Seeing the Voice of the Customer: Metaphor-Based Advertising Research
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M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
Seeing the Voice of the Customer:
Metaphor-Based Advertising Research
Gerald Zaltman
Robin Higie Coulter
Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH, Vol. 35, No. 4, July/August 1995
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 33M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
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34 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
Seeing the voice
GERALD ZALTMAN of the customer: met-
AND aphor-based
ROBIN HIGIE COULTER advertising research
Although improvements in traditional quantitative and qualitative
research techniques have enhanced our ability to collect timely,
valid, and reliable data, and to analyze these data with greater in-
sights, advertising practitioners continue to search for and experi-
ment with alternative methodologies. We offer seven basic prem-
ises for improving advertising research and copy development
and then introduce the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique,
ZMET. ZMET is designed to surface the mental models that drive
consumer thinking and behavior and characterize these models
in actionable ways using consumers, metaphors. We suggest that
GERALD ZALTMAN
Joseph C. Wilson ZMET is a promising means for improving advertising research.
Professor of Business
Administration
I
Harvard University
mprovements in traditional tion and further engaging their
quantitative and qualitative thought processes.
techniques have enhanced our 4. Help codify and organize non-
ability to collect timely, valid, verbal data better.
and reliable consumer data and 5. Facilitate the presentation of
to analyze these data with greater findings by researchers in ways
insight. Many of these improve- that more closely resemble the
ments are rooted in advances in end products their clients must
the electronic capture of informa- develop, e.g., visual advertis-
tion, in new statistical procedures, ing.
and in greater computational
capacity. However, despite these These needed improvements
advances, significant challenges are nowhere more evident than
persist in understanding consum- with the development of effective
ers, thoughts, feelings, and behav- advertising copy. This important
iors. In particular, market research task requires copy developers and
methods need to improve in ways the intended audience for advertis-
ROBIN HIGIE COULTER that: ing copy to share the same under-
Associate Professor
standing about the ad message.
1. Provide deeper understanding For an audience to process and
of Marketing
University of Connecticut
about consumers as a basis for understand a message and then
advertising and other market- contemplate purchase, the message
ing-mix decisions. must capture rational and emo-
2. Do a better job of eliciting tional meanings which comingle at
latent and emerging needs. multiple levels of thought (Dama-
3. Provide better guidance for sio, 1994). The message must also
capturing consumers, atten- resonate not only with surface
knowledge but also with deeper
The authors wish to acknowledge the meanings associated with the topic
significant support provided by the of interest. Thus, developing effec-
Division of Research of the Harvard tive copy requires research meth-
Business School. ods that open windows into the
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 35M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
consumer’s mind and that access difficult for advertisers to capture the cognitive peripheral vision of
relevant rational and emotional is- consumers, attention and infor- both researchers and their clients.
sues and their interplay. Although mation-processing time. Getting Traditional qualitative tech-
many quantitative and qualitative consumers, attention increasingly niques still pose problems when
methods are useful in understand- requires managers and advertis- codifying and quantifying how
ing how to communicate with ers to have deeper understanding consumers think about a firm’s
existing and potential customers, about consumers so that they have offerings and how marketing
advertising practitioners continue a richer foundation for building communications affect consumer
to search for and experiment with creative communication strate- responses. A manifestation of this
alternative methodologies. gies and executions. Deep insights problem occurs in communica-
Our purpose is to introduce the are also a source of competitive tions between researchers and their
Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation advantage (beyond their value in clients such as advertising creative
Technique, ZMET, a patented stimulating creativity) because staffs and product designers. The
research tool designed to (1) sur- they are usually less commonly language of traditional research is
face the mental models that drive available to one’s competitors. almost exclusively verbal (in-
consumer thinking and behavior, cluding quantitative symbols).
and (2) characterize these models Creative staffs, on the other hand,
in actionable ways using consum- must generally communicate with
ers, metaphors. ZMET uses con- . . . important opportunities consumers using nonverbal and
sumers, visual and other sensory especially visual cues. Thus there
to learn from consumers are
images and employs qualitative is often a mismatch between the
methods to elicit the metaphors, missed by ignoring verbocentric data collection and
constructs, and mental models that nonverbal channels of reporting language researchers
drive consumers, thinking and commonly use and the nonverbal,
communication as part of
behavior. Quantitative analyses of multisensory languages advertisers
the data provide information for the research process. and others must use to communi-
advertising, promotions, and other cate effectively with consumers.
marketing-mix decisions. Before Hence, there is a need for a
we proceed with a fuller descrip- method that elicits consumer in-
While technological advances
tion of ZMET, we briefly discuss formation via multisensory chan-
have made traditional research
several challenges facing advertis- nels. This method would have the
techniques more useful, consum-
ing researchers and then provide advantage of increasing research-
ers, voices are still constrained, for
seven basic premises for improv- ers, understanding of consumers,
example, by the issues and ques-
ing advertising research. thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
tions framed by survey designers
as related to their products and
and focus-group moderators and
Challenges Facing services. Additionally, researchers
by the manner in which consum-
Advertising Researchers would be able to better commu-
ers are allowed to respond. Addi-
nicate with their clients who, in
tionally, the framework in survey
Consumers, lives are becoming turn, could produce more creative
research and in most qualitative
more complex. Their needs and advertising and promotional ma-
techniques is verbo-centric, i.e., it
states of mind are changing more terials to tap consumers, mental
is primarily, if not exclusively, ori-
frequently, they are faced with models.
ented around words, particularly
more and more options concerning
in their narrow, literal sense. This
products and services and delivery Seven Basic Premises
imposes another important con-
systems, and nonpurchase-related for Improving
straint--incomplete communication
demands are vying for their atten- Advertising Research
from consumers--since most hu-
tion. Thus, many consumers are and Copy Development
man communication is nonverbal.
experiencing a time famine as they
Thus, important opportunities to
attempt to deal with their needs, Before presenting ZMET as a
learn from consumers are missed
sort out their purchase options, and response to these challenges it is
by ignoring nonverbal channels of
attend to multiple responsibilities. useful to review several premises
communication as part of the re-
One consequence of this time with strong support in the social
search process. Heavy reliance on
famine is that it is increasingly and biological sciences and in the
verbo-centric techniques narrows
36 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
humanities. These interrelated in the context of human evolution sound images, olfactory images,
premises are underutilized bases and written language developed and so on.
for improving our capacity to even more recently. Thus, the hu-
understand the voice of the con- man brain did not evolve to favor The second insight comes from
sumer. Research methods rooted verbal functions, especially not Steven Pinker (1994), director of
in these premises are more likely written communication functions. the Center for Cognitive Neurosci-
to elicit valid and usable market Rather, emphasis was placed on ence at MIT. He notes that con-
information, especially for com- the elaborate production of non- trary to popular wisdom, thoughts
munication purposes. verbal channels of communication. are merely couched in words when
Most Communication Is (For an interesting perspective on it becomes necessary to convey
Nonverbal. The first premise is this see Fincher, 1976; Glucks- them to others:
that most human communication berg, 1988; and Synnott, 1991.)
is nonverbal (Burgoon et al., 1989; This is not surprising since most Is thought dependent on words?
Knapp, 1980; Seiter, 1988; Weiser, stimuli reaching the brain are . . . The idea that thought is the
1988; Mehrabian, 1971; Bird- nonverbal and most mental images same thing as language is an
whistell, 1970). One of the classic people use in daily life are visual example of what can be called a
works on nonverbal communica- (Kosslyn et al., 1990). conventional absurdity . . . there
tion is Edward T. Hall’s The Silent It is important to add that non- is no scientific evidence that lan-
Language which identifies 10 verbal communication includes guages dramatically shape their
primary message systems involved paralanguage, or the tone, pitch, speakers, way of thinking.
in human communication. Only and other speech qualities that de-
one system--interaction--and then termine whether we literally mean Thus a second premise is that
only part of that system involves what we say (generally not) or just thoughts are images, and only
verbal language. All other systems the opposite or even something infrequently verbal images. Con-
involve nonlinguistic forms of else (Gibbs, 1994). Paralanguage sequently, it is important to en-
communication (Hall, 1959). can in fact be very subtle with ma- able consumers to represent their
Although no formal research jor differences in meaning being images in nonverbal terms, thus
provides direct documentation, the conveyed quite effectively by dif- bringing researchers “closer” to
rule of thumb among communica- ferent subtleties (Poyatos, 1993). the state in which thoughts occur
tions specialists is that about 80 Literal verbal language is certainly and thus able to learn more about
percent of all human communica- important and the task facing them. Although verbal language
tion is nonverbal. Much of the market researchers is how to deal is an indispensable part of this
meaning of verbal language also with both verbal and nonverbal process, it is linked directly with
is determined by nonverbal cues language more effectively. specific nonverbal images. The
(Poyatos, 1993). Moreover, when Thoughts Occur as Images. combination of verbal language
there is an apparent contradiction, Thoughts typically occur as non- and nonverbal images (in contrast
nonverbal cues tend to be believed verbal images even though they to verbal language only or even
over verbal ones (Knapp, 1980). are often expressed verbally. Thus primarily) helps consumers convey
The growing understanding the way in which thoughts occur to researchers deeper and more
of the role of all basic senses in may be very different from the varied internal representations or
learning and communication pro- way in which they are communi- meanings.
cesses reinforces the assumption cated. Consider the following two Metaphors as Essential
that nonverbal communication is insights. The first is provided by Units of Thought. The third
dominant (Montagu, 1986; Stoller, neurobiologist Antonio R. Dama- premise is that metaphors are the
1989; Howes, 1991). An important sio (1994): key windows/mechanisms for
part of this understanding is the viewing consumer thought and
growing knowledge of the role [Brains] still have no mind, if feelings and for understanding
of interactions (called synesthe- they do not meet an essential behavior. “The essence of a meta-
sia) among sensory modalities in condition: the ability to dis- phor,” according to Lakoff and
our “making sense” of our world play images internally and to Johnson, “is understanding and
(Marks, 1978; Classen, 1993). It order those images in a process experiencing one kind of thing in
is also of significance that verbal called thought. The images are terms of another” (1980). For the
language developed only recently not solely visual; there are also most part, it is only through their
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 37M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H metaphors that we can understand mental models which are the inter- consumer thinking and behavior related ideas (concepts or con- and thus learn how to develop Often, important stories structs) held by an individual or and market goods and services are latent or hidden and group about a market experience. successfully. Even behavior and surfacing them is a special Often, important stories are latent thoughts are themselves metaphors or hidden and surfacing them is a for one another. In fact, there is challenge for researchers. special challenge for researchers. an emerging consensus that meta- A mental model of consumer phors are the essential units of thinking contains the dominant thought and of communication constructs (factors, variables) (Ortony, 1993). that drive consumer thought and Metaphors are not only ways of viduals can communicate their vi- action. However, knowing only hiding and expressing thoughts, sual metaphors is via pictures, for the constructs is like knowing they actively create and shape example, photographs, pictures in what cities one would like to visit thought. We cannot know anything magazines, drawings, or artwork. without having an itinerary and unless it is perceived as an in- Pictures typically represent basic road map for going from one to stance of one thing and not another concepts and therefore are useful the other. The connections among (Lakoff, 1987). Thought is more tools for understanding consumers, constructs represent the reasoning inherently figurative than it is liter- thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. processes whereby one construct al (Gibbs, 1994). Consequently, by Pictures, then, can serve as entry affects another. These reasoning paying more attention to the visual points for exploring other consum- processes are the most funda- and other sensory metaphors cus- er concepts and represent a natural mental and important units we tomers use to express their images, and efficient way for consumers can have for segmenting markets. researchers can learn more about to convey higher order constructs Moreover, knowing how con- their thoughts and feelings. (Weiser, 1988; Ball and Smith, structs interact via various reason- Sensory Images as Meta- 1992). Some clinical psycholo- ing mechanisms allows us to know phors. A fourth premise is that gists use a client’s photographs as which constructs might be the best our senses provide important a central part of the therapeutic vehicles for influencing others and metaphors. The senses are “. . . the counseling process (Entin, 1981; which constructs might be affected gates and windows to the mind, Krauss and Fryrear, 1983; Weiser, unintentionally by efforts to influ- through which all new informa- 1988), and art therapy has a long ence other constructs. tion passes; so that there can be no tradition as a clinical tool. Thus, as A challenge for managers is to thoughts, ideas, conceptions in our researchers, it appears that access- animate to bring to life appropriate head that do not derive originally ing visual as well as other sensory stories or mental models among from our experience of surface (e.g., tactile, auditory) images consumers. Since stories are meta- stimuli impinging on our bodies” would provide useful insights into phors for knowledge and often (Humphrey, 1992). Accordingly, consumers, thoughts, feelings, and describe one’s reasoning process, sensory-based metaphors are po- behaviors. specific metaphors are important tentially important devices for un- Mental Models as Repre- sources of insight about consum- derstanding consumers, thoughts sentations of Stories. A fifth ers. Specific metaphors are also and behavior. Current thinking premise is that consumers have laden with symbols and imagery in several fields that cognition is mental models which represent that might be used creatively grounded in embodied experience their knowledge and behavior. An in implementing decisions that supports the salience of sensory integral part of this premise is that will animate or bring appropriate images as metaphors (Johnson, “. . . the major processes of memo- reasoning processes and mental 1987; Gibbs, 1994; Damasio, ry are the creation, storage, and re- models to life. It is important, 1994; McAdams and Bigand, trieval of stories” (Schank, 1990). therefore, to have a research tool 1993; Varela et al., 1991). Stories, of course, are metaphors that identifies or elicits the im- Many metaphors are mental for knowledge. They provide the agery consumers use to tell their images and, as discussed, the relationships between constructs stories. majority of these images are visual and as such can be captured by Deep Structures of Thought (Arnheim, 1969; Kosslyn et al., researchers and displayed as dia- Can Be Accessed. All con- 1990). One means by which indi- grams. These diagrams represent sumers have relevant conscious 38 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995
M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
thoughts that they need special of sensation: “. . . thinking takes in thinking. There is also a top-
help in articulating. Addition- place in the realm of the senses” down processing of information.
ally, all consumers have relevant (Arnheim, 1969). An uncon- In this case, existing concepts
hidden thoughts: ideas they are scious cognitive process maps the and abstract thought stored in
not aware of possessing but are physiology of sensory perception memory influence our images and
willing to share once discovered. onto abstract thinking. Abstract metaphors (image schema) which,
A sixth premise is that these thought, then, is necessarily an in turn, influence what sensory
hidden or deep structures can be extension of sensory experience. stimuli we perceive and how we
accessed. A variety of techniques Figure 1 presents, in a neces- do so. Thus higher level percep-
such as those used in art therapy, sarily approximate “as if” way, tions influence the interpretation
and especially phototherapy, can the connection between sensory of lower level, sensory perceptions
be very effective in surfacing such perception and concepts. Sensory (Goldman, 1986).
thoughts (Weiser, 1993; Ziller, perceptions are transformed into Because metaphors reveal our
1990). images which, in turn, are translat- thoughts, and shape them as well
ed into metaphors which describe (Black, 1993), metaphorizing may
What a person notices [in a these images. The metaphors are even be the central or most ele-
picture! will always mirror then mapped onto abstract thought mental creative force of the imagi-
the inner map that she or he is and/or specific concepts. This is nation and hence can be a source
unconsciously using to organize a process known as bottom-up of ideas. Since human thought
and understand what the senses processing in which information appears to be metaphorbased
are perceiving (Weiser, 1993). flows from small perceptual pieces (Danesi, 1990; Ortony, 1993), it is
to larger ones (Goldman, 1986). not surprising that mental models
The Comingling of Reason Abstract thoughts are stored in are best elicited and understood
and Emotion. A seventh prem- memory and are connected to through metaphors, especially
ise is that it is both more accurate specific concepts as we engage visual metaphors. Importantly,
(from a neurological standpoint)
and more productive (from a copy
development standpoint) to con-
sider emotion and reason as forces Figure 1
which comingle. Hence as deep Mapping of Sensory Perceptions onto Abstract Thought
thought structures are surfaced, we
must consider reason and emotion
together rather than stressing one
over the other. Consequently we
need techniques that elicit both,
particularly when they are linked
to one another (de Sousa, 1987;
Varela et al., 1991).
Framework for
Understanding Sensory
Perception and Thinking
These premises and still other
research suggest that abstract
thought is grounded in the senses
(Arnheim, 1969; Danesi, 1990;
Classen, 1993; Humphrey, 1992).
In fact, the world of thought is
modeled in terms of the world
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 39M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
products, and companies, brand The personal interview involves
equity, product concepts and de- a guided conversation which we
. . . metaphors are especially signs, product usage and purchase believe can yield more valid, more
important for eliciting a experiences, life experiences, reliable, and, importantly, more
consumption context, and attitudes relevant insights than traditional
mental model shared by a toward business. Clearly, these is- structured interview approaches
market segment or group. sues are important for the develop- (Holstein and Gubrium, 1995;
ment of strategic communications McCracken, 1988; Mishler, 1986).
agendas and for the development Because ZMET has consumers
and implementation of advertising collect their own pictures, the con-
metaphors are acquired through copy and executional elements. sumers (not the researchers) are in
a socialization process so that, In the following sections we control of the stimuli used in the
at some level, their meaning is describe ZMET, use an interview guided conversation.
shared within a culture or commu- from a study on intimate apparel The guided conversation is a
nity. Thus, metaphors are especial- to illustrate various ZMET steps, personal, one-on-one interview
ly important for eliciting a mental and then use data generated in that takes approximately two
model shared by a market segment the study to demonstrate how the hours, and it is audiotaped. The
or group. findings might be used to develop two-hour time frame and the
Based upon these premises and ad copy and executional elements. interview format afford an op-
framework, we suggest that there Further, we provide a discussion portunity for a properly trained
is need for a research tool that: of reliability and validity issues as interviewer to learn not only about
they relate to ZMET. people’s initial thoughts (much as
Taps nonverbal channels of Implementing the Tech- might be obtained by a structured
communication in a manner that nique. Typically 20 individu- questionnaire or focus group) but
produces rich, deep, and repre- als are recruited to participate also about the deeper meaning
sentative insights about consum- in a project. After qualifying for of a topic. The guided conversa-
ers. participation (based on screeners), tion includes a variety of steps,
Makes use of metaphors which participants are given a set of in- only a subset of which are used
are fundamental to learning and structions and guidelines about the in any particular project. Inclu-
communication. research topic, e.g., a brand name, sion of steps in any particular
Generates core constructs and a corporate identity, a service project and the manner in which
the reasonings that connect concept, product use, or product they are implemented are based on
them to form the mental models design. They are instructed to the nature of the problem and the
driving consumer thought and take photographs and/or collect intended use of the data. We use an
action. pictures (from magazines, books, interview with Elizabeth, a par-
Provides information in a way newspapers, or other sources) that ticipant in a study about intimate
which is highly useful to copy indicate what the topic means apparel, to illustrate 10 ZMET
developers, creative staffs, prod- to them. A personal interview is steps. A variety of probes based
uct-design teams, strategic plan- scheduled approximately seven to on art therapy theory and practice,
ning groups, and other ultimate ten days hence. Participants typi- although not used in this example,
users of market research. cally engage in five to six hours of also have proven to be extremely
preparation for the interview. Our useful in many projects.
All of this, of course, has to be experiences indicate that study Step 1, Storytelling, provides
done while meeting appropriate participants, regardless of such participants with an opportunity
standards of validity, reliability, demographic characteristics as to tell their stories. Because hu-
timeliness, and cost effectiveness. formal education, age, or occu- man memory and communication
pational experience, successfully is story-based (Schank, 1990)
engage in each step of the process and participants have been think-
The Zaltman Metaphor even those (e.g., sensory images ing about the topic for a week to
Elicitation Technique and the summary image) that a 10 days, it is not surprising that
priori may seem difficult because participants come to the inter-
ZMET is useful in understand- the tasks are unfamiliar. view with a particular agenda or
ing consumers, images of brands, The Guided Conversation. story they want to tell. Elizabeth
40 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
brought in 13 images and de- 1988; Valette-Florence and Rapac-
scribed how each of her pictures chi, 1991). The Kelly Repertory
related to this type of intimate Grid Technique is an effective To understand what
apparel. For example, one of method of eliciting constructs something is, it is also
Elizabeth’s photographs was of which underlie thinking and ac-
a microwave oven with a tele- tion. The interviewer uses the necessary to know
phone (its cord very twisted) on Kelly Grid technique (identifying what it is not.
it. Elizabeth said that this picture how any two of three stimuli are
served to illustrate the twisted, hot, similar but different from the third
uncomfortable feeling of wearing stimulus) to elicit constructs from
this particular article of intimate participants. In other words, the used to obtain an understanding of
apparel. Kelly Grid technique surfaces the the deeper meanings of physical
In Step 2, Missed Issues and variables that participants use to discomfort and beauty as related
Images, the interviewer asks the make sense about, or literally “sort to Elizabeth’s wearing of this
participant to describe any issues out,” the meaning of a product garment. Elizabeth reported that
for which she or he was unable category, a specific brand, or other some components of the garment
to find a picture and to describe a consumption-related situation. made her physically uncomfort-
picture that would represent the The laddering procedure is es- able which in turn made her feel
issue. This is an important step pecially useful for eliciting causal imprisoned. In addition, she noted
because it allows the participant patterns among the constructs that the vase represented tallness
to address issues that might have identified by the Kelly Grid tech- and thinness and that the flowers
come to mind either after gather- nique. Laddering, a set of thought represented beauty; both of these
ing the pictures or during the inter- probes, tends to surface variables factors related to the elegance that
view process. Elizabeth indicated in a means-end chain consisting she could feel when wearing this
that she would have liked to take of attributes, consequences, and garment.
a photograph of a “nice painting values, thereby providing a set In Step 5, Most Representative
with a scratch on it, or a glass with of causally connected constructs. Image, Elizabeth indicated that
a crack” to represent a tear in the Using both techniques together the picture that most represented
article of intimate apparel. is an effective mechanism for her feelings was her picture of two
In Step 3, Sorting Task, the par- getting consumers to articulate African masks that had necklaces
ticipant is asked to sort his or her the constructs and the relation- around their elongated necks,
pictures into meaningful piles and ships among constructs (Reynolds shown in Exhibit 2. She reported
to provide a label or description and Gutman, 1988). Moreover, that the masks expressed both the
for each pile. There are no restric- the techniques complement one positive (elegance) and negative
tions on the number of piles or the another: the Kelly Grid increases (constrained) feelings that she had
number of pictures in each pile. the likelihood of surfacing rel- about wearing this article of cloth-
The sorting task is useful because evant constructs, and the laddering ing.
it helps to establish the major technique increases the likelihood In Step 6, Opposite Image, the
themes or constructs relevant to that associated ideas and relevant interviewer asks the participant
the participant. Elizabeth sorted connections among constructs are about pictures that might describe
her images into five groups reflect- being understood. the opposite of the task they were
ing both positive and negative To illustrate we provide one given. To understand what some-
feelings: (1) elegant, (2) conform- of Elizabeth’s triads. During the thing is, it is also necessary to
ing, (3) constricted, (4) tortured, Kelly Grid, Elizabeth randomly know what it is not. Indeed, there
and (5) twisted up. selected three pictures, shown in is convincing argument that any
Step 4, Construct Elicitation, Exhibit 1. She indicated that the concept or construct contains the
employs a modified version of two pictures on the left (trees with footprint or trace of its opposite
the Kelly Repertory Grid tech- bands around the trunks and fenc- meaning (Brunette and Wills,
nique and the laddering technique ing tightly wrapped in cellophane) 1989). When the interviewer asked
(Kelly, 1963; Shaw and McKnight, represented physical discomfort Elizabeth what images conveyed
1980; Gutman, 1982; Lewis and and the other picture (flowers in the opposite of her image of inti-
Klein, 1985; Reynolds and Whit- a nice vase) represented beauty. mate apparel, she responded with
lark, 1995; Reynolds and Gutman, The laddering process then was a flock of birds soaring around the
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 41M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
wants to include in the summary
Exhibit 1 image and then on the participant’s
“Intimate Aparel” Triad for Elizabeth direction creates the digital image.
The digital image management
(The Kelly Repertory Grid Technique
process contains many special
effects options and enables the
participant to rearrange or alter the
subject, foreground, background,
or specific elements including col-
or, object sizes, shapes, positions,
and even textures appearing within
pictures to be more expressive
of the concept. The use of digital
imaging is intended to stimulate
or at least help to express thinking
rather than to develop an aestheti-
cally pleasing image or an image
skies (representing freedom to do intimate apparel included: the taste
that is creative for its own sake.
as they pleased). of medicine, but not dessert; the
In Step 7, Sensory Images, the feel of sandpaper and silk, but not Elizabeth’s digital image, Ex-
participant is asked to use other of cream; the sound of static, but hibit 3, consisted of components
senses to convey what does and not that of a waterfall; the smell of of five of her pictures and visually
does not represent the concept sulfur, but not of roses; the color depicted her story about intimate
being explored. People think brown, but not red; the feeling of apparel, which she described as
by means of all their senses, anxiety, but not of peacefulness. follows:
and sensory thoughts are im- The meaning of each image is
ages (MacDougall, 1992; Howes, explored with each participant to The background is a flowing
1991; Bone and Jantrania, 1992; surface relevant constructs.
chocolate colored dress that
Danesi, 1990; Classen, 1993); In Step 8, The Mental Map,
thus, we believe that such im- the interviewer reviews all of the illustrates freer movement,
ages are important to capture and constructs discussed and asks the smooth, silky, and beautiful.
analyze. Each individual tells what participant if the constructs are ac- The gash through the dress
is and is not the taste, touch, smell, curate representations of what was represents a run or a tear and
color, sound and emotional feel- meant and if any important ideas the frustration, wasted money,
ing related to the concept being are missing. Then the participant embarrassment, and appre-
explored. Elizabeth’s nonvisual creates a map to illustrate the con- hension associated with that.
sensory images of this article of nections among important con- The cookie cutter in the center
structs as they relate to the topic.
illustrates conformity wear-
An abridged (for presentation
purposes) version of Elizabeth’s ing what everyone has to wear,
Exhibit 2
mental map is illustrated in Figure no freedom of choice, women
Elizabeth’s Most having to be a certain way. The
2.
Representative Image mask in the cookie cutter’s head
In Step 9, The Summary Image,
(African Masks) the participant creates a summary illustrates two diverse feelings
image or montage using his or her when wearing the article of inti-
own images (sometimes augment- mate apparel-first, the elongated
ed by images from an image bank) neck indicates a sense of feeling
to express his or her important
taller, thinner, and elegant; in
issues. Digital imaging techniques
facilitate the creation of the digital the second, the necklaces repre-
image. sent feelings of physical dis-
To begin the process, a graphics comfort and being constricted.
technician scans into the computer The tangled garden hose in the
the pictures that the participant cookie cutter’s mid-section rep-
42 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
Figure 2
Mental Map of Intimate Care
resents the anxieties associated feelings: fume, the doorbell rings and
with wearing the item. Finally, he arrives with champagne
St. Catherine’s wheel around It’s a rainy spring day, and I’m and roses.
the cookie cutter represents the feeling a little sad. Some new
torture and physical discomfort age music is playing on the Identification of Key
of wearing the item. stereo. The telephone rings, Themes. Once all of the
and a friend who I hadn’t seen interviews are completed, the
People think differently when research team reviews each
they think “in motion” than in months is on the line. My
interview transcript to identify
when they think in still images mood changes at the sound key themes or constructs. The
or pictures. In Step 10, The of his voice. He asks me out identification of themes or con-
Vignette, the participant is asked to dinner and says he’ll come structs (i.e., summary categories
to create a vignette or short or overarching ideas capable
to get me in an hour. I look
video that helps to communicate of a range of different values and
in my drawers for my most dimensions) is an onerous task.
important issues related to the
elegant intimate apparel and However, several streams of re-
topic under consideration. Eliz- search, particularly categorization
then into my closet for a sexy
abeth’s vignette about wearing theory (Rosch, 1978) and theories
this article of intimate apparel dress. I put them on and feel of emotion (Izard, 1977; Plutchik,
expressed her more positive beautiful. As I put on my per- 1980), have provided guidance in
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 43M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
Project 15, a brand equity study
Exhibit 3 for a snack food, was less involv-
Elizabeth’s Digital Image of Intimate Apparel ing. Twenty-seven constructs were
mentioned by at least two of the
ten participants, and the number of
constructs mentioned by any one
participant ranged from twelve to
twenty-four; the average was sev-
enteen. Also, with regard to Proj-
ect 15, the 18 constructs included
in the map were mentioned by at
least five of the ten participants.
Coding the Data. Once the list
of key themes has been developed,
data are coded in terms of paired-
construct relationships. A construct
pair is the causal relationship be-
tween two constructs. For exam-
ple, the construct pair “being at-
tractive/unattractive to others” and
“having/lacking selfconfidence”
suggests that one’s perceived level
of attractiveness to others affects
one’s self-confidence. Typically,
construct pairs are elicited from
the Storytelling, Missed Issues and
understanding the important issues key themes or constructs derived Images, and Construct Elicitation
related to categorizing tangibles from the examination of interview steps.
and feelings, respectively. Based transcripts serves as the starting Constructing the Consen-
on this theoretical grounding, point for coding participants, re- sus Map. In an attempt to under-
social scientists involved with sponses. The construct list may be stand the “three mosts,” i.e., most
qualitative data have established supplemented during the course of of the thinking of most people
guidelines for developing clas- coding should previously unidenti- most of the time, we analyze the
sification schemes and coding of fied constructs be found (Spiggle, occurrence of the construct pairs
data (Glasser and Strauss, 1967; 1994). across participants (Noblit and
Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Miles The number of constructs gener- Hare, 1988), and these data are
and Huberman, 1984; Strauss and ated varies from project to project, used to create the consensus map.
Corbin, 1990). Recently, Spiggle and from participant to partici- Specifically, two criteria are used
(1994) elaborated on issues re- pant, depending on the level of for including constructs and con-
lated to analyzing qualitative data, the participants, involvement with struct pairs in the consensus map-
specifically focusing on categori- the topic of interest. For example, -the number of participants who
zation, abstraction of categories, regarding Project 20, usage experi- mention a construct or theme and
comparison of instances within the ences with new technologies, 50 the number of participants who
data, and dimensionalization of constructs were mentioned by a mention a relationship between
the data. This area of research has least 5 of the 21 participants (see two constructs. These criteria
been particularly valuable in the Table 1). The number of constructs consistently are used to derive the
analysis of ZMET data. mentioned by any one partici- consensus map in a ZMET project.
All ZMET constructs are bi- pant ranged from 21 to 43; the The actual number of mentions
polar, for example, satisfaction average was 33. Also with regard necessary for either a construct or
encompasses both “very satisfied” to Project 20, the 26 constructs a construct pair to be included on a
as well as “very dissatisfied” and included in the consensus map consensus map varies per project,
the range of responses between were mentioned by at least 11 of depending upon the number of
those two “endpoints.” The list of the 21 participants. In contrast, participants involved and the na-
44 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
ture of the project (i.e., the extent
Table 1 to which consumers have narrow
Number of Participants in 20 Most Recent Projects Required or broad-based understandings of
to Generate 80 Percent or More of the Consensus Mapa and feelings about the research
topic). Table 1 (column 4) indi-
cates that the number of constructs
retained in the consensus map for
the 20 projects ranged from 18
(Projects 16 and 19) to 59 (Project
5). Typically, for a construct to be
included on the consensus map, it
must have been mentioned by at
least one-third third of the partici-
pants and a construct pair must
have been mentioned by at least
one-quarter of the participants. As
a consequence, the consensus map,
on average, captures 80 percent of
the constructs mentioned by each
participant.
The consensus map generated
from these data is a diagram show-
ing the linkages among the elicited
constructs. Direct and indirect
connections between constructs
(or themes) represent a reasoning
chain or thinking process show-
ing how one idea leads to another.
These associations are important
because addressing one construct
will have a ripple or multiplier
effect on those with which it is
causally connected.
A somewhat abridged example
of a consensus map involving the
experience of wearing an item
of intimate apparel is shown in
Exhibit 5. Each construct is bi-
polar, that is, “physical comfort”
signifies both physical comfort
and discomfort. The consensus
map shown is based on 25 partici-
pants, and illustrates the construct
pair relationships mentioned by
at least 5 participants. The arrows
on the consensus map represent
links between constructs. Some
constructs are originating points
(shown as circles on the map) in
a reasoning process and lead to
other constructs, and other con-
structs are destination or ending
points (shown as rectangles on
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 45M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H Table 1 Number of Participants in 20 Most Recent Projects Required to Generate 80 Percent or More of the Consensus Mapa the map) in a reasoning process. understanding of how these two terlude--want to feel pretty.” Connector constructs (shown constructs affect projection of self as diamond shapes on the map) image, elegance, happiness, sexi- Thus, although the consensus serve as transmitters or linkages ness, having a coordinated look, map clearly indicates negatives as- between originator, destination, being perceived as attractive to sociated with this garment, in par- and other connector constructs. others, and self-confidence: ticular physical discomfort and its Because originator and connector consequences, there are numerous constructs trigger other constructs, “. . . special details . . . are fun- themes that serve as the starting care should be taken to address -they add to the total outfit and point for developing meaningful these issues in communication help me to express myself. “ advertising copy and executional strategies. “. . . when you’re all dressed up elements. The intimate apparel consen- you feel like a queen--elegant, Observations about the sus map (Figure 3) illustrates royal, expensive in [garment] Consensus Maps. After the the relationships among relevant with a nice sheen, soft, sheer, data are processed to develop the constructs that have particular and maybe a design.” consensus map, participant files relevance for the development of “. . . when you’re dressed up, are selected at random and the ad copy for “variety of product [garment] makes you feel confi- number of constructs mentioned designs” and “garment quality.” dent.” by each successive file but not Comments made by participants “. . . fancy lingerie is sexy, mentioned by the previous file(s) in the study help to provide an pretty, nice, racy--romantic in- is noted. That is, we answer the 46 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995
M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
question, “How many new con- consequences--”anger,” “concern,” ent characteristics, the particular
structs are added by each random- “physical imprisonment,” and problem being addressed, and
ly selected file?” Table 1 contains “emotional discomfort”--in the the purpose of the research. For
information about consensus maps visual dictionary for the study on instance, different criteria may be
from 20 recent applications (some intimate apparel. Additionally, the appropriate and/or be given more
applications did not call for con- sensory dictionary includes non- or less weight when a tool is being
sensus maps). The data in Table 1 visual sensory images (e.g., taste, used for exploratory rather than
(columns 5, 6, and 7, respectively) touch, and smell) that participants confirmatory purposes. Even the
indicate the number of randomly have used to describe a key con- basic concepts of validity and reli-
selected participant files needed to struct or theme and sensory imag- ability are defined or operational-
account for 80 percent, 90 percent, es that participants have indicated ized differently, depending on the
and 100 percent of the constructs do not describe the key construct aim of the research, assumptions
identified on the consensus maps. or theme. Finally, the digital im- about the nature of facts, and the
For example, as related to Project ages and vignettes provide the researchers’ goals (Lauder, 1984).
3, at least 80 percent of the con- participants’ own summary repre- Indeed, many have cautioned that
structs in that project’s consensus sentations of important themes and we use appropriate criteria (not
map were captured after the fourth construct relationships. criteria established for, for ex-
participant (randomly selected); These data are presented in a ample, survey research) to assess
at least 90 percent of the con- number of forms depending on qualitative research (Holstein and
structs were captured after the fifth client interests and needs. For Gubrium, 1995; Wallendorf and
participant and 100 percent were example, the visual, sensory, and Belk, 1989).
captured by the eighth participant. digital images along with vignettes ZMET is a hybrid methodology
On average, it took six participant are presented in an interactive CD. grounded in a broad body of lit-
files to account for 100 percent This data configuration enables erature which lends support to the
of the constructs identified on the the user to “click” on a construct technique’s validity and reliability.
consensus maps. In essence, every presented on a screen and see a For example, the use of photogra-
interview selected at random after sample of visual and other sensory phy as a research tool (Worth and
the sixth (on average) serves as metaphors that represent how con- Adair, 1972) has a 50-year history
validation for the elicited con- sumers understand and/or experi- that crosses many disciplines, and
structs. Thus, there is a high level ence that construct. The images the validity and reliability of pho-
of consensus among participants in are coupled with the participant’s tography as a general research tool
each of the projects. vocal description of the relevance has been discussed extensively by
of the pictures, tactile sensations, Denzin (1989). Additionally, the
Illustrating Important Con- and so forth. Additionally, this data in-depth personal conversation
structs and Construct Rela- form allows the user to click on a has significant merit in its own
tionships. The important con- line connecting two constructs and right (Mishler, 1986; McCracken,
structs and construct relationships see images representing especially 1988), and other research conduct-
are illustrated in a variety of ways. important reasoning or thinking ed by Griffin and Hauser (1992),
For example, visual and other processes linking them. Digital Silver and Thompson (1991),
sensory dictionaries, as well as images created by participants Robinson (1991), and Fern (1982)
digital images and vignettes, help along with their audio description suggests that personal interviews
to communicate the metaphors of their summary pictures also can are more efficacious than focus
participants associate with the key be accessed. Illustrating these data groups. Further, the validity and
constructs. The visual diction- on video, in addition to or in lieu reliability of the Kelly Repertory
ary includes pictorial images that of the interactive CD, is an option. Grid and laddering technique as
represent constructs and reasoning means for eliciting constructs are
chains that are important to par- also well-established (Kelly, 1963;
Evaluating ZMET Gutman, 1982; Reynolds and Gut-
ticipants. Thus, for example, the
picture of the trees with the bands man, 1988; Shaw and McKnight,
The task of evaluating a new
around the trunks and the picture 1980).
technique is as important as it is
of the fencing tightly wrapped in It is also important to note that
demanding. The appropriate evalu-
cellophane (Exhibit 1) might illus- the ZMET research team plays an
ative criteria for any technique
trate “physical discomfort” and its important role in providing valid
vary with the technique’s inher-
Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 47M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H and reliable data. In particular, the fore, point-of-purchase advertis- research approach. staff develops a purposive sam- ing and product display strategies Second, the technique is very la- pling plan and exchanges insights needed to be reconsidered. bor intensive. Post-interview data with interviewers both during and analyses, the creation of animated after data collection. Throughout Product-purchase and product- versions of selected vignettes, and the procedure, we employ steps usage experiences interact and the development of a final report to establish credible qualitative hence overall communication involving sensory dictionaries is research based on the guidelines strategy had to be reconsidered. demanding. Relatedly, the process set forth by Wallendorf and Belk Consumer perceptions of a of managing images and creating (1989), Webb et al. (1981), Miles company did not match how an interactive CD and associated and Huberman (1984), Lincoln key managers understood their videotape requires expertise with and Guba (1985), Kirk and Miller public image. certain hardware and software. (1986), and Strauss and Corbin An advertising concept con- Third, although ZMET identi- (1990). Specifically, we: (1) en- tained two important dimensions fies important factors influencing gage participants in a personal, in- that had not been uncovered consumers and clarifies both the depth conversation that averages previously. positive and negative experience two hours in length, (2) triangulate A more useful way to think of these factors, it does not provide across methods as evident by the about creating advertising copy. (because of sample size) estimates multiple steps used in the ZMET A unique way of advertising a of the percentage of a larger popu- interviews, (3) regularly interact new product concept. lation who feel negatively and with interviewers to discuss the A new understanding of how positively. Further, quantitative interview structure, constructs consumers perceive innovations. estimates of the relative strength elicited, etc., (4) triangulate across A new positioning for an exist- of association between constructs researchers, reviewing the inter- ing product. are not possible. view transcripts and audiotapes Finally, the pictures participants of the participants, and (5) have Although ZMET addresses bring to the interview and the vari- participants verify the constructs many limitations of other tech- ous sensory images they discuss elicited, and those not elicited, niques it has limitations of its own. are representative of the kinds of during the interview. First, proper data analysis requires images they find familiar and are To date, our research has in- researcher familiarity with the dis- likely to elicit certain concepts. volved over 1,400 consumers. ciplinary foundations of the tech- They are not, however, a substitute During the course of our research, nique. This is more than a modest for creative thinking about visual clients have shared proprietary start-up cost for the researchers and other images that could be still data previously collected on their and being unfamiliar with these more impactful in activating the respective topics using standard literatures can result in misuse of common mental model (consensus quantitative and qualitative tools. the tool and data. Additionally, in- map). These clients have indicated that terviewers have an important role ZMET has provided results consis- during data collection, since each Conclusion tent with the results other methods step can be introduced in different produced, but also added value by ways and individual differences Market researchers can develop surfacing unique insights which among participants may call for tools that provide still more usable the clients considered to be impor- somewhat different approaches. and valid knowledge about the tant. For projects that focused on Skill is required to make the marketplace by making use of the issues that had not been previously judgment of when and how to do premises discussed at the outset investigated, companies found the this. Further, interviewers play an of this article. These premises ZMET data useful in a number of integral role in the analysis of each are derived from diverse fields of ways. A sample of action-produc- participant’s data. Thus, ZMET in- inquiry in the social and biological ing insights that clearly have ad terviewers require special training sciences copy implications (although that beyond that associated with typical and in the humanities about may not have been the driving personal interviewing. Also, the how people make sense of and force behind the research) include: graphics imaging technicians must communicate about their personal ß A product believed to be an be well versed in digital-imaging and social worlds. The technique impulse purchase is not and, there- technologies as well as the basic introduced here draws upon these 48 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995
M E TA P H O R - B A S E D A D V E R T I S I N G R E S E A R C H
fields and illustrates how efforts Birdwhistell, R. L. Kinesics and de Sousa, Ronald. The Rationality
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Brunette, Peter, and David Wills. 1 (1982): 1-13.
GERALD ZALTMAN is the Joseph C. Wilson
Professor of Business Administration, Har-
vard University. He has a Ph.D. in sociology
from the Johns Hopkins University and an
ScreenlPlay: Derrida and Film
MBA degree from the University of Chicago Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Fincher, J. Human Intelligence.
He has authored or edited 27 books and
over 100 journal articles Dr Zaltman has re-
University Press, 1989. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s
ceived the American Marketing Association’s Sons, 1976.
Richard D Inwin Distinquished Educator
Award, the Association for Consumer Burgoon, Judee K.; David B.
Research’s Fe low Award, and the Knowl- Buller; and W. Gill Woodall. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr. The Poet-
Nonverbal Communication: The ics of Mind: Figurative Thought,
edge Utilization Society’s Scientific Achieve-
ment Award. He has been cited in numerous
surveys as one of the leading thinkers in Unspoken Dialogue. New York, Language, and Understanding.
NY: Harper and Row, 1989. New York, NY: Cambridge Uni-
marketing and in consumer behavior.
ROBIN HIGIE COULTER is associate
professor of marketing in the School of
versity Press, 1994.
Business Administration at the University Classen, Constance. Worlds of
of Connecticut. She received her Ph D and
M.B.A from the Joseph M. Katz Graduate
Sense: Exploring the Senses in Glasser, Barney G., and Anselm L.
School of Business, University of Pittsburgh. History and Across Cultures. New Strauss. The Discovery of Ground-
Her research interests include advertising
effects, research methods, and consumer York: Routledge, 1993. ed Theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine,
decision-making Professor Coulter has been 1967.
Damasio, Antonio R. Descartes’
pubished in such Journals as the Journal of
Applied Psychology, the Journal of Advertis-
ing, the Journal of Advertising Research, Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Glucksberg, Sam. “Language and
Human Brain. New York, NY: G. Thought.” In The Psychology of
and the Journal of Retailing. Howes, David,
ed. The Varieties of Sensory Experience:
A Sourcebook in the Anthropology of the
Senses. Toronto, Canada: University of
P. Putnam’s Sons, 1994. Human Thought, R. J. Sternberg
Toronto Press, 1991. and E. E. Smith, eds. Cambridge,
Danesi, Marcel. “Thinking Is Great Britain, 1988.
Seeing: Visual Metaphors and the
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