Precision Remote Humidity Control in Enclosed Chamber Meeting Diverse Research Challenges
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GEO Calibration, Inc.
2190 Smithtown Avenue
Ronkonkoma, NY 11779
Tel: (631)471-6157
Fax: (631) 471-6158
White Paper
Precision Remote Humidity
Control in Enclosed Chamber
Meeting Diverse Research
Challenges
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GEO Calibration, Inc.
2190 Smithtown Avenue
Ronkonkoma, NY 11779
Tel: (631)471-6157
Fax: (631) 471-6158
Contents
Summary 2
Humidity Chambers; Usage and Requirements 3
Device Architecture 4
Working Principles 5
Example Applications
Particle Acceleration Studies 8
Material Science 8
Microchips and Electronics 9
Silicon Wafer Production 9
Fuel Cell Testing 10
Photovoltaic Cells 11
Ambient Particle Resuspension 11
Tissue Culture 11
Shelf-Life Studies 12
Customized Design for Specific Research Needs 12
Conclusion 12
Further Information 12
References 13
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Summary
This white paper presents the working principles and use cases of miniaturized humidity
chambers in research and development. As the world approaches the fourth industrial
revolution, there is increasing demand for more advanced research tools and methods to
meet the needs of modern industries. Miniaturized systems that provide efficient resource
utilization while providing excellent precision have become more attractive options for
researchers and manufacturers. Furthermore, Industry 4.0 calls for better synergy
between academia and industry for the development of tools and equipment that aid in
the development of technologies and theories that in turn aid the advancement of the
industries. To this effect, this white paper presents the working principles, and existing
application of a newly developed Remote Humidity and Temperature Control System by
GEO Calibration in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy. This paper
represents the industry-leading standard for a miniaturized controlled environment that
researchers need to generate reliable and reproducible results. The need for controlled
humidity and temperature in an enclosed chamber cuts across several industries from
food to electronics, some of which are presented herein. The applications presented here
albeit not exhaustive, provide readers with a rich insight into the capabilities of GEO
Calibration’s Hygro-Remote and how the miniaturized humidity chamber can support
diverse research studies and data acquisition.
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and/or privileged material. Any review, re-transmission, dissemination, or other use of, or taking of any action in reliance
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Tel: (631)471-6157
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Humidity Monitoring and Control; Usage and Requirements
Humidity monitoring and control is a key requirement in many industries. In the wake of
the fourth Industrial Revolution, nearly every industry is being transformed by the shift to
a data-driven approach to everything. The pharmaceutical industry makes use of humidity
chambers for the storage of drugs and vaccines to retain their potency. In
microelectromechanical systems manufacturing, silicon wafers production, electronics
fabrication, and much more; humidity is one of the key parameters that must be controlled
to prevent moisture damage to sensitive processes and parts.
Temperature control accompanies humidity control according to the thermodynamic
principles. The humidity chamber maintains a specified humidity by maintaining a
constant dew point and a fixed temperature of the air. How effectively this is achieved
depends on the actuation and control systems integrated into the system as well as other
features such as chamber design. The ambient conditions will inevitably vary over the
duration of testing of products within the chamber. The task of the humidity chamber is
therefore to mitigate against these environmental variations and maintain the chamber
within the set point. An effective control system does this with very minimal deviation from
the setpoint over the duration of testing which can vary from minutes to several weeks.
The Hygro-Remote employs proportional integral derivative (PID) control technology
programmed to effectively regulate the system parameters. Timely feedback loops with
quick response humidify and dehumidify the chamber using quick response actuators and
optimally designed circuitry. Geo Calibration offers a wide range of humidity control
chambers that are aimed at meeting diverse industry needs. The Hygro-Remote is
specifically targeted at meeting the research needs of academia and industry. Small
sample size, ease of operation, data collection, and efficiency are prioritized in the
development of the Hygro-Remote.
Simulating specific environmental conditions is often required for the storage of products
or to house processes. This can be to either provide a stable condition to carry out real-
life or experimental operations or to store products at optimal conditions to prolong shelf
life and function. Moisture content in the air can be transferred into the product if a
moisture gradient exists between the environment and the product. In perishable products
such as foods, cosmetics and drugs increased moisture content can accelerate microbial
growth hence reducing the shelf life. Increased moisture content also affects the
structural integrity of materials. Polymers are an example of this. The polymer chains
interact with water and/or water permeates into the void spaces within the polymer
secondary structure. The presence of moisture alters the physical structure of the
polymeric material. Increased moisture content in the presence of oxygen also promotes
the degradation of metals which leads to rusting. Similarly, excessively reduced moisture
content can lead to brittleness and undesirable evacuation of moisture from products that
can adversely affect their functionality and physical integrity. Such consequences of
altered humidity are undesirable.
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In research, the development of theories and products calls for a well-controlled
environment to understand how each factor affects the outcome of experiments. Often
precise control of humidity and temperature is needed. In many cases, hundreds to
thousands of experiments must be carried out. This means the consumption of materials,
time, and manpower. To minimize the amount of material consumed the test sample size
needs to be kept at a minimum. This is particularly important where the materials are
expensive, or their synthesis or extraction consumes a lot of time. For such cases, the
testing chamber needs to be miniaturized. This small size also has the advantage of more
precise measurement and reduced consumption of materials and power. Food
processors, life science laboratories, data centers, and manufacturers can all benefit from
the remote humidity monitoring and control offered by the Hygro-Remote system.
Device architecture
The Hygro-Remote is a reach-in system designed to offer precise control of humidity and
temperature within a miniaturized chamber. The chamber has a dimension of 2.36 x 2.36
x 1.54 inches. It makes use of an ultrasonic transducer pump for accurate remote
humidity control. The Hygro-Remote is accompanied by a 6 x 16.41 x 8.40 inches
controller unit. A fan aids the uniform distribution of temperature and humidity within the
chamber volume. The small chamber dimension reduces the chances of losses due to
factors such as movement of air current or exchange with the surface. The smaller
chamber also reduces consumables and energy consumption. The main consumables
required are water and desiccants. Warm-up time is a maximum of 30 minutes at
standard ambient conditions. The Hygro-Remote can be operated at a wide range of
conditions at temperatures between -20 and 50oC and humidity varying between 0 and
95% with an accuracy of +0.10oC and +1% RH. Functionality is therefore not affected by
the location of the research laboratory nor is there a need for special conditioning of
storage.
The Hygro-Remote has a user-friendly interface (Figure 1). A lighted display screen
indicates set and actual humidity and temperature in % and oC respectively. The device is
powered on and off by an on/off switch. Manual setting of humidity and temperature
values is achieved by the “up and “down” buttons while the “next” and “exit” buttons allow
switching between humidity and temperature control. A large round rotating button allows
easy access to and exchange of the desiccant dryer. The temperature ranges from -10 to
50oC while the humidity can be set between 0 and 95%. The device connects to a
computer via a USB port thus allowing for rapid data collection. The Hygro-Remote is
accompanied by software that facilitates remote control and data processing through the
computer.
The humidity chamber is isolated from the controller with remote environmental control.
Such design improves the quality of data generated by eliminating the interaction factors
which might affect the result. The chamber comprises a fill port and a drain port. These
are used to fill in distilled water to the desired level and drain off excess water. It has a
15ml reservoir to be filled with distilled water which is typically refilled weekly, but refill
period could vary with usage. A level indicator shows water level and a warning sign
lights up when the water level is low. Moisture removal is facilitated by an indicating
molecular sieve desiccant which is replaced when it reaches ¾ of its usage level. The
ultrasonic chamber is remotely controlled by the Hygro-Remote control system.
Temperature control is facilitated by the connected water circulation system. The PID
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Tel: (631)471-6157
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control system is programmed to synchronize the water and airflow, fast response to
feedback to regulate the chamber environment within specified set points.
Figure 1 labelled image of the Hygro-Remote Humidity system
Additional features of the Hygro-Remote humidity control system include low power
consumption which allows for studies over long periods while minimizing resource and
power consumed. Precision is achieved through accurate PID control that maintains
setpoint and uniformity is further aided by the miniaturized chamber volume. The reduced
volume allows fast circulation of air around the chamber thus reducing the point-to-point
variation of parameters.
The standard maintenance and precautions for humidity chambers also apply to the
Hygro-Remote system. Using distilled water with good purity helps to prevent degradation
of the inner tubing. Ensuring the right water level for proper circulation and avoiding
overflow to prevent flooding. Although annual calibration and preventive maintenance are
generally recommended. The actual schedule depends on the level of usage of each
piece of equipment. The compact design of the Hygro-Remote system adds some space-
saving and ease of maintenance.
Working principles
Humidity generation with good control and precision proves particularly challenging within
small volumes that are required for many research studies. The interrelationship between
pressure, volume, and temperature of gases makes transportation of humidified and
dehumidified air in and out of the chamber through pipes the more challenging. The flow
of fluid requires a pressure gradient. However, changes in pressure result in a change in
temperature which in turn leads to a change in the dew point of the air. Therefore, moving
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humidity into the chamber using pipes may cause undesired condensation within the
chamber if not well executed. Therefore, remote humidity control becomes necessary for
a miniaturized environment. This challenge is met by using an external water circulating
system to regulate the temperature by pumping water through channels designed around
the chamber body. This approach ensures uniform temperature distribution. The
environment within the chamber is thus remotely controlled through quantitative
manipulation of parameters outside the chamber. This is done through a series of well-
orchestrated programming.
The goal of every humidity control system is to maintain humidity at the desired set point.
This is often at a set temperature since the temperature also has an effect on the dew
point and humidity. The Hygro-Remote, therefore, allows for humidity and temperature
control. The system operates on the thermodynamic principles around water
transformation from a liquid into the gaseous state and the variable vapor holding
capacity of air between 0 and 100% saturation.
Since humidity is also a measure of partial pressure ratios, the pressure transducer
receives a signal from the air pressure within the chamber. This gets converted into an
electrical signal that can be read as a change in pressure by the controller. The controller
then makes the necessary adjustment to either the ultrasonic pump to increase humidity
or to the saturator to decrease humidity within the chamber.
The ultrasonic pump provides precision in the control of humidity within the chamber. It is
robust and allows for precise metering for controlled bubbling of air to generate humidity.
Another advantage of the ultrasonic pump is that there is no contact or valves required for
fluid flow control. The pumping mechanism is facilitated by acoustic streaming. Therefore,
it can be used for diverse research applications independent of the chemical composition
of the test material or surface. The flow rate is dependent on the quantitative relationship
between the characteristics of the acoustic beam and the fluid properties (Cetin et al,
2008).
The pump operation is based on the ultrasonic frequency generated by a rigid cylindrical
tube. This is resonated through a stepped horn. The transmission of the ultrasonic wave
is enhanced by reflection plates for amplification (Yun et al, 2004) such that the remote
operation of the Hygro-Remote is facilitated by the contactless ultrasonic pump system.
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Figure 2. Schematics of the Hygro-Remote humidity system
Example Applications
The Hygro-Remote system finds a wide range of applicability in R&D. This can also be
extended to product sampling and quality testing in the industry. The following sections
review some of the existing and potential applications of the Hygro-Remote system.
These examples are by no means exhaustive. Through consultation with the engineers at
Geo Calibration, the applicability of the Hygro-Remote can be evaluated for each specific
research application.
Atmospheric plasma Etching studies
Plasma etching gives an alternative to other dry etching methods such as focused ion
beams which require particle acceleration under vacuum. Particle acceleration is applied
in various scientific fields. The technique of accelerating particles can be used to either
deposit particles effectively onto a surface or to knock off particles from a surface or
perhaps to cause a reaction between or within the accelerated particles. Areas of
application include testing the effect of radiation on space electronics, development of
radiotherapy for cancer treatment, design of anti-radiation protective gears, ion beams for
dry etching in microelectromechanical systems manufacturing process, and many other
applications. Atmospheric plasma etching can be carried out without the use of vacuum
which lowers the cost and complexity of the set up.
Atmospheric plasma etching allows for rapid processing under ambient conditions.
Applications include surface modifications of silicon wafers and polymer nanotexturing.
Studies have shown that humidity significantly affects the efficiency of plasma etching in
nylon 6 films (Gao, 2012). Other studies have also explored the impact of moisture
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absorption on the effectiveness of atmospheric plasma etching of polyamide (Zhu et al,
2008). The Hygro-Remote can be used in such experiments to create precise humidity
within which the etching is carried out or to pretreat the material to be etched prior to
plasma etching.
Materials Science
In many materials laboratories, humidity control is often a requirement. Specific test
methods such as aging and fatigue tests require the material being tested to be left in a
controlled environment where specific humidity and temperature are maintained for a set
period of time. Many material properties are significantly affected by humidity. Some
materials are particularly sensitive to humidity while others are more resistant to
environmental factors.
Materials are exposed to environmental conditions ranging from mild to extreme. The
applications of these materials vary widely from high-performance plastics for gear
manufacturing to biomaterials used as implants. In the development of new materials,
these materials are kept in a controlled environment to analyse the effect of
environmental changes on their performance and stability. Examples include the
development of bioplastic materials where the materials need to retain their mechanical
strength at a given range of usage, humidity and temperature. For instance, the present
limitations of bioplastics are that many of them show excellent mechanical properties at
low relative humidity, however, when exposed to high humidity they tend to lose their
mechanical strength.
Adhesive materials are another example where humidity plays a significant role. Various
adhesive materials have different mechanisms for adhesion. Moisture-activated
adhesives, pressure-activated adhesives, and suction adhesives are some examples. An
example application is in dentistry where self-etching adhesives are used as bonding
agents to dentin (Finger and Tani, 2002). Such adhesives are required to maintain
adhesion regardless of humidity. The humidity resistance of an adhesive is indicated by
the change in morphology and/or chemistry at varying relative humidity. Therefore, in the
production and testing, humidity chambers are used to study the effect of humidity on the
morphology and chemical structure of adhesive materials.
In the development of novel materials, often several samples need to be prepared to test
the effect of different compositions on the material properties. Where large chambers are
used, larger sample sizes would be required to have a reasonable chamber to sample
size ratio. Using a small chamber size significantly reduces the number of samples
required and effective resource management.
Microchips and Electronics
Many of the materials used in the production of microchips are humidity and temperature
sensitive. The assembly and functioning of microchips are significantly affected by
humidity and temperature. Therefore, one of the tests of these microchips is to place
them under specific humidity and temperature for a given period of time. The possible
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defects that can occur due to moisture problems in microchips include corrosion,
improper adhesion, and surface condensations (Khanna, 2017). All of which leads to the
failure of the microchip. Testing of microchips in humidity chambers serves the purpose of
determining the optimal storage and assembly conditions. The humidity chambers are
also used to test the storage life of the microchips at the usage condition. Research into
alternative materials for microchip production has promising potential in the microchip
industries. Such areas include photoresist materials with improved adhesion and circuit
materials with anti-corrosion properties. Other electronic devices such as LEDs also are
affected by moisture problems (Hoque et al, 2019).
The miniature humidity chamber is well suited to the testing of microchips due to their
small size. This saves time and costs in preparing multiple chips to fill a large chamber.
The size of the chamber relative to that of the microchip also allows for more uniformity of
the environment within the chamber. The remote humidity control prevents direct
interaction which may affect results that can be affected by vibrations and pipe
connections.
Silicon Wafer Manufacturing
Cleanroom environments are required during the manufacturing and repair of silicon
wafers and other semiconductor wafers, such that all stages are carried out within a
closed environment where airflow is filtered using HEPA or ULPA filters through the
cleanroom. The deposition of particles or condensate on the wafers must be avoided.
While the efficiency of the filter must remain high throughout its useful life. Some of the
research studies carried out in this area include studying the effect of humidity on the
deposition of water vapor on the oxidized and unoxidized silicon (Holysz et al, 2008).
Other studies have explored the effect of temperature and humidity on the degradation of
silicon crystals (Ando et al, 2016). Typically, silicon wafers are sealed to protect them
from the environment.
To test the effectiveness of the sealing material and method the sealed wafers are tested
in a controlled environment that mimics the range of environment they will get exposed to
during their service life. Due to the high cost of these materials and the precision
required, such experiments are suited for miniaturized humidity chambers such as the
Hygro-Remote.
Fuel cell testing
In the development and testing of fuel cells, it is important to achieve uniform temperature
and humidity distribution amongst other parameters such as pressure. Furthermore,
where the humidity is not well controlled, this can result in accumulated water in liquid
form. This has an adverse effect on result accuracy. For a long time, the evacuation of
water from the testing environment has always been a limitation in the characterization
and testing of polymeric electrolyte membrane-based fuel cells (Bednarek and Tsotridis,
2020). With the Hygro-Remote system, the PID control system allows the humidity to be
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effectively maintained at a set point by timely evacuation of vapor through the desiccants.
With the Hygro-Remote system, accurate testing humidity and temperature control are
achieved. The ultrasonic system ensures minimal hardware interaction effect on the
results.
As the demand grows for advanced high power dense appliances and machinery, the
need for better performance and durability of fuel cells is also rising. This calls for
improvement in testing environment control. The Hygro-Remote offers accurate controlled
environmental conditions as far as temperature and humidity are concerned.
Photovoltaic cells
The energy industry is advancing towards more sustainable energy sources. Solar energy
is a leading choice in sustainable energy options. At the research stage, solar cells of
sizes under 2 square centimetres are produced under laboratory conditions. Tests that
are carried out on these devices include stability tests. It is important to assess if the cells
maintain their power conversion efficiency over a given storage period and specific
storage conditions. Third-generation solar cells making use of innovative materials such
as perovskites and polymers are currently receiving increasing research interest as they
come with many advantages. Polymeric solar cells allow for more variable design options
due to the increased flexibility where polymer substrates are used. They also offer the
possibility of higher efficiency beyond the theoretical 30% limit of the conventional silicon
solar cells. Perovskite solar cells are also gaining increasing attention for the
exceptionally high efficiency they achieve. One of the limitations of these new-age solar
cells is the limited stability. The storage life and stability can be prolonged by maintaining
specific humidity and temperature during storage. Using the Hygro-Remote system
minimal contact temperature and humidity control can be achieved. Because of the small
sample size which
is partly due to the components of these solar cells are usually expensive, such solar
cells are ideal for testing in the Hygro-Remote humidity control chamber.
One of the solutions to combat the degradation of solar cells is to encapsulate the cells
within the transparent glass, silicone, or plastic material. The manufacturer then needs to
decide the best condition and atmosphere for optimal performance and stability. The
Hygro-Remote is a reliable means to test the optimal humidity and temperature to store
the cells after preparation.
Ambient particle Resuspension
The introduction and suspension of particles into the environment from sources are
significantly affected by the environmental conditions. The study of particle suspension in
the air is relevant in areas such as nuclear facilities management where the spread of
radioactive particles from surfaces can occur. Similarly in facilities where there is a
likelihood for microbial particles to get suspended in the air from surfaces (Kim et al,
2016). Such studies help in the management and preventive actions to prevent
pathogens or harmful particles from getting released into the environment. Recently
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researchers are looking at applying physics principles to the spread of airborne diseases
by studying how humidity affects the suspension of pathogenic particles in the air (Bozic
and Kanduc, 2021). Understanding the effect of humidity and temperature on the release
of particles from surfaces into the air stream can provide data to advise on optimal
humidity and temperature to be maintained in such an environment. Due to the small
sizes of these particles and the scale of the experiment, carrying out such studies in
miniaturized chambers offer better control and precision.
Tissue culture studies
The relative humidity influences the growth of plants. It also affects the growth of other
microorganisms which either support or hinder plant growth. Research studies have been
carried out under controlled humidity and temperature to study several parameters in
plant tissue culture (Dalina et al, 2019). One of the limitations in such studies is having
accurate control over humidity and temperature. It is important not to expose the tissue
culture to other stimuli which might adversely affect the accuracy of the results. The
remote monitoring and control offered by the Hygro-Remote system allow for minimal
interaction between source and test sample. Furthermore, humidity varies within the
tissue culture because of metabolism occurring within the biological system. It has been
shown that this change in humidity because of metabolic activity adversely impacts plant
growth (Chen et al, 2004).
Therefore, the system must be able to maintain effective dehumidification over the course
of the experiment. The Hygro-Remote can facilitate such experiments through an
adequate controlled humidity environment for tissue cultures. Furthermore, such
experiments on living culture take from several hours to days or weeks. It is therefore an
added benefit in terms of utility cost that the Hygro-Remote system has a low power
requirement of 12V DC at 10A.
Shelf-life studies
Various aspects of food testing and analysis require controlled humidity and temperature
within an enclosed chamber. Food testing and analysis are necessary for shelf-life
studies, preservation method development, food properties enhancement, and
modification amongst others. One example of the application of humidity and temperature
control is in the determination of the sorption isotherm of foods (Arslan and Rul, 2004).
The food is placed in an environment with controlled temperature and humidity. Such
studies provide data on the moisture absorption and desorption of the food. This helps in
package design, formulation recommended shelf life, and storage conditions. Accelerated
shelf-life studies can also benefit from the Hygro-Remote system. The shelf life of foods
with long storage life can be analysed at accelerated conditions with higher temperature
and/or humidity. Accelerating the rate of deterioration allows the food deterioration
kinetics to be obtained in less time period. Non-perishable foods can have a shelf life of
up to several years. At normal storage conditions, the degradation parameters need to be
measured over equally long periods. This costs time and resources. To obtain the
degradation kinetics to predict shelf life, elevated temperature and humidity are used.
This makes it possible to determine shelf life in a shorter period. Thus, allowing products
to get regulatory approval faster. Such is made possible by the simulated environments
achieved by humidity chambers.
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The humidity and temperature of storage affect food properties such as texture and
surface appearance. These are important organoleptic factors for customer satisfaction.
In designing packaging for processed foods and agricultural produce, manufacturers seek
to find the optimal storage condition to preserve or even enhance these properties. With
the Hygro-Remote system, a wide range of storage conditions can be tested to 1%
relative humidity and 0.10oC accuracy. The miniature sample chamber and sample size
required to allow for better efficiency and uniformity.
Customized Design for your specific research Application
Each research application requires specific requirements to achieve the desired test
condition that meets the specimen’s needs. Geo calibration has worked with diverse
research groups to develop humidity chambers that can be adapted for a wide variety of
R&D requirements. For example, the incorporation of lighting systems that allow for the
monitoring of plant tissue culture under specific wavelengths of light. In other examples,
the research study may require the variation of the pressure within the chamber.
System modifications can be made to allow for variable pressure control in the Hygro-
Remote to meet specific research needs. In processes such as food storage, it is often
required to study the effect of various gases such as CO2, nitrogen, air, and other
mixtures on the food. The Hygro-Remote system can be adapted to incorporate feed for
gases to allow testing under different gaseous compositions and conditions. On the other
hand, a vacuum might be required as the testing condition. The Hygro-Remote can be
adapted to provide a vacuum environment for testing. By consulting with Geo Calibration,
the Hygro-Remote can be customized to meet diverse research needs, providing stable
and precise conditions to obtain reliable results.
Conclusion
Humidity chambers have a wide range of applications in several industries. Due to their
diverse applicability, they should be seen as a staple for every laboratory. The compact
size of the Hygro-Remote alongside its added advantages such as low power
consumption and ease of operation makes it convenient and effective for research use.
This paper has reviewed the features of the Hygro Remote humidity control system. It
presents an overview of its operating principles and device architecture. The different
scenarios presented give a rich insight to the diverse range of applications possible with
the Hygro-Remote.
Further Information
To learn more about the Hygro-Remote humidity and temperature control system
for your specific research need contact our engineers at Geo Calibration.
Website: www.Geocalibration.com
Email: brm@GeoCalibration.com
Contact: Bruce R. MacArthur
Phone: +1 (631) 471 -6157 and +1 (631) 943-1999
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please contact the sender and destroy any copies of this document.GEO Calibration, Inc.
2190 Smithtown Avenue
Ronkonkoma, NY 11779
Tel: (631)471-6157
Fax: (631) 471-6158
Address: 2190 Smithtown Avenue, Ronkonkoma NY 11779
GEO Calibration Inc., designs, manufactures, sells and distributes a wide range of
temperature and humidity instruments for research and development, pharma, industrial
manufacturing and the calibration service sectors. Our humidity generation, sensors and
chamber products continue to be the market leader in accuracy, repeatability, and
stability. With over 90 years combined experience in the advanced manufacturing space,
our knowledge, design flexibility and instrumentation allow us to offer the correct and
cost-effective solution for our customers. GEO Calibration’s growth and success are
build on its continued commitment to excellence in quality.
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The information transmitted is intended only for the person or entity to which it is addressed and may contain confidential
and/or privileged material. Any review, re-transmission, dissemination, or other use of, or taking of any action in reliance
upon, this information by persons or entities other than the intended recipient is prohibited. If you received this in error,
please contact the sender and destroy any copies of this document.GEO Calibration, Inc.
2190 Smithtown Avenue
Ronkonkoma, NY 11779
Tel: (631)471-6157
Fax: (631) 471-6158
Bozic A, Kanduc M (2021) Relative humidity in droplet and airborne transmission of
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