Pest control procedures in the food industry
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Pest control procedures in the food industry January 2009
Contents Introduction 3 Food safety 4 Rodents 8 Cockroaches 10 Flies 12 Ants 14 Stored product insects 16 Birds and other vertebrates 20 Inspection and auditing of food premises 22 Pest prevention 28 Non-chemical control methods 37 Chemical control methods 40 Pest control contracts 46 Acknowledgements 50 Useful addresses 51 2
1 Introduction
The presence of pests in food production and
preparation areas has always been unacceptable.
Yet while the pest management industry has seen
many advances in monitoring and baiting techniques
in the past 30 years, some of the practices in the food
industry have not kept up with these new techniques.
Concerns for the environment and the requirements
by regulators for improved practices in the industry
have meant that new methods to control pests have
had to be devised.
The Chartered Institute of Environmental Health
(CIEH) has assessed these developments and
feels that now is the time to consider whether the
techniques that have been common in the food
and pest management industries need to be revised.
Since many of the people involved in maintaining
and regulating food safety are environmental health
practioners (EHPs), the CIEH has taken the lead in
devising the standards which it believes should now
operate in the food industry.
These guidelines have therefore been drawn up by
the National Pest Advisory Panel (NPAP) of the CIEH
after full consultation with all those involved in food
production, preparation and retailing, together with
representatives of the pest management industry.
Advice has also been sought from government
agencies involved in research and enforcement,
as well as the main bodies which lay down auditing
standards.
These guidelines are aimed at the food manufacturing
sector. While the principles are the same for production
(farmers and growers), raw material and ingredient
suppliers, warehousing, distribution and retail, the
level of pest control contract specification will vary.
The CIEH would like to thank all those who have
contributed to the preparation of these draft
guidelines.
Dr Stephen Battersby
CIEH President
3
2 Food safety
2.1 Overview Article 5 of the regulation requires that the
The presence of pests in any food handling procedure or procedures be based upon the
premises is unacceptable. The risks posed by HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point)
pests include: principle.
• The spread of disease – pathogens are However, it does not necessarily constrain food
transferred from the gut or external surface business operators to implement a HACCP
of the pest system if this is not appropriate.
• Damage to property
• Contamination of work surfaces and Pest management is part of the Good
foodstuffs Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for food
• Adverse public opinion and loss of businesses, which is a prerequisite for the
reputation HACCP-based procedures in place. As an
• Prosecution and closure integral part of the GMPs, it should be
• Poor staff relations carried out with due diligence and properly
documented.
The objective of the Pest Management
Programme should be to prevent, as far as 2.4 Pest Management Standards in the
practicable, the introduction of pests onto the Food Industry
site and to reduce the conditions that may Food safety audits may be carried out by
encourage their presence. auditors from within the company or from
an independent organisation. The audit is
2.2 Food Hygiene Regulations generally based on a series of criteria set out
2.2.1 Regulation (EC) 178/2002 of the European to ensure the highest standard of compliance
Parliament with a specific aspect of food safety. The
This regulation lays down the principles and section which deals with pest management
requirements of food law. will usually require zero infestation and
conformity with criteria covering type of pest
Article 14 of Regulation (EC) 178/2002 deals management programme; permitted materials
with unsafe food. It is an offence not to and techniques and record keeping.
comply with article 14 under the General Food Care is essential when setting criteria to ensure
Regulations 2004. Food shall be deemed that they achieve the required result. Over
unsafe if it is considered to be injurious to –prescriptive criteria may place unnecessary
health or unfit for human consumption. restrictions on the pest management
programme, extending the period before
2.2.2 Regulation (EC) 852/2004 control is achieved.
These regulations lay down general hygiene
requirements for all food business operators 2.4.1 Risk-based standards
and state that: If standards and guidelines for pest control
are to achieve the aim of promoting best
• The layout, design and construction of food practice they must be practical and flexible.
premises are to permit good food hygiene The standard should be risk-based in order to
practices including protection against address the issues raised by the following:
contamination and in particular, pest control.
• Adequate procedures should be in place to Risk to public health due to activities of pests
control pests Pests are known to carry a range of pathogens
which can be transmitted to humans either
2.3 HACCP – Hazard Analysis Critical through contaminated food or their presence
Control Point in the environment.
According to EC Regulation No 852/2004 on
the hygiene of foodstuffs, with the exception Risk to food safety
of activities at the level of primary production, This will be the priority for all engaged in the
food business operators are required to put in production, storage, transport, processing and
place procedures, which manage food safety sale of food. The risks include:
within their establishment.
4
• P hysical contamination of product by rodent • P
resence of non-target species. Are there
droppings, insect parts or other foreign records or reported sightings of protected
bodies species of birds or mammals? Are there
• Introduction of micro organisms areas away from the buildings where the
• Damage to product or packaging presence of toxic rodenticide baits may
present a risk of secondary poisoning?
Risk to public safety and the environment
The irresponsible or inaccurate use of 2.4.3 Environmental management and
pesticides may present a hazard to technicians, pesticide reduction
site staff and members of the general public, There should be an increased reliance on
as well as to the environment through environmental management and inspection
contamination of water, damage to plants and of the site to reduce the attraction to pests.
the effect on non-target species of animals.
Pest management programmes should aim
2.4.2 Application of standards to reduce the use of pesticides, particularly
When applying the relevant standard to pest outdoors, by enhanced prevention programmes
management such as rodent control, reference based on proofing and hygiene.
should be made to the following:
For example, reliance on toxic rodent baits
• A re rodents active on site at the time of the outdoors as a permanent indicator of rat
inspection? (Evidence of, or bait taken by, activity is no longer acceptable. Knowledge of
field mice or voles away from the buildings the site, its history and potential for infestation
should not constitute an infestation) through regular and thorough inspections will
• Past history of site. Is there documented replace perimeter baiting as the first line of
evidence that rodents have been active in defence.
the last two years?
• Site potential for infestation. Does the 2.5 Pest Awareness and Staff Training
layout, construction, manufacturing process, Training should be given appropriate to the
hygiene practices or product lend the site personnel concerned, for example using the
liable to infestation? Are there water courses, CIEH DVD Pests on the Menu.
railways, amenity sites nearby. Is the site
situated within or adjacent to a high risk As a minimum all departmental personnel
area? should be aware of the pests that they are likely
• Status of neighbouring properties. Are to encounter in their part of the process and
the activities of adjacent properties or the importance of pest prevention. Particular
businesses liable to attract pests into the attention should be given to incoming goods
vicinity? such as raw materials or packaging.
5
Pests and their habits The pest sightings record should be checked
Training on the identification and habits of and signed on each contractor visit to the site
the more common pests of the food industry and daily where an in-house programme is in
can be given by the pest control contractor or place. The contents of the pest sightings record
through independent consultants. This is best should be part of the management review
achieved in the form of a brief presentation process.
rather than distribution of literature, and
where appropriate can be tailored to particular 2.6.2 Pest control report
industry segments for example, bakery or Inspection reports must be concise and legible
confectionery. and stored in an easily accessible binder.
A typical pest control report will contain as a
Pest prevention minimum:
The importance of pest prevention through
good hygiene, stock management and • T reatment date
exclusion practices should be emphasised. Site • Details of the pest control contractor and
personnel have the day to day responsibility name of technician servicing the site
of ensuring a pest management programme is • Details of the customer and name of the
maintained. contact person on site
• Type of visit: scheduled, follow-up, callout, etc
Information posters • Pests found
In addition to training sessions the posting • Action taken
of information at individual workstations • Pesticide used
or sensitive locations such as rest areas and • Location of baits and monitors (this may be
goods-inwards doorways can act as a reminder in the form of a checklist or plan)
of the requirements of the Pest Management • Quantities used
Programme. These can remind staff of pest- • Risk assessment
related risks and preventive measures such as: • Post treatment precautions
• Recommendations on proofing, hygiene and
• D oor and window disciplines storage
• Hygiene and housekeeping • Details of follow-up inspections
• Stock storage and rotation
Individual specifications may include
2.6 Reporting and Record Keeping additional reports such as analyses and trends
The organisation of a reporting system and for each bait or monitor.
maintenance of records is essential if Good
Manufacturing Practice (GMP) status is to be The report must be signed by the pest control
achieved. technician and the customer.
Records must be kept for the following reasons: Where anticoagulant rodenticides are used
outdoors the following additional records
• o highlight any recommendations
T should be kept:
• To demonstrate compliance with legislation
• To monitor pest management processes • A site plan identifying areas where bait has
• As evidence of compliance to third party been laid
auditors • Details of the active ingredient, formulation
and quantities used
2.6.1 Pest sightings log • Inspection reports, which demonstrate the
A record should be kept of any pest sightings, treatment frequency to check and replace
including those made by personnel other than baits and to search for and remove dead
those involved in pest management. This can rodent bodies where appropriate
be in the form of a book or a folder where the • Reports of any effect on non-target species
following information can be logged: and action taken to reduce risk
• Reports of any interference or removal of
• ame of person making report
N baits
• Date and time • Reports on conditions, which may adversely
• Location affect treatment and remedial actions
• Pest seen • Evidence that control has been achieved
• Any other relevant information within the prescribed timescales
In addition to entering the sighting in the book, 2.6.3 Other records
the sighting must be reported to the appointed • Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for pesticides used
manager in charge of pest management who on site
will decide on further action. • COSHH Risk Assessments*
• Site Risk Assessments*
Where a pest control contractor is employed • Environmental Risk Assessments*
the sighting will normally result in a request • Qualifications, insurance membership
for service. In the case of an on-going and accreditation documents
riddance programme the reports will provide
information on the success of the treatment. * These may not be relevant for each site
or may be in a combined form.
6
7
3 Rodents
3.1 Rats 3.3 Squirrels
In Britain, there are two species of rat; the In the UK the grey squirrel (Sciurus
Norway or brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) carolinensis) is regarded as a pest species. The
and the ship or black rat (Rattus rattus). The red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is fully protected.
Norway rat has largely replaced the ship rat
over the past 100 years. The grey squirrel was introduced into the UK
in the mid 19th century and has now become
Norway rats eat on average one tenth of their a major pest of forestry. In addition they may
body weight each day. They are considered enter buildings in search of food and shelter
omnivorous but if available, cereals are resulting in damage to products and structures.
preferred. Rats must drink water daily unless Under the Destructive Imported Animals Act
the food source is extremely moist. Due to their 1932 and the Wildlife and Countryside Act
water requirements, runs to a water source 1981 it is illegal to release the grey squirrel into
may be evident and give an indication of the wild.
harbourages.
3.4 General biology and behaviour
They explore locations quite freely but Rodents have the ability to adapt themselves
have a fear of new objects. This is known as to almost any environment. Their great
neophobia and should be taken into account reproductive potential, natural cunning and
when baits are checked initially after a survivability puts them among the most
treatment. successful animals on earth.
On farms, stored animal feed and crops, Rodents use the five senses of smell, touch,
bedding, even animal waste will present hearing, sight and taste in order to survive.
an ideal environment to support rodent
infestations. Rats living and feeding outside The sense of touch is considered the most
may enter buildings with the onset of the highly developed of the rodents’ senses using
winter months. the vibrissae or whiskers on the muzzle and
guard hairs that are found among the fur.
Ship rats are very good climbers and are These organs help rodents orientate in the
usually found indoors, often high up. Although dark and help them judge shapes and sizes
they are rare in the UK, they are still found in of objects. After a short learning period on
some port areas. the whereabouts of objects in the immediate
environment, runs become well established.
3.2 Mice Smell will also play a part in the forming of the
The house mouse, Mus domesticus, is the runs. When danger threatens, automatic use
common pest in urban environments, although of this information will be vital.
field mice (wood mice and yellow-necked mice,
Apodemus spp) can be a problem in autumn 3.4.1 Problems associated with rats and mice
and winter. Where these enter premises, The main reasons for control are to reduce or
control is the same as for house mice. eliminate:
Mice will drink water if available but can • Spread of disease
survive on food with a moisture content of • Contamination of products
15 percent. They are omnivorous; feeding from • Damage to food stocks and property
a number of different points during the course
of a night’s feed. Whole wheat, which has been Rodents can cause damage to food intended
partly eaten by mice, has a kibbled appearance for humans, by consumption, contamination
while whole grain, partly eaten by rats, has a with faeces and urine, as well as other physical
cut or chopped appearance. and microbiological contaminants.
In domestic premises, locations favoured by Rodents have the capability to spread many
mice are food storage and preparation areas human pathogens, such as Salmonella spp,
such as kitchens and pantries. Airing cupboards, Listeria spp, Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium
sub floor areas, enclosed pipes, baths and loft parvum, Leptospira spp, Hantaviruses, Bubonic
areas are also favoured locations. plague and Toxoplasmosis.
8
All rodents have a pair of incisor teeth in their
upper and lower jaws. These teeth continue Rodents can cause damage to
to grow throughout their life to make good
the wear caused by gnawing. Almost every
food intended for humans, by
type of food commodity is subject to rodent
attack. Damage is also caused to the fabric of
consumption, contamination
buildings, to electric wiring and plumbing. with faeces and urine
3.4.2 Problems associated with grey squirrels
Grey squirrels are less cautious than rats and
will readily enter buildings during daylight.
They are physically larger and stronger and
are capable of breaking through poorly fitted
proofing materials.
As with rats and mice considerable damage
can be caused by their powerful jaws and
sharp incisor teeth.
9
4 Cockroaches
Based on fossil records, cockroaches have It is not as cold tolerant as Blatta orientalis
remained little changed for 200 million years. and Blattella germanica. Typical infestations in
the United Kingdom are port areas, where it is
There are over 4000 different species of introduced via ships. Sites infested include food
cockroaches worldwide – not all are regarded premises, greenhouses, zoos, large centrally
as pests. Those species, which are now classed heated humid environments, etc.
as pests originated in tropical climates but
have now become cosmopolitan in temperate Australian cockroach (Periplaneta australasiae)
zones, having been distributed by commercial Adult size 25-35 mm; Adults are reddish brown,
activities. fully winged with a yellow to pale brown band
around the pronotum and a yellow streak
4.1 Common cockroach species on the outer edge of the base of the front
The cockroach species commonly found in the wings. Late instar nymphs have pale yellow
UK are: markings on the lateral margins of the thorax
and abdomen. This species closely resembles
Oriental cockroach (Blatta orientalis) Periplaneta americana. Not yet widely
Males are approximately 25mm long, females established in the United Kingdom, it requires
approximately 32mm long; shiny and very dark hot, moist conditions to survive. It is found in
brown, nearly black in appearance, nymphs greenhouses, therefore potted plants may be
(immatures) may be reddish brown; they a source of infestation. Pet shops, particularly
are poor climbers on smooth surfaces, which those with large numbers of heated fish tanks,
may limit their distribution within a building; can also be a source of infestation for this
they appear to be cold tolerant in that they species.
are often found outside buildings, in drains,
gardens, sewers, external brickwork etc, a factor 4.1.1 Egg case (oothecae) development
which should be remembered when controlling in cockroaches
them. Oriental cockroach (Blatta orientalis)
The female Oriental cockroaches carry the
German cockroach (Blattella germanica) oothecae for about 30 hours, after which time
Adult size 13-16mm; the adult is light brown she deposits them, dropping or attaching them
in colour with two dark almost parallel near to a food source. Each ootheca contains
longitudinal stripes on their pronotal shield; 16 eggs which hatch in approximately six
they are found throughout buildings but show weeks, but this period may be greatly extended
a preference for warm humid areas; they are in cool conditions. In this situation the egg
good climbers, being able to climb vertical case represents a biological time bomb waiting
glass or tiled surfaces; an infestation of these to hatch and continue an infestation.
cockroaches can be quickly established once
they have entered any premises. German cockroach (Blattella germanica)
The ootheca, containing 35-40 eggs, is carried
Brown-banded cockroach (Supella longipalpa) by the female until it is within one to two days
Adult size 11-15mm; this cockroach is small, of hatching. Small 1st instar nymphs emerge
light brown in colour and is often mistaken for from the ootheca and easily infest tiny cracks
the German cockroach; this cockroach needs and crevices in the immediate area.
hot conditions to survive, it prefers 27°C and
over but it is becoming more common as a pest American cockroach (Periplaneta americana)
in the UK; it is typically found in light switches, The female deposits oothecae a few hours or
electrical appliances, motor housings, etc. up to 4 days before the 1st instars emerge.
American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) The ootheca, containing 10-15 eggs, is dropped
Adult size 34-53mm; the adult is is reddish or glued to a suitable surface, usually in a
brown in colour and is fully winged. Male pocket of high humidity near a food source.
wings extend beyond the tip of the abdomen;
female wings do not. There is a pale brown Australian cockroach (Periplaneta australasiae)
to yellowish band around the edges of the The female cockroach deposits the egg case
pronotum. This species is not well established containing around 16 eggs which hatch after a
in Britain. period of approximately 80 days.
104.2 General biology and behaviour This behaviour is influenced by them finding
Cockroaches are omnivorous. In addition to the same suitable harbourage. They also
conventional foodstuffs, they will feed on a produce an aggregation pheromone, which is
wide range of organic matter including other a chemical messenger to other cockroaches
cockroaches. Their activity peaks during hours of the same species, who respond by being
of darkness. attracted to the source of the pheromone. As
this pheromone is present in cockroach faeces,
They exhibit incomplete metamorphosis; the cockroaches will also be attracted to areas
juvenile stages or nymphs resemble the adults. previously contaminated by cockroaches.
Each cockroach moults several times in its life
cycle producing a larger nymph and eventually The development of cockroaches is affected by
moulting to the adult stage. Some species are food quality, humidity, temperature, and day
fully winged in the adults, others may have length.
reduced wings or wing buds. When wings are
present, they are leathery and veined. 4.2.1 Food contamination problem
Cockroaches foul their environment with
faeces, regurgitated food and they taint
materials with their characteristic smell. The air
Cockroaches foul their environment with in infested premises may contain fragments of
their exoskeletons and cockroach excrement.
faeces, regurgitated food and they taint
Cockroaches also contaminate food directly as
materials with their characteristic smell they move from filth to food indiscriminately
and are therefore implicated in the mechanical
transmission of many pathogens, such as those
causing food poisoning and wound infections.
The females of those cockroaches classed as
pests all produce egg cases or oothecae, which Because residual allergens can remain as
contain eggs, which hatch inside the case from active contaminants for some time following a
which nymphal cockroaches emerge. treatment, a thorough cleaning regime should
be carried out afterwards.
During the daytime, cockroaches spend most
of their time in harbourages grouped together.
115 Flies
5.1 Common fly species stored meat as a larviposition site. Carcasses
Common housefly (Musca domestica) of birds and rodents are used by these flies
Adults are 6-8mm long, with a wingspan as food sources for their larvae and therefore
of 13-15mm; the thorax is grey with four adults may be encountered as a nuisance in
longitudinal dark stripes; the sides of houses, though they are rarely found indoors in
the abdomen are yellowish and may be normal circumstances.
transparent; the larva also known as a maggot
– undergoes larval moults, gradually increasing Fruit flies (Drosophila spp)
in size and changing colour from white to Adult fruit flies are small, yellowish/brown
cream; pupa is about 6mm long and may be with a darkly striped abdomen; they have
yellow, brown or black. Houseflies are potential prominent compound eyes that are generally
vectors of a wide range of diseases such as red in colour, although darker variants occur;
dysentery, gastroenteritis and tuberculosis the wings have two clear notches in the front
and can also transmit intestinal worms. These border, which can clearly be seen with a hand
flies move from filth to food indiscriminately lens. Fruit flies are commonly associated with
and may therefore move pathogens from dirty human food preparation and storage areas.
to clean areas. Fly spotting is produced when They are a source of annoyance in many
feeding and defecating. kitchens, restaurants, etc. They are attracted
to alcohol and waste fruit, and can build up to
Lesser housefly (Fannia canicularis) very large numbers when these food/breeding
Adults are 5-6mm long, with a wingspan of materials are present.
10-12mm and with a grey thorax, which has
three indistinct longitudinal stripes on it; the Moth flies (Family Psychodidae)
abdomen has an extensive area of yellow at Adults are 3-4mm long with a wingspan of
its base. Potential vectors of a wide range of 10-12mm; they are greyish/brown in colour
diseases, such as dysentery, gastroenteritis and with wings covered in scales, as is the whole
tuberculosis, they can also transmit intestinal body, giving the fly the appearance of a small
worms. As with the housefly they may moth; the antennae of the moth flies are hairy
move pathogens from dirty to clean areas. in appearance with large hairs emanating
Fly spotting is produced when feeding and from the intersegmental junctions. The adult
defecating. flies are frequently abundant in sewage works.
Females lay their eggs in a suitable medium,
Blowflies (Calliphora spp) typically the wet organic matter found in
Adults are 9-13mm long with a wingspan of drains. In a kitchen/food processing area
18-20mm; adults are large robust flies with a these flies are often found breeding in the
stout abdomen; the thorax and abdomen are slime layer in floor traps. As flies are breeding
black/blue and dusky in colour. Blow flies are in such areas, there is a possibility that they
attracted to rotting animal remains on which can transfer bacterial particles. These flies are
they lay their eggs. In their search, they can really only a nuisance pest and not of any
mistake stored meat as a suitable ‘host’. The great public health significance.
possibility of disease spread is similar to the
housefly. Phorid flies / Scuttle flies (Family Phoridae)
Adults are 3-4mm long with a wingspan of
Flesh fly (Sarcophaga carnaria) 9-10mm; the thorax is usually dark brown/
Adults are 10-18mm long with a wingspan tan in colour with a distinctive humped
of about 22mm; they are bristly grey with appearance. Phorid flies are found in
three distinct black stripes on the thorax; the association with moist decaying organic
abdomen has checkered patterning, which matter. They are often indicative of blocked or
changes according to the angle of view. The broken drainage systems. The adult flies have
hind end of the larva is rounded and the a characteristic habit of scuttling in a fast run
posterior spiracles are sunk into a deep pit instead of immediately taking to wing when
surrounded by fleshy lobes. Flesh flies exploit disturbed, hence their name ‘scuttle flies’.
decaying organic matter for larval feeding Because they frequent unsanitary sites, there is
sites, for example, rotten meat, open wounds, always the potential of these insects carrying
dung and carrion and they will also parasitise disease-causing bacteria.
insect larvae and molluscs. They can also utilise
125.2 General biology and behaviour 5.2.1 Pest status of flies
Flies have a complete life cycle, consisting of 4 The fly is a highly mobile pest, able to fly from
main stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult. The filth to food carrying with it a wide range of
duration of each developmental stage is very disease-causing organisms on its body.
much dependent on temperature and food/
moisture availability. There are many thousands of species of
flies; however, relatively few interact with
humans. Those that do are among the most
destructive of pest species, spreading diseases
The increase and ease of international to man and domesticated animals as well as
contaminating food and packaging.
travel in the air and on the oceans means
that there are very few barriers left to stop The increase and ease of international travel
in the air and on the oceans mean that there
the spread of insects worldwide are very few barriers left to stop the spread of
insects worldwide.
The mobility of flying insects is the primary
All true flies (adult stage) can only ingest reason why their status as pests is so
liquid food. Should they land on a solid food important. This allows them to visit many
source, they produce large quantities of saliva diverse and contaminated habitats within the
together with regurgitated gut contents. course of their relatively short life span.
The mixture, rich in digestive enzymes, is
vomited onto the food together with any living
bacteria, viruses and protozoa present in the
gut. The resulting liquid food is then sucked
back up. This process may be repeated several
times during which time the fly may defecate
to reduce the overall body weight in readiness
for flight. This feeding mechanism underlies
the principle mode of food contamination with
disease pathogens and spoilage organisms.
136 Ants
6.1 Significant species and habits numbers on window-sills and in fly killer
Ants belong to the order of insects known catch trays.
as Hymenoptera which includes some of the
most highly evolved insects such as wasps and Pharaoh’s ant queens have wings, but rarely
bees. They have a caste system by which nest fly. They form new colonies by “budding”,
building, nursing of young and foraging for taking a few workers from the parent nest and
food is undertaken by workers (sterile females). moving to a new site a short distance away.
Reproduction is performed by fertile females Both garden ants and pharaoh’s ants lay
(queens) and males. pheromone trails which are then followed by
other worker ants to food sources. Proteins
All ants possess: (meat, nuts, cheese, and blood) are the
preferred foods of Pharaoh’s ants.
• Elbowed antennae
• Biting mouthparts Garden ants also feed on these foods, together
• A narrow waist between the abdomen and with sweet foods. Like some other insects they
thorax also collect seeds and nectar and feed on
“honeydew” from aphids.
Three main species may be encountered in and
around food premises: Roger’s ant does not follow scent trails and
seems to feed exclusively on protein such as
Pharaoh’s ant (Monomorium pharaonis) dead insects, also small insect pupae and
Of tropical origin and has taken advantage of springtails, which they sting, then drag back to
heated premises, notably hospitals and high the nest.
rise flats.
6.2 Pest status of ants
Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex humilis) Although considered as a nuisance pest, the
Also requires high temperatures but can thrive presence of ants can still have an impact on
on a variety of foods. the safety and saleability of food.
Roger’s ant (Hypoponera punctatissima) Prefers Contamination of foods
damp locations, particularly in crevices around Ants find their way into kitchens and
drains, and is not confined to heated premises. production areas and there is a risk that food
may become contaminated by ant bodies.
Black garden ant (Lasius niger) Many infectious organisms are present in
Native of the UK and readily enters buildings in hospitals and these may be transmitted to
search of food. patients by ants crawling on infected surfaces
and used dressings.
Ants live in colonies founded by a single, fertile
female or queen. In some tropical species, Waste
several new queens remain in the parent nest. Food containing ants must be discarded to
All spend most of their time laying eggs. prevent contaminated product being sold or
served.
There is generally only one queen in colonies
of the garden ant. In contrast with most other The presence of ants in packaging will also
insects, the larvae of ants are fed until they make the product unsaleable. The disposal of
become adult. waste food may result in a greater chance of
rodent infestations.
A particular feature of mating in the garden
ant is the swarming which usually occurs in Lost reputation and employment
summer, when winged males and females Most food business staff handle foods which
leave the nest. The swarming period of flying are highly attractive to ants. Prosecutions by
ants is of short duration and signifies the environmental health departments, stopped
beginning of the breakdown of the nest. production and the adverse publicity from
product recalls will lead to damage to the
Swarming also occurs in the Roger’s ant. At company’s reputation and financial loss. It
such times the winged females (the few males will also lead to job losses if premises are
are wingless) may be found in considerable closed down.
1415
7 Stored product insects
Stored product insects (SPI) are significant Particular species of SPI normally, but not
pests as they spend the majority of their time, always, infest specific types of product:
including breeding, hidden in their chosen
food type. Inspection and early detection can
Beans, peas and Bruchid beetles
therefore prove difficult. The group known as
similar foods
SPI in this context include mites. Commodities
attacked include cereals, nuts, dried fruit and Coffee, cocoa Flour beetles,
pulses. Merchant grain
beetles, Warehouse
7.1 Categories and Common Types of moths
Stored Product Pests
SPI fall into two main categories according Cheese Mites, Larder beetle,
to their ability to infest product: Copra beetle
Dried fruit Indian meal moth,
• Primary – those having the ability to Merchant grain
penetrate whole grains. These are further beetles, Tobacco
sub-divided into: beetle, Dried fruit
Internal - those species whose life cycle beetle, Mites
is completed within the grain or bean
The hole left by the exiting adult Dried vegetables Indian meal moth,
is characteristic miscellaneous
External - those whose life cycle is completed general feeders
outside the grain Flour and milled Flour beetles, Mill
• Secondary – tend to feed on the fungus cereal products moth, Indian meal
present in poorly stored or damaged product moth, Cadelle, Flat
grain beetle, Mites
Grain Rice weevil, Grain
(Wheat, rice, corn weevil, Lesser grain
and other cereals) borer, Saw- toothed
grain beetle, Cadelle,
Flour beetle, Indian
meal moth, and
Mites
Macaroni and Rice and grain
spaghetti weevils, Milled cereal
pests
Nuts and Indian meal moth,
confectionery Merchant grain
beetle, Mites
Animal materials Dermestid beetles,
Clothes moths,
Scavenging moths
7.1.1 Identification
Bruchid beetle (Acanthoscelides obtectus)
The adult beetle is 3-4mm long. The elytra
(wing cases) are variegated with yellowish and
dark brown patches of hairs. The hind femur
has one large and two small teeth. The eyes
are large and emarginated. The elytra do not
entirely cover the abdomen. The antennae are
serrate. The larva is 3-4mm long, whitish in
colour, and crescent shaped with reduced legs.
16Dried fruit beetle (Carpophilus hemipterus) wing span of 12-18mm. The mature larva is
The adult is a flattish beetle, approximately 12-14mm long and is creamy white with a
2-4mm long. The short elytra (wing covers) brown head capsule and brown body markings.
leave some of the abdominal segments Larvae have three pairs of jointed thoracic legs
exposed. The body is dark brown with yellowish and five pairs of abdominal prolegs.
patches on the wing covers. The larvae are
elongated, parallel-sided and lightly pigmented, Warehouse moth (Ephestia elutella)
reaching a length of 9mm before pupation. The adult is a greyish moth with a pattern of
two obscure bands across the forewings. It
Flour mite (Acarus siro) has a wingspan of 12-18mm. The mature larva
The adult mite is around 0.5-0.7mm in length. is 10-15mm long and is creamy white with a
It is white in colour with a pearly iridescence, brown head capsule and brown body markings.
its legs often have a brown or pink colouration.
Its body is divided into two clear sections with Mill moth (Ephestia kuehniella)
a distinct line between the two sections known The adult is a greyish moth with a pattern of
as the proterosoma (the anterior end) and the two obscure bands across the forewings. It
hysterosoma (the posterior section). has a wingspan of 18-28mm. The mature larva
is 15-20mm long and is creamy white with a
Leather beetle (Dermestes maculates) brown head capsule and brown body markings.
The adult is an oval-shaped beetle,
approximately 6-10mm long. The antennae Brown house moth
are short and clubbed. The colour is black (Hofmanophila pseudospretella)
with patches of white hairs on the sides of the Open wing span 15-25mm. Upper side of
thorax and underside of the body. The larvae forewing bronze-brown in colour with several
are hairy, have six legs, and a pair of curved dark brown to black flecks or spots.
projections, urogomphi, on the penultimate
abdominal segment. Tobacco beetle (Lasioderma serricorne)
Length 2-3mm, reddish brown, domed ovoid
White shouldered house moth beetle. Head hidden under hood-like prothorax.
(Endrosis sarcitrella) Easily mistaken for the common furniture
Open wingspan 10-23 mm. Readily beetle, Anobium punctatum, or the biscuit
distinguished from other stored product moths beetle, Stegobium paniceum.
by the covering of white scales on the head
and thorax. The shining buff upper side of the Copra beetle (Necrobia rufipes)
forewing is speckled with dark brown. Adults are 4-6mm long. They are shiny,
metallic blue with reddish legs and clubbed
Tropical warehouse moth (Ephestia cautella) antennae. The larva is 10mm long when fully
The adult is a greyish moth with a pattern grown and has a dark brown head and dorsal
of two bands across the forewings. It has a thoracic segments.
17Merchant grain beetle (Oryzaephilus mercator) Biscuit beetle (Stegobium paniceum)
The adult is an active, slim-bodied, dull reddish Length 2-3mm. Reddish brown, oval beetles,
brown beetle between 2.5 and 3.5mm in with a dense covering of yellowish hairs. The
length. The thorax has six distinct teeth on head is hidden under the hood-like prothorax.
each margin, giving a saw-like edge. Wings are Easily mistaken for the common furniture
well developed; adults can fly and are attracted beetle, Anobium punctatum, or the cigarette
to light. beetle, Lasioderma serricorne. The larvae are
active initially but become fat, sluggish and
It resembles the saw-toothed grain beetle, eventually incapable of movement. A fully-
Oryzaephilus surinamensis - care is needed in grown larva is about 5mm long.
differentiating the two species.
Rust-red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum)
Saw-toothed grain beetle The adult length is 3-4.5mm. The shape is
(Oryzaephilus surinamensis) elongated, the antennae have a distinct three-
The adult is an active, slim-bodied, dull reddish segmented club. The colour is reddish brown.
brown beetle between 2.5 and 3.5mm in Easily mistaken for Tribolium confusum, the
length. The thorax has six distinct teeth on confused flour beetle. The cylindrical wiry larva
each margin, giving a saw-like edge. Wings are is 4-5mm long when fully grown and is white
well developed but it has not been observed tinged with yellow. It has a pair of immovable
to fly. projections, urogomphi, on the final abdominal
segment.
It resembles the merchant grain beetle,
Oryzaephilus mercator - care is needed in Confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum)
differentiating the two species. The adult length is 3-4.5mm. The shape is
elongated, the antennae have a gradual five-
Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) segmented club. Easily mistaken for Tribolium
Open wing span about 16mm. The forewing castaneum, the rust-red flour beetle. The
has a broad grey band across the bronze brown cylindrical wiry larva is 4-5mm long when fully
wings. grown and is white tinged with yellow. It has a
pair of immovable projections, urogomphi, on
Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) the final abdominal segment.
The cylindrical body has the head produced
to form a snout-like proboscis; the antennae 7.1.2 Life Cycles of common stored product insects
are elbowed and clubbed. The elytra (wing in the food industry
cases) have four dull reddish spots. Adults are See table on page 19.
2-3.5mm long, averaging 2.5mm and can fly at
high temperatures. 7.1.3 Preventive measures
Due to their close relationship with the
product, an infestation of stored product
insects can often remain undetected in the
Stored product insects are significant initial stages. In order to prevent spread of SPI
the following steps should be taken:
pests as they spend the majority of their
• All incoming raw materials should be
time, including breeding, within their sampled for the presence of insects
chosen food type • Strict stock rotation must be implemented
• Thorough cleaning is required to prevent
build up of product within plant and
machinery
• Monitoring procedures should be in place to
Grain weevil (Sitophilus granarius) identify early signs of infestation
The adult is 2-4mm long with a dark brown, • Staff must be aware of the high-risk areas
elongated, cylindrical body. The head has a and products on site
snout-like prolongation with mouthparts at the • Accurate identification is essential in order to
tip. The antennae are elbowed with a club. It pinpoint the likely source of the infestation
is similar in appearance to the rice weevil but
lacks the dull brown spots on the elytra (wing
covers). Unlike the rice weevil, the elytra are
fused, flight is therefore not possible. The larva
is 3-4mm long, with a white, fleshy, crescent-
shaped body, and has no legs.
187.1.2 Life cycles of common stored product insects in the food industry
Number of days spent as (dependent on temperature)
Species Egg Larva / nymph Pupa Adult
Bruchid beetle 5 14 - 21 5-6 7 - 28+
Acanthoscelides obtectus
Dried fruit beetle 1-4 7 - 10 7 90 - 120
Carpophilus hemipterus
Flour mite 3-4 15 - 20 days N/A Egg to adult
Acarus siro through 30 - 140 days.
nymphal stages
Leather beetle 5 44 14 100+
Dermestes maculatus
White shouldered house moth 6 - 23 38 - 102 7 - 31 2 - 4 (male),
Endrosis sarcitrella 3 - 9 (female)
Tropical warehouse moth 3 - 15 20 - 64 5 - 12 4 - 20
Ephestia cautella
Warehouse moth 10 - 14 20 - 200 10 - 28 9 - 21
Ephestia elutella
Mill moth 4 - 28 22 - 128 1 - 16 7 - 21
Ephestia kuehniella
Brown house moth, 8 - 110 70 - 150 13 - 98 10 - 20
Hofmanophila pseudospretella (plus 20 - 155
diapause)
Tobacco beetle 6 - 21 18 - 69 4 - 12 25 - 45
Lasioderma serricorne
Copra beetle 6 - 21 18 - 70 4 - 21 20 - 45
Necrobia rufipes
Merchant grain beetle 8 - 17 28 - 49 6 - 21 180 - 3 years +
Oryzaephilus mercator
Saw-toothed grain beetle 3 - 17 14 - 49 6 - 21 180 - 3 years +
Oryzaephilus surinamensis
Indian meal moth 2-8 13 - 288 12 - 43 7 - 43
Plodia interpunctella
Rice weevil 4 - 14 20 - 70 4 - 10 Up to 150
Sitophilus oryzae
Grain weevil 3 - 21 20 - 143 4 - 23 210 - 360
Sitophilus granarius
Biscuit beetle, 8 - 37 5 - 150 9 – 18 In cocoon 7 - 12
Stegobium paniceum (Non-feeding
42 - 56)
Rust – red flour beetle 3 - 14 12 - 60 4 - 14 450 (female),
Tribolium castaneum 600 (male)
Confused flour beetle 4 - 30 15 - 98 5 - 22 435 (female),
Tribolium confusum 540 (male)
198 Birds and other vertebrates
8.1 Birds The only gulls, which may be killed, are the
Under the European Wild Birds Directive 1979, greater black-backed, the lesser black-backed
all wild birds, including their nests and habitat, and the herring gull. All three are large – in
are protected. In the UK the relevant legislation excess of 50cm long, but as gulls can be difficult
is the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. to identify expert opinion should be sought.
However, birds that are recognised as pests can
have that protection removed and are listed on 8.1.2 Problems associated with pest birds
the General Licences, issued by Natural England Product damage
each year. Equivalent licences are issued in The droppings of sparrows and other birds
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. spoil finished products and packages in loading
bays and warehouses.
The General Licences list the birds that can be
controlled, for specific reasons (for example, Maintenance costs
for the purpose of preserving public health and Nests and droppings block gutters and down
public safety) and by specific methods. It is a pipes. The resulting overflowing water leads
condition of the General Licences that all non- to timber decay, broken rendering, ruined
lethal methods must be considered first. decorations and even structural damage.
The main species of interest in a food safety Contamination
context are: Pigeons in grain handling establishments
consume large quantities of food. In
• The feral pigeon, collared dove addition, pigeon droppings, regurgitated
• The house sparrow and starling, although pellets (produced by gulls), feathers and
these are presently removed from the licence nesting materials are common contaminants
in England of grain destined for human consumption.
• The three species of large gull; herring gull, Sparrow and pigeon droppings and feathers
greater black-backed gull and lesser black- contaminate food both in production and
backed gull awaiting dispatch.
The remaining species of pest bird on the Spread of disease agents
General Licence are predominantly pests of The close association of birds with man gives
agriculture. rise to the possibility of disease transmission.
Sparrows, pigeons and gulls may carry bacteria
8.1.1 Distinguishing features causing Salmonellosis. Pigeons carry Ornithosis,
of common pest birds a disease similar to viral pneumonia that
The feral pigeon (Columba livia) is of medium can be transmitted to man through infected
size (32cm long); normally blue grey in colour droppings or respiratory droplets. Ornithosis
with a white rump and black wing bars. is often mistaken for flu in humans and so is
possibly far more common than is realised.
The collared dove (Streptopelia decaocto), is
about 27cm long, fawn-grey in colour with a Sources of insect infestation
narrow black band at the back of the neck and Birds’ nests harbour insects and mites which
a white tail tip. live as scavengers on the nest material or
droppings or as external parasites on the
The male house sparrow is 14.5cm and birds. Prevention of nest building on premises
recognised by its grey crown, black bib, light reduces this damage. The following insects
grey cheeks and under parts, and brown wings and mites are known to occur in birds’ nests.
with black streaks. The female is dull brown. Carpet beetle; fur beetle; case-bearing clothes
moth; brown house moth; white shouldered
The starling is 22cm and has a summer house moth; Dermestid beetles; yellow
plumage of glossy black with metallic purple mealworm beetle; biscuit beetle; Australian
and green tints. Generally found in large flocks, spider beetle; cheese mite; flour mite; dust
the numbers of starlings has decreased over mites; lesser housefly; blowflies and bird mites.
the last few decades.
208.2 Other vertebrates Moles are generally considered a pest of
Most British mammals apart from rats and agriculture and amenity sites where their
mice pose insignificant risk to food safety. tunnels and spoil heaps can damage growing
Several such as all bat species, water voles, red crops and machinery and may pose a risk of
squirrels and badgers are fully protected and injury to livestock and horses.
may not be harmed.
The grey squirrel, American mink and edible
Foxes and rabbits, through their burrowing, dormice may also enter buildings in search of
may cause structural problems to buildings food and shelter.
and the former may be drawn to the food
opportunities presented by waste areas. Control of the above requires specialist
knowledge of available control techniques and
should only be undertaken by persons with the
necessary experience of this type of work.
Sparrow and pigeon droppings and
feathers contaminate food both in
production and awaiting dispatch
219 Inspection and auditing
of food premises
9.1 Integrated Pest Management Reference to reports covering the previous
The phase out of methyl bromide in 2005 twelve months may be useful in determining
removed one of the most reliable tools seasonal variations in pest activity or focal
available to the food industry for control points of infestations.
of insects in raw materials. When correctly
applied, a kill in excess of 99 percent could be 9.2.3 Pest sightings or “complaints”
achieved – usually over a 24-hour exposure Pest sightings or complaints made by
period. personnel other than those involved in pest
management should be investigated.
A major consequence in the food industry
of the phase out has been the switch from a See section 2.6.1 Pest Sightings Log
reactive control strategy to one of Integrated
Pest Management (IPM). 9.2.4 Thorough inspection
The extent of the inspection and the areas
IPM is a systematic approach to pest included should cover the entire site including
management, which comprises: grounds within the perimeter, all buildings and
all areas within buildings.
• Building, machinery and materials design
• Building maintenance and exclusion Each site should be divided into high-
practices intermediate-low risk areas.
• Advice on good housekeeping practices.
• Inspections and monitoring High risk areas
• Physical control methods Areas where there is a greater risk of
• Chemical control methods compromising food safety from pest activity or
• Habitat/environmental management where the product is particularly high risk.
Early detection of pest activity is essential if Typical high risk areas and potential pests
the impact of corrective control measures is would be:
to be optimised. A combination of thorough
regular inspections and on-going monitoring • Incoming raw and packaged food and
using a variety of detectors will provide the stored product pests
information upon which to build control • Finished goods warehouses and mice
strategies. • Food preparation areas and flying insects
9.2 Inspection Techniques Intermediate risk
and Equipment Areas where there is a risk of compromising
The inspection should identify anything that food safety from pest activity but where the
might cause or allow contamination of food by product is not particularly high risk.
pests or their activity.
Low risk areas
9.2.1 Proper pest identification Areas where there is minimal risk of
For good pest control, accurate identification is compromising food safety from pest activity or
essential. Correct identification of pest species where the product is low risk.
and a practical knowledge of pest behaviour
will determine the source and therefore the 9.2.5 Types of information gathered on-site
target area for control. The information gathered can be divided into
two areas.
The more common pests can usually be
identified from textbooks. In some cases Information on the pests:
however, particularly relating to flies or stored
product insects, more specialised identification • Species present
may be required. • Location
• Numbers
9.2.2 Use of generic or historical information • Extent of infestation
The pest control report book should be • Risk to food safety
examined prior to commencing the inspection. • Proposed control methods
A site plan and the last report should be carried
during the survey.
22Information on the premises: are active 24 hours per day over an extended
period.
• Potential entry routes of pests
• Exclusion recommendations From visible evidence – while detectors can
• Hygiene and housekeeping requirements provide evidence of pest activity, they rely in
• Storage and stock rotation processes the main on the pest coming to them. The
• Risk assessments information may not be defined whereas an
experienced inspector has the knowledge
9.2.6 Sources of information of pest behaviour and biology to find and
Information can be collected from four sources identify the source of an infestation. A physical
during the inspection: inspection also allows a risk assessment on
any proposed treatment to be carried out in
From the Pest Sightings Log – this is likely to addition to fulfilling a quality control function
be historical, as the reported sighting would on the pest management programme.
in most cases have resulted in a call-out to
address the problem. 9.2.7 Trend analysis
Inspection checklists and other documentation
From site management and staff – while this can be used to record any trend in pest activity
is a worthwhile source, any information should and highlight particular problem areas.
be confirmed by a thorough inspection of the
area. Third party reports may not be accurate The information used in the analysis can be
concerning the type of pest, numbers seen or obtained from:
timescale due to the vagaries of the human
memory. • Recorded take from rodenticide bait stations
• Catch tray or adhesive trap counts from EFKs
From evidence found on detectors – this can • Moth pheromone traps
be a valuable source of evidence of recent pest • Adhesive insect traps
activity. On the presumption that the detectors
were refreshed on the last inspection, any pests The analysis can assist in targeting control
found will have emerged in the intervening strategies, reacting to seasonal increases in
period. Sticky traps, Electric Fly Killer (EFK) pest activity or identifying shortcomings in site
catch trays and pheromone traps have the procedures such as door discipline.
advantage over an inspection in that they
239.2.9 Suggested inspection tools
• Torch (with spare battery and bulb) – pests
are by nature secretive and may be deep
within recesses or below fixtures where
natural light may not penetrate
• Spatula – many Stored Product Insect
pests will be found in compressed residues
below machinery or in gaps at the wall/floor
junction. The narrow blade of a spatula is
required to scrape out residues in order to
examine the contents for larvae or adults
• x10 lens – many pest insects are small and
the distinguishing features not apparent to
the naked eye
• Supply of specimen tubes – where
identification cannot be made at the time
of inspection, samples can be labelled and
removed either for identification at a later
date or to send for professional advice
• Bait box keys – where a pest control
contractor is undertaking the pest
management access to bait stations may be
required for monitoring purposes between
scheduled calls. Care must be taken when
handling bait stations and rodenticides
and all baits must be re-sealed to prevent
unauthorised access
• Supply of cable ties – where bait stations are
9.2.8 Surveillance of adjacent properties secured by means of cable ties replacement
and suppliers ties are required to re-secure the bait station
Adjacent properties whether occupied or not lids
and open sites should be monitored as possible
sources of infestation. Both insects and rodents Other items may include:
have the ability to migrate from adjacent sites
– in the case of flying insects this can involve • Folding ladder – for access to overhead
movement over considerable distances. areas, loft hatches, false ceilings, electric fly
killers etc
Due to environmental considerations the • Endoscope – to allow inspection of
use of permanent perimeter bait stations concealed areas, ducting, closed voids etc
containing toxic rodenticide baits can no • Insect specimen set – for comparison with
longer be justified. Inspection and the use samples found during the inspection
of a non-toxic monitoring system should be
preferred with toxic bait being used only when 9.3 Inspecting for rodents
signs of rats are found. The following evidence can be used to identify
the species and location of both mice and rats.
Suppliers should be frequently audited. Close
monitoring of all supplier practices should be Droppings
carried out. Appropriate sampling techniques The shape and size of droppings will help
of received goods should be implemented. you to identify the species. Rat droppings are
approximately 10-12mm long, up to 5mm in
diameter and spindle shaped. The droppings
produced by mice are approximately 4mm
Both insects and rodents have the ability long and much thinner at around 1mm.
to migrate from adjacent sites – in the Are they soft and glistening? This will tell you
that live rodents are still present. The presence
case of flying insects this can involve of large droppings (from adults) and small
droppings (from young) indicates a breeding
movement over considerable distances population.
How are the droppings distributed (scattered
or in groups)? Norway rats regularly use latrine
Laundering agents should be closely areas to deposit droppings. This will indicate
monitored. As they receive garments from a the species and whether the rodents are
wide range of industries and premises, the moving extensively.
possibility of cross-infestation of garments
should be considered. Most notable is the How many fresh droppings are there? This
transfer of cockroaches. will indicate the size of the infestation. Rats
produce about 40 droppings each day and
mice about 80.
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