
financial aids Directive for
environmental car Castilla-La Mancha:
(PIMA Aire 4) labeling differented National Air Aid of €3,000
12,000 by four categories Quality Plan
2017-2019
Guideline for
10,500 Madrid (city):
environmental car labeling
(Air Plan II)
50% discounted
of zero-emission vehicles Madrid (city):
parking fee
9,000 Aid up to €3,000
Madrid (city): (TAXIFREE 2018)
Air Quality and Climate
7,500 National scrapping Change Plan (Plan A)
Catalonia: program: Aid of
Regulatory
6,000 base for
€1,500 (PIVE 8)
financial aids Barcelona: Preferential access
to Low Emission Zone
4,500 Madrid (city):
Aid up to €3,000
3,000 20% tax reduction on
(TAXIFREE 2016)
Barcelona: Information
National scrapping campaign about Low
National scrapping personal income tax
1,500 program: Aid of
program: Aid of
€1,500 (PIVE 7)
for privately using a Emission Zone
€2,000 (PIVE 6) HEV as company car
0
Q1/2014 Q3/2014 Q1/2015 Q3/2015 Q1/2016 Q3/2016 Q1/2017 Q3/2017 Q1/2018 Q3/2018
Q2/2014 Q4/2014 Q2/2015 Q4/2015 Q2/2016 Q4/2016 Q2/2017 Q4/2017 Q2/2018 Q4/2018
Figure 8. HEV registrations and selected national, regional, and local measures to promote HEVs.
10 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2019-12SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
in the past to raise awareness. For • The transition to HEVs in Spain is in 2018, rising by 8 percentage
example, in the beginning of 2006 the driven largely by a series of push- points compared to 2017—has
Andalusian Energy Agency launched pull regulations and incentives. incorporated a mix of measures
a campaign in dealerships, distribut- The Spanish national government such as tax benefits, financial
ing brochures to inform specifically as well as devolved regional and incentives on car purchase tar-
about the advantages of HEVs and local authorities implemented geting specific user-groups, and
the regional aid program including a range of measures—including reduced road tolls and parking
purchase incentives for HEVs (Bola- financial incentives, discounts, fees, all reducing a vehicle’s cost
ños, 2006). preferential access to LEZs, and of acquisition and ownership. In
awareness-raising campaigns—to addition, HEVs eligible for an ECO
spur the uptake of alternative fuel
Concluding Thoughts vehicles including HEVs across all
label have prioritized access to
the LEZ introduced in November
Spain is one of the strongest HEV market sectors. At the same time, 2018, while access for high emis-
markets in Europe in terms of total gasoline and diesel vehicles with sion vehicles is becoming more
sales volumes and relative European high emissions have been subject and more restricted in this area.
market shares. In the past, a variety to a gradual tightening of their
of measures have been adopted at regulatory framework with mecha- For the future, there are several
the national, regional, and local lev- nisms including higher tax levels, upcoming policies scheduled for
els to stimulate the growth of alter- or total bans from inner-city LEZs. 2019 and subsequent years. These
native fuel vehicles including HEVs. In addition, the HEV market ben- include the official implementation
Figure 8 plots a selection of key efited from the decreasing sales of of Madrid’s LEZ in the beginning of
national, regional, and local measures diesel cars in the aftermath of the 2019, and the progressive restriction
launched from 2001 to 2018 in rela- diesel scandal in 2015. of high-emission gasoline and die-
tion to HEV sales. The measures are • Over the past three years, sel cars in Barcelona and its metro-
marked by the date on which they regional and local authorities politan area. Following the previous
were coming into effect. The duration have been the main agents of trends, these measures should help
of incentive programs or preceding growth in the Spanish HEV mar- to further expand the Spanish mar-
announcements on new programs or ket. Previous national efforts ket for alternative-fuel and low-emis-
changes in policy—for example, the have focused mainly on finan- sion vehicles, including HEVs.
introduction of Madrid’s new LEZ in cial incentive programs, however
November 2018—which might have they proved to be complex and From a European and global perspec-
affected consumer’s purchase deci- inconsistent due to multiple pro- tive, Spain is an interesting case study
sions in favor of a HEV prior to the grams covering short time peri- for the uptake of HEVs. The Spanish
implementation date, are not illus- ods with gaps between transi- HEV market development shows that
trated. However, Figure 8 shows that tional periods and consecutive despite the lack of high tax advan-
particularly since the beginning of phases, as well as inadequate tages for HEVs, national and particu-
2015, sales of HEVs have increased funding to meet the resultant larly regional and local incentive pro-
steadily despite the termination of demand generated by certain grams reducing the acquisition and
the national scrapping programs. schemes. Thus, the current transi- ownership costs as well as prefencial
Accompanying regional and local tion toward HEVs is led mostly by access to restricted urban areas can
measures of the past have helped to regional and local policies. This have a strong influence on consum-
spur the HEV market in Spain, driven is supported by the continued ers’ purchase decisions in favor of a
by Madrid and Barcelona. increase in hybrid sales after the HEV. As such, Spain can provide a
end of the last national incentive best-practice example for how par-
Based on the findings in this report, program. The autonomous com- ticularly regional and local measures
the following key aspects should be munity Madrid—which made up can help to spur HEV sales also in
highlighted: for 40% of all HEV sales in Spain other markets.
WORKING PAPER 2019-12 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 11SPAIN’S BOOMING HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE MARKET: A SUMMARY OF SUPPORTING POLICY MEASURES
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