South-east Asia's forest fires: blazing the policy trail
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
South-east Asia’s forest fires: blazing the policy trail
D I N G L I Y O N G and K E L V I N S .- H . P E H
Abstract Transboundary haze pollution as a result of indis- burning across the region (Quah, ), which cause signifi-
criminate land clearance by fire has significant health and cant damage to peat swamp and lowland dipterocarp forest
economic impacts on member states of the Association of ecosystems, including those in protected areas such as
South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN). Meanwhile the impact Giam-Siak Kecil (Fardah, ), Gunung Palung (Hiller
of the associated carbon emissions, ecological disturbance et al., ) and Kutai National Park (van Nieuwstadt &
and biodiversity loss extends well beyond South-east Asia. Sheil, ), with associated biodiversity loss and carbon emis-
This is despite the fact there are relatively well-established sions (Cochrane, ; Page et al., ; Gaveau et al., ).
mechanisms to combat forest fires, and policy-level solu- Since the s forest fires and the resultant haze have
tions have existed on paper for years. Although the fires served as an annual reminder of the failures of South-east
are mostly in Indonesian territory, the involvement of mul- Asian governments and institutions in preventing trans-
tiple hierarchies of stakeholders in Indonesia, Malaysia and boundary environmental problems. Monitoring and en-
Singapore adds complexity to the quest for lasting solutions. forcement of a blanket ban on burning has proven
A more robust approach is required from the region’s gov- difficult for the authorities, given that many forest fires
ernments, especially in instilling accountability among large are started in small-scale, slash-and-burn land-clearance ac-
companies, and this is feasible without increasing political tivities (Varma, ), and thus the problem continues de-
tensions within ASEAN. Indonesia’s ratification of the spite recognition of the damage, improved surveillance
Haze Agreement is a significant development but needs to capabilities and fire-control knowledge, and a variety of pol-
be complemented with actions at the local (e.g. grassroot in- icy approaches formulated over the decades. Here we review
itiatives in forest protection, firefighting, policing of illegal the underlying causes of South-east Asia’s forest fires and
clearance practices), national (e.g. centralizing ministry- haze, and discuss policy options that could help to provide
level control of forestry resources) and regional levels (e.g. a lasting redress of the problem.
implementing compliance mechanisms and legal standards
to tackle haze and forest fires). Ultimately, actions to combat
forest fires may also help secure the long-term conservation Causes of the haze
of biodiversity-rich peat swamps. Rather than being a source
of discord, combating haze pollution could become South- Across South-east Asia land clearance using the slash-
east Asia’s defining environmental project. and-burn method is common and is a leading cause of forest
fires (Varma, ; Lohman et al., ). Much of the blame
Keywords Air pollution, biodiversity, fire, haze, peat has been placed on oil palm plantations, including compa-
swamp forest, socio-economics, South-east Asia nies registered in Singapore and Malaysia, based on evi-
dence from satellite imagery and ground investigations.
Investigations have also increasingly highlighted the role
played by mid-level independent plantation owners and
Introduction smallholders using similar methods to clear land cheaply
n mid June a state of emergency was declared (Barber & Schweithelm, ; Quah, ; Ekadinata
I when air pollution in Singapore and Peninsular
Malaysia reached hazardous levels, exceeding on the
et al., ). However, the fact that many large plantations
also host smallholders makes it difficult to identify whether
Pollution Standards Index (Hussain & Teo, ; Sim, resident smallholders or the large corporate plantations are
; National Environment Agency, ). The problem re- directly responsible for these clearance practices (Gaveau
curred, on a smaller scale, in during the dry period driven et al., ). To add further complexity to the problem the
by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (Soeriaatmadja, a). slash-and-burn technique is traditionally used by subsist-
The haze is the most visible manifestation of the forest fires ence farmers to clear land in many parts of Indonesia
(Varma, ).
Murdiyarso & Adiningsih () noted that forestry pol-
DING LI YONG Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian icy and practices endorsed by the authorities, especially the
National University, Canberra, Australia
regulation of logging concessions, were partly to blame for ex-
KELVIN S.-H. PEH (Corresponding author) Institute for Life Sciences, University acerbating forest clearance in Indonesian Borneo. Together
of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK, and Conservation Science
Group, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK. E-mail kelvin.peh@gmail.com with natural bush fires, anthropogenic fires from land clear-
Received May . Revision requested August . ance are exacerbated by seasonal drought and the El Niño
Accepted October . First published online December . phenomenon, which drives dry conditions in the region
Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 207–212 © 2014 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531400088X
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 46.4.80.155, on 14 Nov 2021 at 09:11:41, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531400088X208 D. L. Yong and K. S.-H. Peh
(Heil & Goldammer, ). In areas of peat swamp forest it Glover & Jessup, ) as well as suffering indirect, longer-
can take months to extinguish underground fires in the term effects from cancers linked to inhalation of smoke
highly combustible peat substrates (Page et al., ; (Johnston et al., ; Marlier et al., ). The haze also
Lohman et al., ), releasing significant amounts of carbon has an economic impact on the region. ‘Stay at home’ advi-
dioxide into the atmosphere (Gaveau et al., ). sories from national governments in the affected countries
lead directly to loss of productivity and shrinking economies
(Wong, ). Tourism, a major source of revenue for
Impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems Singapore and Malaysia, is among the first industries to suf-
fer; preliminary estimates indicate losses of c. USD mil-
For a region recognized as a biodiversity hotspot (Myers
lion in this sector, assuming an –% decline in arrivals
et al., ) the loss of biodiversity in lowland dipterocarp
(Singh, ). Meanwhile, transport delays, accidents and
and peat swamp forest ecosystems across Sumatra and
cancellations as a result of poor visibility disrupt the shipping
Borneo has received little attention from the media or
industry and airlines, leading to cascade effects on logistics for
from decision makers at the highest levels of government,
industries such as construction. Where areas of production
despite the evidence of forest destruction revealed by satel-
forests and timber plantations are damaged by fire (Nicolas
lite images and on-the-ground surveys. Forest fires destroy
& Beebe, ) the multi-million dollar logging industry
or damage large numbers of trees, impeding natural suc-
also suffers from losses. Although there are no rigorous esti-
cession and altering the floristic composition of surviving
mates of economic losses as a result of recent fire episodes,
vegetation in the process (e.g. Slik et al., ), and trigger-
those generated during the s indicate that Singapore
ing a positive feedback loop where fire-damaged forests are
alone may have suffered losses of up to USD million
rendered more vulnerable to future fire events (Cochrane,
from one such episode (Glover & Jessup, ).
). Smoke from forest fires may also cause a reduction
in productivity during dipterocarp masting events (Curran
et al., ). Moreover, these fires damage and fragment de-
graded forest patches as well as pristine forests, reducing the What has been done and why it has not worked
extent, quality and value of remaining habitat for surviving
There is a well-established framework to combat forest fires
wildlife. Some species may increase in abundance after fires
and it is pursued on multiple fronts to target the diverse sta-
but many suffer declines (e.g. Cleary, ), and surviving
keholders. In Indonesia, preventive measures have included
individuals are likely to perish if they are unable to find
incentives for agricultural stakeholders to clear land using
food, or fail to re-establish new territories in remnant habi-
alternative means instead of burning (Chang, ), disincen-
tats (Cochrane, ; Posa et al., ). In Sundaic
tives such as fines, and awareness programmes targeting local
South-east Asia many species affected already face threats
communities. At a bilateral level Singapore and Malaysia, in
such as habitat loss and hunting. These include a number
collaboration with Indonesia, have coordinated mitigation ef-
of ecologically important species such as the orang-utan
forts in the form of community outreach, development of a
Pongo spp. (Wich et al., ), Asian elephant Elephas max-
haze warning system, knowledge-sharing in peatland re-
imus, tiger Panthera tigris and various hornbill species
habilitation, and capacity building for fire managers and
(Bucerotidae). Furthermore, forest primary productivity
other grassroot-level personnel (Quah & Varkkey, ).
may be affected, at least in the short term, given the reduced
The Australian government has helped establish IndoFire, a
photosynthetic capacity arising from elevated levels of aero-
real-time online tool for monitoring hotspots in Indonesia
sol and atmospheric pollutants (Davies & Unam, ;
(IndoFire, ). At a regional level countries of the
Kobayashi et al., ), with consequences for ecosystem
Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) affected
functioning and processes. In the long term an altered land-
by the haze have cooperated on fire-fighting and formulating
scape configuration resulting from completely burnt-over
policies to tackle the haze. For example, ministerial-level
forests, with remaining forest patches occurring within a
steering committee meetings have reviewed the
heavily degraded landscape matrix, is likely to hinder dis-
Regional Haze Action Plan, resulting in the formulation of
persal of wildlife. Increased accessibility of isolated wildlife
the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze
populations to poachers further increases the risk of
Pollution (Nguitragool, ), a legally binding treaty ratified
extirpation.
by all South-east Asian nations, most recently Indonesia.
A lasting solution to the haze problem remains elusive,
Socioeconomic impacts however. The blanket ban on using fires to clear land in
Indonesia (Glover & Jessup, ) has limited effectiveness,
Haze pollution has affected the health of South-east Asia’s given the deep-rooted nature of clearance practices among
human population, with an estimated million people regu- local farmers and smallholders. Furthermore, bringing re-
larly placed at risk of respiratory problems (Sastry, ; calcitrant plantation owners to justice has proved
Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 207–212 © 2014 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531400088X
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 46.4.80.155, on 14 Nov 2021 at 09:11:41, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531400088XSouth-east Asia’s forest fires 209
challenging because political will and enforcement capabili- review its engagement strategy and implement appropriate
ties are lacking, and the permitting process is beset by cor- reforms, which we recommend should include the
ruption at multiple levels (Hussain, a). following:
Another problem lies in divergent policies and actions re-
sulting from the involvement of multiple ministries (Forestry,
Agriculture, Home and Environment), and provincial and Local empowerment
district governments in tackling Indonesia’s forest fires, each
Bottom-up initiatives need to be encouraged through grass-
with different agendas and resource limitations (Glover &
roots involvement to cultivate local ownership of sustain-
Jessup, ; Varkkey, ). The situation is further compli-
able development and forest protection, especially at the
cated by problems with decentralization leading to increased
village (desa) and district (kecematan) levels. For example,
control of forestry resource regulations by the central
within the affected provinces in Sumatra and Kalimantan,
government in Jakarta, resulting in district governments
local community networks could be formed to disseminate
being in conflict with the forestry ministry (Varkkey, ).
information on the location of hotspots and coordinate
Problems of perception also exist. The fact that forest fires
evacuation and fire-fighting efforts.
are largely confined to Sumatra, Borneo and remote West
Such efforts have been impeded by the lack of public ac-
Papua may create a flawed perception among Indonesian leg-
cess to complete, up-to-date concession maps, making it dif-
islators in Jakarta that these are localized natural disasters
ficult for the public to exert pressure on errant companies or
(Pereira, ) and the need for regional cooperation through
individuals. At the ASEAN sub-regional ministerial meeting
ASEAN is an irrelevant constraint.
on July a conditional agreement was made to share
National sovereignty and nationalist sentiments add
updated concession maps between governments but not
another barrier by limiting cross-border cooperation be-
with the public (Hussain, b). Crowd-sourcing by
tween Indonesia and neighbouring countries (Varkkey,
means of citizen mapping could be a potential solution to
). Despite pressure from other ASEAN governments,
the problem, with teams of amateur mappers and volunteers
earlier ratification of the Haze Agreement was blocked re-
working with simple, open-source tools such as Google Map
peatedly by powerful parties in the Indonesian parliament
Maker (Google, Mountain View, USA) to chart forest
and regional authorities, citing nationalist concerns and a
boundaries, hotspots and concessions. Although there
perceived lack of credibility (Nguitragool, ). A bilateral
may be limitations in the logistics needed to centralize
collaboration between Singapore and the provincial govern-
and integrate the data collected, such collaboratively com-
ment of Jambi (Indonesia) to support fire-fighting and miti-
piled maps could be circulated to the wider community,
gation efforts was unilaterally terminated by Indonesia in
authorities and local NGOs. By linking afflicted areas with
, largely based on nationalist considerations (Toh,
the plantation companies involved, a higher level of corpor-
). A similar project between Malaysia and the Riau
ate accountability could be expected, or at least culprits
provincial government also ended in impasse (Quah &
could be identified.
Varkkey, ).
Twelve years after the Transboundary Haze Agreement
was conceived, Indonesia ratified the agreement on National-level consensus and coordination
September , the last ASEAN member state to do so
(Soeriaatmadja, b). The ASEAN Cooperation Indonesia remains integral in providing the impetus to
Plan on Transboundary Pollution had limited effect in pre- tackle haze pollution. Despite the former Indonesian
venting forest fires; it focused on man-made fires but failed President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s unprecedented
to make explicit the sensitive domestic issues in Indonesia apology to neighbouring countries during the haze epi-
that cause the fires, particularly illegal logging and unsus- sode (Hussain, c), more needs to be done to impress
tainable land use (Nguitragool, ). The continuation of upon Indonesia’s political elite and legislators that a solution
the haze crisis is a timely reminder of ASEAN’s weakness to the problem is needed without delay. A number of posi-
in finding solutions to cross-border environmental prob- tive steps for forest conservation were pursued during
lems, given its style of regional engagement, non- President Yudhoyono’s tenure, in particular a moratorium
interference and consensus-building, emphasizing national on deforestation (Murdiyarso et al., ), a national action
sovereignty (Nguitragool, ). plan to cut greenhouse gas emissions (MNDP/NDPA, ),
and the establishment of a national REDD+ (Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation)
Charting the way ahead plan and agency (Presidential Regulation No. /).
The launch of the One Map initiative in , an on-going
Notwithstanding the challenges, a lasting redress is possible. effort to consolidate various maps into a standardized ver-
The haze crisis presents an opportunity for ASEAN to sion, will also help synchronize land concession information
Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 207–212 © 2014 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531400088X
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 46.4.80.155, on 14 Nov 2021 at 09:11:41, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531400088X210 D. L. Yong and K. S.-H. Peh
between various stakeholder ministries (Samadhi, ) and ecologically significant carbon sinks as protected areas,
will facilitate the government’s efforts to tackle forest fires. which could also improve ASEAN’s credibility
Indonesia could further take the lead by aligning environ- internationally.
mental protection with other high-priority issues such as Singapore’s attempt to adopt extraterritorial regulations
trade and foreign affairs; this would remind mid-level de- and explore possibilities for legal action against companies
cision makers that environmental problems are serious responsible for environmental pollution (Toh, ) has cul-
and need to be tackled, in contrast with the current minated in the Transboundary Haze Pollution Act
ASEAN practice of separating trade from environmental (Chua, ). Although no prosecutions have yet been
concerns. made, those responsible for haze-causing fires on their
Indonesia is still adapting to a decentralized political land may be subject to lawsuits and loss of investment
system, with provincial governments unable to respond (Feng, a). Although there are challenges involved in
as swiftly or with adequate resources to tighten enforce- sharing the information needed for prosecutions, parti-
ment or deploy fire-fighting resources. Thus, the central cularly concession maps, some progress has been made
government in Jakarta would need to exercise greater pol- in the adoption of the ASEAN Sub-Regional Haze
itical resolve to ensure that national environmental regula- Monitoring System proposed by Singapore, and more re-
tions take precedence over local rules (Ibrahim & Hussain, cently the finalization of a new memorandum of under-
). It remains to be seen how far the administration of standing between Singapore and the Jambi provincial
the new president, Joko Widodo, who was inaugurated on government (Feng, b).
October , will take these measures and implement Singapore and Malaysia need to update their in-country
tighter regulations to tackle Indonesia’s environmental cost analyses of the haze situation on a regular basis and seek
problems in general and the haze and forest fires in compensation from the companies prosecuted by the
particular. Indonesian government. Finally, richer member states
such as Singapore could invest in better forest protection
by supporting REDD+ policies in Indonesia.
Regional cooperation
The potential of a fully integrated approach by ASEAN in International outreach
tackling transboundary environmental problems cannot
be underestimated. Past failures in addressing the haze Besides action at various institutional levels, responsible
problem and the recent outrage in the affected countries consumers can influence the behaviour of palm oil compa-
could provide the impetus for future institutional reform, nies by demanding environmentally sustainable products
and ASEAN will need to review its model of soft engage- (Mahbubani, ). Some of the biggest companies in the
ment in tackling transboundary problems, and establish palm oil and paper industries have committed to zero
solidarity across member states in addressing these prob- deforestation and sustainable production (e.g. Wilmar
lems. Indonesia has made significant progress by ratifying International, ), and other companies operating in the
the Haze Agreement and implementing its plan of action region must follow suit. Individuals and international
in dealing with forest fires. ASEAN needs to ensure that NGOs can harness the global reach of social media to pub-
the agreement is legally binding, with long-term monitoring licize the burning issues underlying the haze and commit to
and compliance mechanisms in place. boycotting companies implicated, while ensuring more re-
In the interest of better ASEAN integration it is essential sponsible companies have financial incentives to adopt
to harmonize legal standards across the region and to best practices and green certification.
strengthen legal frameworks for the region. The rule of Applying these recommendations will be challenging and
law should be the foundation of a framework for executing will require the collective will of institutions in South-east
ASEAN’s environmental projects, guiding the interactions Asia. For the region as a whole, however, this is a crisis
between member states when environmental crises with an opportunity: the haze could become an impetus for
arise. Under the Rio Declaration on Environment and collaboration within ASEAN to address the challenges of bio-
Development, states are responsible for preventing activities diversity loss and environmental protection. Recent political
under their jurisdiction from causing damage to the en- movements such as the first Indonesian government audit of
vironment of other states (Koh & Ewing-Chow, ). plantation companies in August (Soeriaatmadja, c)
As a last resort, international arbitration, an established ap- and the merging of the Indonesian Forestry and Environment
proach to settle disputes among member states in the past, Ministries into one entity in October (Hussain, )
should be sought. Given that Indonesia and Malaysia hold may be cause for optimism that broader efforts to tackle forest
the largest expanses of peat swamp forests in South-east fires in the region are gaining momentum; and the ratifi-
Asia, the onus is on both countries to designate these cation of the ASEAN haze pact by Indonesia may indicate
Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 207–212 © 2014 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531400088X
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 46.4.80.155, on 14 Nov 2021 at 09:11:41, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531400088XSouth-east Asia’s forest fires 211
that regional action on tackling environmental issues is im- National Park, Indonesia. Journal of Sustainable Forestry, ,
minent. Although it is still too early to assess the efficacy of –.
H U S S A I N , Z. (a) Haze update: rampant corruption fanned forest
these measures we are confident that a growing frustration at
fires, say watchdogs. The Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.
the annual forest fires, combined with wider awareness of en- com/archive/tuesday/st/print/ [accessed June ].
vironmental and biodiversity conservation among the general H U S S A I N , Z. (b) Jakarta’s info law forbids sharing of maps. The
public, partly as a result of social media, will maintain the mo- Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/se-asia/
mentum of these actions. story/haze-update-rampant-corruption-fanned-forest-fires-
say-watchdogs- [accessed July ].
H U S S A I N , Z. (c) Indonesian leader says sorry for haze. The Straits
Times. Http://news.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne+News/Asia/Story/
References AStory-.html [accessed June ].
H U S S A I N , Z. () Indonesia to merge forestry, environment
B A R B E R , C.V. & S C H W E I T H E L M , J. () Trial by Fire: Forest Fires and ministries. The Straits Times. Http://www.asianewsnet.net/
Forestry Policy in Indonesia’s Era of Crisis and Reform. World Indonesia-to-merge-forestry-environment-ministries-.html
Resources Institute, Washington, DC, USA. [accessed October ].
C H A N G , R. () Right way of farming is long-term solution: PM Lee. H U S S A I N , Z. & T E O , C.W. () Emergency declared in Johor
Http://news.asiaone.com/News/Haze/Story/ districts. The Straits Times. Http://www.stasiareport.com/the-big-
AStory-.html [accessed September ]. story/asia-report/malaysia/story/emergency-declared--johor-
C H U A , G. () Haze law passed; fines may go up if necessary. districts- [accessed July ].
The Straits Times. Http://news.asiaone.com/news/singapore/haze- I B R A H I M , Z. & H U S S A I N , Z. () Jokowi vows to get tough with haze
law-passed-fines-may-go-if-necessary [accessed August ]. offenders. The Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.com/the-big-
C L E A R Y , D.F. () An examination of scale of assessment, logging story/joko-widodo/story/jokowi-vows-get-tough-haze-offenders-
and ENSO-induced fires on butterfly diversity in Borneo. Oecologia, [accessed August ].
, –. I N D O F I R E () IndoFire Map Service. Http://indofire.landgate.wa.
C O C H R A N E , M.A. () Spreading Like Wildfire—Tropical Forest gov.au [accessed September ].
Fires in Latin America and the Caribbean: Prevention, Assessment J O H N S T O N , F.H., H E N D E R S O N , S.B., C H E N , Y., R A N D E R S O N , J.T.,
and Early Warning. United Nations Environment Programme, M A R L I E R , M., D E F R I E S , R.S. et al. () Estimated global mortality
Mexico City, Mexico. attributable to smoke from landscape fires. Environmental Health
C U R R A N , L.M., C A N I A G O , I., P AO L I , G.D., A S T I A N T I , D., K U S N E T I , Perspectives, , –.
M., L E I G H T O N , M. et al. () Impact of El Niño and logging on K O B A YA S H I , H., M AT S U N A G A , T. & H O YA N O , A. () Net primary
canopy tree recruitment in Borneo. Science, , –. production in Southeast Asia following a large reduction in
D AV I E S , S.J. & U N A M , L. () Smoke-haze from the Indonesian photosynthetically active radiation owing to smoke. Geophysical
forest fires: effects on pollution levels, local climate, atmospheric Research Letters, , L.
CO concentrations, and tree photosynthesis. Forest Ecology and K O H , T. & E W I N G -C H O W , M. () Insight: the transboundary
Management, , –. haze and the international law. The Jakarta Post. Http://www.
E K A D I N AT A , S., VA N N O O R D W I J K , M., B U D I D A R S O N O , S. & D E W I , S. thejakartapost.com/news////insight-the-transboundary-
() Hot Spots in Riau, Haze in Singapore: The June Event haze-and-international-law.html [accessed July ].
Analysed. ASB Policybrief No. . ASB Partnership for the Tropical L O H M A N , D.J., B I C K F O R D , D. & S O D H I , N.S. () The burning issue.
Forest Margins, Nairobi, Kenya. Science, , .
F A R D A H () Racing against time to save Riau`s biosphere reserve M A H B U B A N I , K. () To do good, be shrewd. The Straits Times. Http://
from fires. Antara News. Http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/ www.straitstimes.com/st/print/ [accessed July ].
/racing-against-time-to-save-riaus-biosphere-reserve-from- M A R L I E R , M.E., D E F R I E S , R.S., V O U L G A R A K I S , A., K I N N E Y , P.L.,
fires [accessed May ]. R A N D E R S E N , J.T., S H I N D E L L , D.T. et al. () El Niño and health
F E N G , Z. (a) Transboundary haze bill ‘not shrouded in secrecy’. risks from landscape fire emissions in southeast Asia. Nature
The Straits Times. Http://news.asiaone.com/news/singapore/ Climate Change, , –.
transboundary-haze-bill-not-shrouded-secrecy [accessed May MNDP/NDPA (MINISTRY OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING/
]. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AGENCY) () Guideline for
F E N G , Z. (b) Singapore frustrated at slow pace in tackling haze. Implementing Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Action Plan.
The Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.com/st/print/ Http://www.paklim.org/wp-content/uploads/downloads///
[accessed April ]. Guideline-for-the-implementation-of-GHG-emission-reduction-
G AV E A U , D.L.A., S A L I M , M.A., H E R G O U A L C ’ H , K., L O C A T E L L I , B., action-plan.pdf [accessed September ].
S LO A N , S., W O O S T E R , M. et al. () Major atmospheric emissions M U R D I YA R S O , D. & A D I N I N G S I H , E.S. () Climate anomalies,
from peat fires in Southeast Asia during non-drought years: Indonesian vegetation fires and terrestrial carbon emissions.
evidence from the Sumatran fires. Scientific Reports, , . Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, , –.
G LO V E R , D. & J E S S U P , T. (eds) () Indonesia’s Fires and Haze: The M U R D I YA R S O , D., D E W I , S., L AW R E N C E , D. & S E Y M O U R , F. ()
Cost of Catastrophe. International Development Research Centre, Indonesia’s Forest Moratorium: A Stepping Stone to Better Forest
Ottawa, Canada. Governance? Working Paper . CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
H E I L , A. & G O L D A M M E R , J.G. () Smoke-haze pollution: a review M Y E R S , N., M I T T E R M E I E R , R.A., M I T T E R M E I E R , C.G., D A F O N S E C A ,
of the episode in Southeast Asia. Regional Environmental G.A.B. & K E N T , J. () Biodiversity hotspots for conservation
Change, , –. priorities. Nature, , –.
H I L L E R , M.A., J A R V I S , B.C., L I S A , H., P A U L S O N , L.J., P O L L A R D , E.H.B. N AT I O N A L E N V I R O N M E N T A G E N C Y () PSI. Http://app.nea.gov.
& S TA N L E Y , S.A. () Recent trends in illegal logging and a brief sg/anti-pollution-radiation-protection/air-pollution-control/psi
discussion of their causes: a case study from Gunung Palung [accessed September ].
Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 207–212 © 2014 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531400088X
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 46.4.80.155, on 14 Nov 2021 at 09:11:41, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531400088X212 D. L. Yong and K. S.-H. Peh
N G U I T R A G O O L , P. () Negotiating the haze treaty. Asian Survey, , S O E R I A AT M A D J A , W. (b) Singapore welcomes Jakarta’s move to
–. ratify haze pact. The Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.com/
N I C O L A S , M.V.J. & B E E B E , G.S. () Fire Management in the Logging the-big-story/asia-report/indonesia/story/singapore-welcomes-
Concessions and Plantation Forests of Indonesia. European Union, jakartas-move-ratify-haze-pact- [accessed September
German Agency for Technical Cooperation and Ministry of Forestry ].
and Estate Crops, Indonesia. S O E R I A AT M A D J A , W. (c) Indonesia warns plantation firms
P A G E , S.E., S I E G E R T , F., R I E L E Y , J.O., B O E H M , H.-D.V., J AY A , A. & for playing with fire. The Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.
L I M I N , S. () The amount of carbon released from peat and com/the-big-story/asia-report/indonesia/story/indonesia-warns--
forest fires in Indonesia during . Nature, , –. plantation-firms-playing-fire- [accessed October ].
P E R E I R A , D. () Indonesia’s mindset on haze casts pall on ties. The T O H , E. () Singapore looking into laws to deal with firms behind
Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.com/the-big-story/the-haze- haze. The Straits Times. Http://news.asiaone.com/News/Haze/
singapore/story/indonesias-mindset-haze-casts-pall-ties- Story/AStory-.html [accessed July ].
[accessed July ]. VA N N I E U W S T A D T , M.G. & S H E I L , D. () Drought, fire and tree
P O S A , M.R., W I J E D A S A , L.S. & C O R L E T T , R.T. () Biodiversity and survival in a Borneo rain forest, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal
conservation of tropical peat swamp forests. BioScience, , –. of Ecology, , –.
Q U A H , E. () Transboundary pollution in Southeast Asia: the V A R K K E Y , H.M. () Indonesian perspectives on managing the
Indonesian fires. World Development, , –. ASEAN haze. Sarjana, , –.
Q U A H , E. & V A R K K E Y , H. () The political economy of V A R M A , A. () The economics of slash and burn: a case study of the
transboundary pollution: mitigation of forest fires and haze in – Indonesian forest fires. Ecological Economics, , –.
Southeast Asia. In The Asian Community: Its Concepts and Prospects W I C H , S.A., M E I J A A R D , E., M A R S H A L L , A.J., H U S S O N , S., A N C R E N A Z ,
(ed. S. Hayashihana), pp. –. Soso Sha, Tokyo, Japan. M., L AC Y , R.C. et al. () Distribution and conservation status of
S A M A D H I , N. () Indonesia ONE MAP: Assuring Better Delivery of the orang-utan (Pongo spp.) on Borneo and Sumatra: how many
National Development Goals. Http://www.geospatialworldforum. remain? Oryx, , –.
org//presentation/Nirata%Samdhi.pdf [accessed W I L M A R I N T E R N AT I O N A L () No Deforestation, No Peat, No
September ]. Exploitation Policy. Http://www.wilmar-international.com/wp-
S A S T R Y , N. () Forest fires, air pollution and mortality in content/uploads///No-Deforestation-No-Peat-No-Exploitation-
South-east Asia. Demography, , –. Policy.pdf [accessed May ].
S I M , W. () PSI hits as fires in Sumatra bring haze. The W O N G , S.Y. () Haze may impact economic growth if condition
Straits Times. Http://www.straitstimes.com/the-big-story/the-haze- does not improve: economists. Channel News Asia. Http://www.
singapore/story/psi-hits--fires-sumatra-bring-haze-? channelnewsasia.com/news/specialreports/mh/news/haze-may-
page= [accessed July ]. impact-economic/.html [accessed June ].
S I N G H , P.P. () Businesses hit as Singapore haze moves in. BBC
News. Http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business- [accessed
July ].
S L I K , J.F., V E R B U R G , R.W. & K E ß L E R , P.J. () Effects of fire and
selective logging on the tree species composition of lowland Biographical sketches
dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversity and
Conservation, , –. DI N G LI YO N G is investigating how biodiversity surrogates can be used
S O E R I A AT M A D J A , W. (a) Jakarta takes steps to curb forest fires. to improve conservation outcomes. He is also interested in tropical
The Straits Times. Http://www.stasiareport.com/the-big-story/asia- bird communities, bird migration, and conservation in South-east
report/indonesia/story/jakarta-takes-steps-curb-forest-fires- Asia. KE L V I N PE H ’s research interests lie in tropical forest ecology,
[accessed June ]. ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation.
Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 207–212 © 2014 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531400088X
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 46.4.80.155, on 14 Nov 2021 at 09:11:41, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531400088XYou can also read
