Paramedic experiences of providing care in Wales (UK) during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic (PECC-19): a qualitative study using evolved grounded ...
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Open access Original research
Paramedic experiences of providing care
in Wales (UK) during the 2020
COVID-19 pandemic (PECC-19): a
qualitative study using evolved
grounded theory
Nigel Rees ,1 Lauren Smythe,1 Chloe Hogan,1 Julia Williams2
To cite: Rees N, Smythe L, ABSTRACT
Hogan C, et al. Paramedic Strengths and limitations of this study
Objective To explore paramedic experiences of providing
experiences of providing care care during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic and develop
in Wales (UK) during the 2020 ►► The study was set up rapidly in one UK ambulance
theory in order to inform future policy and practice.
COVID-19 pandemic (PECC-19): service very early in their response to COVID-19.
Design Qualitative study using constructivist evolved
a qualitative study using evolved This was a unique opportunity to capture experienc-
grounded theory. BMJ Open grounded theory (EGT) methodology. One-to-one es of Paramedics providing care as the pandemic
2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/ semistructured interviews were conducted using a general unfolded.
bmjopen-2021-048677 interview guide. Voice over Internet Protocol was used ►► A rich evolved grounded theory has been construct-
through Skype. ed on the Tragic Choices in providing paramedic care
►► Prepublication history and
additional online supplemental
Setting Conducted between March 2020 and November during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, but is limited
material for this paper are 2020 in the Welsh Ambulance Services National Health by being conducted in one ambulance service.
available online. To view these Services Trust UK which serves a population of three ►► Remarkable consistency and agreement was found
files, please visit the journal million. throughout analysis, member checking and previous
online (http://dx.doi.org/10. Participants Paramedics were recruited through a poster studies which adds to the trustworthiness and trans-
1136/bmjopen-2021-048677). circulated by email and social media. Following purposive ferability of our findings.
sampling, 20 Paramedics were enrolled and interviewed. ►► Using the Voice over Internet Protocol of Skype
Received 20 January 2021
Results Emergent categories included: Protect me to was deemed a strength, especially in the context
Accepted 24 May 2021
protect you, Rapid disruption and adaptation, Trust in of a pandemic due to social distancing. Technical
communication and information and United in hardship. difficulties did occur and one recording became
The Basic Social Process was recognised to involve Tragic corrupted.
Choices, conceptualised through an EGT including Tragic ►► The research team included insider researchers with
personal and professional choices including concerns three practising paramedics and while this may be
over personnel protective equipment (PPE), protecting considered a potential bias, we stated up front the
themselves and their families, impact on mental health and constructivist nature of evolved grounded theory
difficult clinical decisions, Tragic organisational choices and how the background of these researchers add-
including decision making support, communication, mental ed to the richness of the grounded theory.
© Author(s) (or their health and well-being and Tragic societal choices involving
employer(s)) 2021. Re-use
permitted under CC BY-NC. No
public shows of support, utilisation and resourcing of
commercial re-use. See rights health services.
BACKGROUND
and permissions. Published by Conclusions Rich insights were revealed into paramedic
BMJ. care during the COVID-19 pandemic consistent with
The SARS- CoV-2, the virus responsible for
1
Pre-Hospital Emergency other research. This care was provided in the context of COVID-19, was first reported in December,
Research Unit, Welsh National competing and conflicting decisions and resources, where 2019 in China.1 COVID-19 rapidly spread
Ambulance Service NHS Trust, Tragic Choices have to be made which may challenge across the world, qualifying as a global
Swansea, UK life’s pricelessness. Well-being support, clinical decision pandemic by the WHO (2020) on 11 March
2
School of Health and Social making, appropriate PPE and healthcare resourcing are 2020, affecting 220 countries, areas or terri-
Work, University of Hertfordshire,
Hatfield, UK
all influenced by choices made before and during the tories, with 54 558 120 confirmed cases and
pandemic, and will continue as we recover and plan for 1 320 148 deaths as of 11 Nov 2020.2 In the
Correspondence to future pandemics. The impact of COVID-19 may persist, UK, plans prepared in the aftermath of the
Dr Nigel Rees, Pre Hospital especially if we fail to learn, if not we risk losing more 2009 H1N1 global threat were enacted,3
Emergency Research Unit, lives in this and future pandemics and threatening the which included the response from ambulance
Welsh Ambulance Services NHS overwhelming collective effort which united society in
Trust, Institute of Life Sciences, and wider health services and also wider soci-
hardship when responding to the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Swansea University, Swansea, etal measures including isolation methods,
Trial registration number IRAS ID: 282 623.
UK; nigel.rees5@wales.nhs.uk closing schools, businesses and self-isolation4
Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677 1Open access
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, calls were repeatedly METHODS
made for healthcare workers (HCWs) in the UK to ready Data collection
themselves for such pandemics,5 6 which may involve diffi- Interviews
cult and ethical challenging decisions shaped by the local One hour, one- to-one semistructured interviews were
context and cultural values.7 HCW’s face personal chal- conducted using a general interview guide (online
lenges and fears related to isolation, contracting disease, supplemental file 1). The internet carriage service Skype
mortality and infecting family during pandemics.8–12 The was used, which is a Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).18
COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique opportunity to VoIP was beneficial in the COVID-19 pandemic context
understand these issues from a UK paramedic perspec- as paramedics are a scattered workforce, practising social
tive, and a programme of research was developed by our distancing during the study and this approach minimised
team to explore paramedic experiences of providing care time needed away from clinical duties to participate.
during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic (PECC-19). We Interviews were video recorded with memos taken, tran-
conducted an initial review of the literature which found scribed verbatim and checked for accuracy against the
a paucity of published research concerning paramedics recordings.
along with many of the challenges reported above.13 The
present paper reports the finding of a qualitative study Patient and public involvement
we conducted which aimed to explore paramedic expe- As this study was rapidly set up and due to the context
riences of providing care during the 2020 COVID-19 of WAST responding to COVID-19 we did not involve
pandemic and develop theory in order to inform future patients or members of the public. We do however intend
policy and practice. to present our findings to public and patient groups.
METHODOLOGY Data analysis
Strauss and Corbin’s14 evolved form of Grounded Theory Analysis followed Strauss and Corbin’s14 three levels
(GT) methodology was used, which follows a construc- of open, axial and selective coding entered into NIVO
tivist perspective and accepts that people construct the V.12 software to create a coding book. Open coding
realities in which they participate and thus highlights compared data for similarities, differences and questions
the researcher–participant dyad and the co-construction regarding emergent phenomena resulting in identifica-
of data.15 In Evolved GT, the researcher is a ‘passionate tion of indicators; words or phrases of interest. Indica-
participant as facilitator of multi-voice reconstruction’ tors were subsumed under higher level headings known
(Lincoln & Guba 2005 p. 196).16 Three researchers as concepts, which stand for the emerging phenomena.
within this study were practising paramedics and provided Axial coding involved subsuming concepts into higher-
(limited) front- line care during the 2020 COVID-19 level headings known as categories. Selective coding
pandemic which in turn facilitated insight, awareness and also involved ‘explication of the story line’ (Strauss and
ability to bring meaning to the data.17 Such background Corbin 1998, p. 148)14 which involves identifying the
does though have the potential for preconceived ideas basic social process (BSP) at work, around which all other
and previous encounters to influence the construction of categories revolve. The BSP meaningfully and easily
the evolved GT, and to counteract this, member checking relates to all other categories and should have clear and
and reflexivity methods were employed. grabbing qualities19 on which to theoretical construct the
evolved grounded theory (EGT) through weaving all of
Setting and sampling the fractured data back together and conceptualising the
The study was conducted between March 2020 and relationship among these three levels of coding. A second
November 2020 in the Welsh Ambulance Services researcher (CH) independently reviewed this coding.
National Health Services (NHS) Trust (WAST) UK which Participant’s also member- checked data analysis by
serves a population of three million. Participants were reviewing excerpts from the coding book and returning
recruited through a poster circulated through email comments on evolving theory. Reflective notes were made
and social media. Information packs were sent to partici- by researchers considering theory development and
pants containing a consent form to sign and return to the monitoring the researchers’ influences on this process.
researcher; confirmed verbally during interview. Partici- NHS Research Ethical review was not required within
pants were selected using purposive sampling based on Health Research Authority guidance,20 but issues of
the characteristics of gender, age, experience and educa- an ethical nature remained which were observed by
tional development to reflect the paramedic workforce. following the Economic and Social Research Council21
Confidentiality and anonymity was assured. framework. Participants provided verbal and written
consent. All data were collected and stored in accordance
with General Data Protection Regulations (GDPR 2018)22
regulations. We recognised staff may become emotionally
upset during the research, and a range of support was
made available.
2 Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677Open access
Table 1 Sample of paramedic participants
Paramedic
EMS educational
Participant Gender experience Age range Self isolated development Interviewed
P01 Male >10 26–45 No Traditional training PILOT 1 - 09/04/2020
P02 Female 3–10 46–55 Yes Higher education PILOT 2 - 09/04/2020
P03 Female >10 46–55 Yes Traditional training Interview 3- 16/04/2020
P04 Male >10 26–45 No Higher education Interview 4 - 20/04/2020
P05 Female 1–3 26–45 yes Higher education Interview 6 - 20/04/2020
P06 Female >10 46–55 No Higher education Not Sampled
P07 Female 3–10 26–45 Yes Higher education Interview 5 −20/04/2020
P08 Male 3–10 26–45 Yes Higher education Interview 7 −23/04/2020
P09 Male 1–3 19–26 No Higher education Interview 16 - 21/05/2020
P10 Female >10 26–45 No Higher education Interview 10 - 30/04/2020
P11 Female >10 26–45 Yes Higher education Interview 8 - 28/04/2020
P12 Male >10 26–45 No Traditional training Interview 9 - 29/04/2020
P13 Female 3–10 26–45 Yes Higher education Interview 15 - 20/05/2020
P14 Male >10 46–55 Yes Traditional training Interview 14 - 19/05/2020
P15 Female 1–3 26–45 Yes Higher education Interview 12 - 05/05/2020
P16 Male >10 56–60 No Higher education Interview 13 - 07/05/2020
P17 Male 1–3 Incomplete No Higher education Interview 11 - 04/05/2020
P18 Male 3–10 26–45 Yes Higher education Interview 17 - 27/05/2020
P19 Male 3–10 26–45 Yes Incomplete Interview 18 - 03/06/2020
P20 Male >10 46–55 Yes Traditional training Interview 19 - 02/07/2020
RESULTS reported including pregnancy, asthma, immunosuppres-
Twenty-six paramedics responded to the poster call, six sion (HIV negative) and leukaemia, and participants
did not end up participating and a final sample of 20 were often mentioned concern for family members from these
consented and enrolled into the study. One paramedic vulnerable groups and their elderly relatives.
was not interviewed due to purposive sampling and one
my partner works as a frontline carer, he is immu-
of the interview recordings became corrupted and not
nosuppressed but is HIV negative… he has got sig-
included in the analysis. Table 1 includes characteristics
nificant risks, but obviously with me working in the
about the sample of paramedic participants.
frontline, and him in frontline as well, one of the ear-
The following four categories emerged: Protect me to
ly fears were do we basically separate or do I basically
protect you, Rapid disruption and adaptation, Trust in
separate from him to reduce that risk. Whilst I would
communication and information, United in hardship.
always do my job, I would never forgive myself if I
The BSP in PECC-19 was recognised to involve Tragic
thought for one moment that I had brought some-
Choices and was conceptualised in the EGT in figure 1
thing from the community and brought it back home
which involved Tragic personal and professional choices,
(P08)
Tragic organisational choices and Tragic societal choices:
Category 1: protect me to protect you Paramedics told how practising in this context was
All of our paramedic participants except one expressed unlike anything they had experienced before, with an
concern for themselves and their families during the ever-present sense of fear and risk.
pandemic due to a perception of the risks their occupa- I felt anxious going to work, I felt scared going to
tion posed: work, it’s scary to think you can go to work and bring
Not so much catching it myself, but bringing it home it home, that is not a nice feeling (P12)
to my family (P09)
All participants talked about front line HCW’s dying
They were concerned of risks to family members with from COVID-19, and in April 2020, a paramedic within
underlying health issues, revealing internal conflict the study area died from COVID-19. From this point
between their occupational role and the safety of their on all of the participants reflected on the death of their
families. A wide range of underlying conditions were colleague, as shared by paramedic 14:
Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677 3Open access
Figure 1 Evolved Grounded theory (EGT): Tragic Choices in providing paramedic care during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic.
BSP; basic social process.
We have [name] working here… its knocked it a bit They reported attempts being made to mitigate the
closer to home again,….it’s had a massive effect be- risks of working in this environment, which involved
cause he was such a big character (P14) changes in practice and provision of personnel protective
equipment (PPE). Such efforts however did little to alle-
Powerful accounts were relayed of their sustained expo-
viate this fear-filled context, which seemed to influence
sure and close proximity to patients with COVID-19 symp-
their morale. Paramedic 15 was:
toms. Paramedic 15 who contracted COVID-19 along
with her partner early in the pandemic, said prior to really worried because I knew the masks didn’t fit me
contracting COVID-19 she: properly, so I was anxious and I felt a bit demotivated
to be in work, that I didn’t want to be there because
was petrified really, standing in a house where some- every day I was going in and it was a permanent risk
one is coughing and spluttering for half an hour, and really’ (P15)
then conveying them to hospital, which took another
hour…you are in the back of the vehicle 2 meters by 1 Paramedics in our study reported this environment
meter… with a patient who is coughing virus into the of fear influenced many areas of their lives, including
air potentially and I’m breathing that air in. so it was changes to hygiene practices such as changing out of
horrible really. (P15) their uniform and showering in work, avoiding visiting
4 Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677Open access
friends and relatives, and talking more openly on making for ambulance service use. Paramedic 14 shared his
preparations for their own death. They also reported a thoughts on the quality of equipment and reported his
dramatic reduction in workload and that people were concerns around using out of date PPE:
avoiding care for fear of contracting COVID-19 which
we are using masks now with stickers with 2012 on
they felt was influenced by the media and conversely
and I know that we are only using them because we
increased emergency calls to assess people who thought
can’t get any of the newer masks, and that is not what
they had COVID-19.
you want to hear…you want to know what you are
There was a lot of fear among patients, which I can wearing is safe to do your job. (P14)
understand. You see a lot of death and fearmonger-
ing on the news, there was a lot of fear among pa- Nine of the participants reported that their well-being
tients. But then that also led to frustration amongst us and mental health had been negatively impacted on by
on the road because we are going to patients who are the pandemic. They talked about their collective anxie-
phoning 999 because they have a bit of a cough. They ties around COVID-19, and the effect the ever-presence
basically phone us because they want us to check of the virus in their practice. Paramedic 9 said:
them over (P12) as a station we were definitely a little on edge. Cleaning
Paramedics were sympathetic to these views, and door handles in the station, going round starting my
admitted to their own internal conflicts when taking shift, cleaning any touchable things I could think of,
people into hospital, which they felt may not be in kettles, taps anything like that and that is not me…
the best interest of their patients. A clear narrative for it’s turned me into a bit OCD about it. It’s definitely
this dilemma was described by P15 who was unable to affected my mental health (P09)
safely leave the patient at home, and was admitted to a Paramedics talked about the difficulties they felt in
COVID-19 ward providing care in emergencies due to COVID-19, and
When I took the gentleman in who was off his legs to how this resulted in frustrations and tension in them.
the COVIDCOVID-19 ward, I was talking to the nurse one night, unfortunately, I had 3 cardiac arrests,
there and I said I felt like I was deciding almost his which was tough and unfortunately the guy I was
fate, which wasn’t very nice. (P15) working with needed the versa flow hood, so I was
Paramedic participants raised occupational and pay on my own…that was really really hard going on your
related issues including the importance of protecting own… everything about it felt wrong and it was such
their income while acknowledging their fortunate posi- hard work and it was frustrating. (P12)
tion in comparison to others in society at this time. Only one participant reported having accessed well-
I am alive and I have a job which is more than what being or mental health support promoted or provided
most people have got at the moment. I have food and by their employer, and this was a routine call from the
I’m not worried about bills (P10) well-being team with support which they declined. Partic-
ipants did however reflect on the increased focus and
Additional overtime incentives were initiated by their provision of support for mental health within ambulance
employer, and whist views were mixed, paramedic 10 told services in recent years.
of her fear in taking on overtime:
I think the mental health side of it is 100 times better
I have no intention of doing overtime……Less is than what it was, I don’t think we had anything before
more with me I think, it’s like Russian roulette isn’t it, (P14)
you know the bullet is in the barrel and you will spin
it because you have to go to work, but then I wouldn’t Despite this, participants either did not feel they
go and put two or three more bullets in the gun and needed such support or accessed this from other sources
spin it to take that chance (P10) such as their family, friends, colleagues, private counsel-
lors, the service Chaplain or information publically avail-
All participants except one had access to the recom-
able. Following the national lockdown our participants
mended PPE, but they also reported frustrations on how
described the importance of exercise, being outdoors
PPE guidance had changed as the pandemic evolved and
and in nature for their well-being during the pandemic,
experienced variation in approaches to PPE across organ-
along with the need for time to recover between duties.
isations other home nations.
They told how the pandemic had resulted in them doing
there seems to be substantial differences between more activities with their families and had rekindled
what Public Health England and Wales are throwing interest in activities such as walking and cycling. Para-
out in regards to what the World Health Organisation medic 10 shared how during lockdown, the 1 hour a day
and the Resus Council are throwing out (P06) out walking was so important and:
Concerns were reported over their training and the But I have started back cycling, that was one of things
quality of PPE, and all except two felt it was not designed I was allowed to do, so the bike has been covered with
Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677 5Open access
a blanket in the garage for months, and because you There was also a suggestion that during the pandemic,
were allowed to cycle and pretty much nothing else, I a more pragmatic approach was being taken to clinical
started again. (P19) practice guidelines and the quality of care was being
compromised. Some paramedics expressed concerns
Categories 2: rapid disruption and adaptation about their professional registration:
All participants faced rapid disruption to their personal The HCPC [Health & Care Professions Council]
and working lives. This included issues such as adhering came out early on and said they will make allowanc-
to the lockdown rules, social distancing, holiday cancella- es, they will consider the coronavirus if our decision
tions and difficulties visiting family. This rapid disruption making is called into question (P18)
subsequently required rapid adaptation.
The pandemic was thought to have expedited many
when you find yourself in a situation whereby the changes in clinical practice including in end of life care
world is a completely different place so quickly you (EoLC). Powerful accounts were shared of managing
have to adapt, you have to (P7) patients at the end of life during the pandemic which
They told of the need adapt, learn and assimilate new avoided delays and hospital admission, which gave them
information quickly. This included clinical information satisfaction. Paramedic 18, however, told of his discom-
around the COVID-19 virus, clinical guidance and ways fort over EoLC treatment packs, telling how he and his
of working in PPE. Paramedic 12 shared how it could be colleagues were:
overwhelming: Uncomfortable about it because they have just been
you have been thrown information constantly, there’s put on trucks with very little training on it (P18)
updates after updates after updates, things are chang- Paramedics in our study said how their interaction
ing near enough I wouldn’t say hourly but frequent- pre-
pandemic with people with mental health issues
ly changing. Yes you are probably being suitably was often tactile, involving holding hands and using
informed but it is overwhelming (P12) nonverbal communication. Participants explained how
All of the paramedics reported the rapid change in the pandemic had significantly changed this.
encountering patients reluctant to accept care, and how the human side of our job feels like it has been taken
they faced difficult clinical and ethical decisions in their away, and its really put into sharp contrast how much
practice which had become far more challenging due to humanity we usually have in our job … personally I
the context of the pandemic. have found it really difficult leaving relatives behind
I would say at least about 50% are refusing to go in…. and especially when you have got time critical, possi-
so you are really having to convince and weigh up bly not going to survive patients. We had a lady with
the balance of fighting against that, because if you a very dense CVA the other day…and had to leave
do take them in and they do catch it and they do die, her daughter standing crying on the side of the road.
its weighing up the responsibility of that as well (P05) (P03)
And And
I spent nearly an hour and a half trying to con- Before you would go in and have chats or banter with
vince the family that the risk factors were significant them its lost all that, first thing you do is put a mask
enough that actually going to the A&E and so did the on them, it can’t be nice for the family coming in
doctor … 2 and a half hours later we did manage to with all this stuff on, and I think its lost a lot of that
gain consent to wilfully go to hospital (P07) relationship between the paramedic and the patient
(P14)
Paramedics also said people were presenting much
sicker due to delaying care for fear of contracting All of the participants except one reported a rapid rise
COVID-19 as expressed by P07: in the use of technology in their personal and working
lives such as video conferencing and mobile phone apps.
People are really poorly out there because they are
leaving it too late (P07) I speak to my children on a daily basis by phone or
group video, which is something else we have got into
All of the paramedics faced changes to clinical prac- the habit of doing now. We will get into a group call
tice and guidance and while there were mixed views, for which we have never done before (P13)
some, information felt rushed.
They also shared the positive impact of the pandemic
I feel they were pushed out too quickly without ad-
on use of such technology across the wider healthcare
equate training and understanding from frontline
system:
crews, and I fear this will lead to risky decisions being
made that would not otherwise benefit the patients The NHS in regard to medical advances has been
(P11) very fearful in moving forward, particularly with
6 Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677Open access
video conferencing and now seeing GPs using Zoom, dances in theatre scrubs, PPE, nursing and clinical
which is amazing (P07) uniforms. Paramedic 10 said:
I don’t think it is right that we are posing in masks,
Categories 3: trust in communication and information and I mean the medical professional as a whole,
All of our participants accessed information from a wide dancing up and down the corridors meters away, po-
range of sources, and told how trust in information tentially from ITU where people are fighting for their
sources was essential. For some, there was general confu- lives… you wouldn’t get a crematorium bloke doing
sion on what sources could be trusted: a song and dance in a crematorium would you (P10)
I don’t know who to trust with it (P12)
Categories 4: United in hardship
There were mixed views on information provided by Despite the significant challenges and fear, Paramedics
the Government; for some there was distrust in their reported a sense of solidarity across their profession and
motives, and a feeling information was being politicised organisation in being united working together to tackling
with the government being careful to protect themselves. the pandemic.
Because they [the Government] have done that to I think generally people come together in a crisis nor-
protect themselves and not us as healthcare work- mally and I think it’s taken this to make WAST and
ers… the thing is, you don’t really know from what other services a lot nicer place to work for. Because
you’re seeing how true everything is. (P12) we are all up against it though aren’t we, we are in it
together (P10)
Eleven of the paramedics felt suitably informed by their
employer, and provided rich accounts of the many plat- They also told of the positive aspects of the COVID-19
forms and mediums that were used in this process, such pandemic on the communities within which they lived
as the: and worked and recognised that the visible public support
such as gifts and clapping was nice, but some felt some-
excellent policy of daily updates and ZOOM meeting
what embarrassed
to ensure all staff were aware of the latest updates
(P01) It’s really nice to get to know that you are supported,
it is emotional, but I do get somewhat embarrassed by
They did however report how the constant negative it, because we are out there doing a job and decisions
reporting of COVID-19 was having an impact on the we make are informed decisions. (P13)
kinds of presentations they were encountering in their
clinical practice: During the pandemic there was a very visible campaign
in the media of NHS Heroes. This narrative was promoted
Those people were saying they were watching the within society by charities, media and government.
news 24 hours a day, all the media reports, googling Despite this, all of the participants except one did not
things they didn’t know about and getting themselves consider themselves to be ‘Heroes’ but rather, felt they
into a point they end up calling us through stress. So were just doing their job.
very bizarre times. (P16)
What is the definition of a hero?… I go to work every
All participants told of the danger of information over- day, and I know if I caught it I know my dad would call
load for them and the public. They also believed social me a hero, I know my daughter would be beside her-
media could be negative and positive. Positive accounts self but eventually she would probably think of me as
included its role in communicating with colleagues, a hero, but yeah I would be a liar if I didn’t say there
friends and family and the Facebook group provided by were times I think of myself as a hero, but ultimately I
their employer. Some however did not use social media am a human being who is scared (P10)
and avoided it to protect their mental health. Media
reports providing daily updates and reporting the chal- The heroic definition of paramedic 10 was equally
lenges they faced were a constant reminder of their job reflected in the accounts of the other paramedic partici-
and were not welcomed and created anxieties and diffi- pants, who all felt a professional responsibility to society
culties with loved ones. to provide care during a pandemic but would not choose
to be exposed to such risk if they had a choice and shared
I try not to watch the news, and I mean I had it on a sense of melancholy that if they weren’t doing this, who
constantly, and I realised it was having an effect on my would be?
daughters mental health (P10)
We have lost colleagues, and if this virus wasn’t here
During the early stages of the pandemic, many front-line they would be around now, and that isn’t what you
staff including paramedics took to social media posting expect when you become a paramedic I don’t think.
pictures and videos of themselves which ranged from I never expected a global pandemic which could kill
messages of protecting the NHS to highly choreographed us to happen (P15)
Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677 7Open access
The outpouring of public support for paramedics Tragic personal and professional choices
within the NHS did however reveal tensions in their Challenging personal and professional choices were expe-
relationship with some members of society. Paramedics rienced by paramedics in our study around protecting
told how some in society were blasé, not observing social themselves, their families and their duty to provide care
distancing rules, and the Victory in Europe (VE) day during the pandemic. While the public considered them
celebrations were cited as examples. It was suggested by heroes, paramedics did not consider themselves within
paramedics that when COVID-19 was over, they would be this characterisation. Many definitions of heroism to
forgotten about by the public and return to long hospital society exist, but key factors include: the voluntary nature,
delays, inappropriate use of ambulances and violence and risk of harm, acting for benefit of others and without
aggression directed towards them expectation of gain.24–26 Our paramedics were indeed
acting in the benefit of others, but reported feeling
once it’s over they will forget about us again and it will
scared and it was a job they were paid for. Tangherlini27
be back to abusing people again and sitting around
found similar self-deprecatory accounts from paramedics
in hospitals and where has this been until now when
of such heroic status and so acceptance of such hero char-
you needed us (P14)
acterisation is complex.
Tragic professional choices were revealed in clinical
practice; especially with PPE, including its dehumanising
BSP: Tragic Choices
impact, frustrations over quality and variation in guid-
The BSP in PECC-19 was recognised to involve Tragic
ance across organisations. Such disparity in guidelines
Choices. We draw on the work of Calabresi and Bobbitt23
have also been reported in the literature.28 They faced
who explored how societies allocate tragically scarce
rapid changes in their role in provision of EoLC, which
resources and make such ‘Tragic Choices’. This perspec-
some were not confident in, and while studies have previ-
tive considers the various methods for allocating and
ously reported this,29–33 empowering staff at the point of
dispensing goods and services with paramedics during a
delivery of EoLC has been deemed crucial and can make
pandemic, which includes resources such as equipment, a real life impact.30 The pandemic may have expedited
labour, knowledge and information, care and services. developments in paramedic provision of EoLC and tragic
The BSP reflects life’s pricelessness and Calabresi and decisions may have been made. However, powerful posi-
Bobbitt’s23 discussions on such pricing of the invaluable tive EoLC encounters were reported by paramedics which
and the cost of costing, which we argue occurs when ordi- may reflect professional and organisational growth which
nary activities and resources become increasingly scarce can emerge from such crises.34 35
and tragic in a pandemic. Tensions were revealed with clinical decisions, balancing
Calabresi and Bobbitt23 highlight that price does not risks and benefits of managing patients at home. These
place a value on goods or activities, but rather, it permits decisions may again involve Tragic Choices and moral
comparisons, such as the cost of investing in healthcare, compromises which HCW’s are often confronted with
preparing for pandemics, PPE and pay, all of which can and can have far-reaching consequences when searching
be compared in price with other activities such as building for the best treatment option36 37 Hoffmaster& Hooker
safer roads for instance. These prices do not however (2013) 37 contend that often policy makers are removed
place a value on life, but when compared, they can illu- from the devastating heartbreak, sorrow and guilt of
minate the cost; for example, of how many lives may be personal Tragic Choices and consequently, the moral
saved by building safer roads rather than spending on burden of legitimacy and responsibility falls not just
building new hospitals for instance. The informative on the Tragic Choice itself, but also on how the Tragic
worth of price, costs and the value we assign to issues Choice is made. Paramedics in our study reflected on the
revealed in this study on paramedic care cannot there- cost of isolation measures and anxiety in patients; many
fore be ignored, or otherwise we risk losing more lives in of whom were elderly and experiencing increased lone-
this and future pandemics, and paradoxically undermine liness. Such feelings of loneliness, and anxiety during
life’s pricelessness. the pandemic have been reported elsewhere,38 with the
elderly and those with chronic conditions said to be
An EGT of the Tragic Choices in providing paramedic care paying the highest price due to increased age and disease
during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic related risks.39 40
An EGT was constructed of the Tragic Choices faced by Ethical and professional issues revealed around the
paramedics in providing care during the 2020 COVID-19 paramedic-patient relationship, have been reported in
pandemic. Exploration of the Tragic Choices that such other studies,41–44 and have potential to result in moral
pandemics necessitate reveals the variety of processes by injury, which is the psychological distress that results
which these choices are made across the thematic catego- from actions, or the lack of them, which violate some-
ries presented above, and outlined in the EGT (figure 1) one’s moral or ethical code.45 Powerful accounts of
which includes the BSP of Tragic Choices at its centre, Tragic Choices may also reinforce public drama, with
influenced by Tragic personal and professional choices, reports in the media of paramedics constantly second-
Tragic organisational choices and Tragic societal choices. guessing themselves as to whether people needed to go
8 Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677Open access
to hospital, and choices that may ‘make a patient better Limited assumptions can therefore be made if such inno-
or kill them’.46 Family members, friends and the wider vation could be sustained outside of a pandemic context.
public received daily reminders of their role, and risks Paramedics in our study reported the importance
they faced, and paramedics in our study told how they of trustworthy communication in their personal and
could not escape these reminders when off duty. professional lives during the pandemic, which has
The tragic professional and personal choices being also been reported in previous pandemics12 55 56. They
made by paramedics in our study were also experienced also reported challenges of information overload, how
by others during the COVID-19 pandemic,47 who simi- social media could be positive and negative and how
larly reported such challenging decisions, balancing phys- some avoided it. Tragic Choices are therefore again
ical and mental healthcare needs with those of patients, made around communication, where the content and
aligning their duty to patients with the needs of their medium of such communication may be positive, but
family and friends, and providing care with constrained may also add to public drama, confusion and the tragic
resources. They reported feelings of fear, anxiety, and context.
reported Tragic Choices they made in seeking support, The study revealed many positive cultural and organ-
which rarely involved their employer, but rather family, isational issues, such as increased unity which has been
friends and close colleagues. The positive impact of exer- reported during other pandemics.43 57 One such visible
cise and being in nature was reported, and many studies example of this spirit of solidarity and unity was WAST’s
have identified the positive relationship between nature ‘Reach for the Razor’ campaign,58 where staff were encour-
and good mental health and well-being.48–51 aged to shave facial hair (light-heartedly) to prevent the
Moral injury can however have benefits, as those indi- limitations of face mask fit when hair is present. Organ-
viduals and organisations who have endured such experi- isations and staff, may therefore have choice in being in
ences during the crises have experienced post-traumatic united in pandemics, but such unity may involve longer
growth.34 Indeed, Rothes et al (2020) reported such partnerships.
professional growth and increased awareness in para- Increased problems with mental health and well-being
medics following their experiences with patients who died were reported by participants, which are also reflected in
by suicide, but this relied on supportive cultures, training literature59–62Kisely et al. (2020) 62 found HCW’s during
and preparation to overcome the negative emotional pandemics exposed to virus are 1.7 times more likely to
impact.35 Once again, tragic and costly choices may be develop psychological distress and Post Traumatic Stress
required to invest resources and mental energies in these Disorder (PTSD) compared with non-exposed workers.
issues. Few participants sought support in our study which is
also reported in the literature.10 Despite this, there are
a lack of evidence based interventions for staff working
Tragic organisational choices in such high- risk occupational roles,63 64 which has
Our study richly revealed the influence of many choices prompted urgent calls for research to be prioritised in
made by the paramedics employing organisation. The this area.65 Paramedic participants also reported incen-
COVID-19 pandemic is undoubtedly the most signifi- tives for working overtime during the pandemic, but
cant crises to have been faced by healthcare organisa- many recognised the need for time off to recover; indeed
tions and ambulance services internationally in modern working such overtime is associated with anxiety, depres-
times, yet societal crises can be strategically challenging sion and burn-out.66–68 Paramedics and employing organ-
to organisations outside of the pandemic context, and isations therefore face Tragic Choices when balancing
the associated disruption of demand, capacity, increased service delivery during a pandemic with potential for
uncertainty and financial instability forces a reassessment increasing mental health problems and access to evidence
of business operations.52 53 Ambulance services are in the based interventions.
front line response to the pandemic, and while prepa- Paramedics in our study felt we were not prepared
rations are made for such pandemics, the employing for the pandemic and appeared to accept the unique
ambulance service were forced to learn, react and adapt situation, yet preparations were made and experiences
as the pandemic unfolded. While rapid changes may of previous pandemics reported in the literature. Bill-
have resulted in confusion and anxiety in areas of clin- ings et al69 conducted a meta-synthesis of HCWs expe-
ical practice and PPE, many positive issues emerged riences of working on the front-line and views about
where the pandemic context appears to have stimulated support during COVID-19 and comparable pandemics.
a significant amount of innovation and cooperation. For The results of this study were remarkably resonant with
instance, the organisation initiated more provision of the themes within the present study and others Emer-
clinical support, better information, communication and gency Medical Services studies.29 70 Issues faced in the
digitalisation, factors which may have created an envi- COVID-19 pandemic were therefore not totally unprec-
ronment for improved professional growth. It should be edented and questions therefore emerge around such
recognised that such accelerated innovation and growth Tragic Choices and learning lessons from previous,
was forced rather than discretionary, which can occur to current and future pandemics, and the role and synthesis
ensure the organisation’s survival and because it had to.54 of research literature.
Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677 9Open access Tragic societal choices Tragic Choices, as Hope and Dixon80 suggest that the Paramedics and other HCW’s were celebrated by visible 'Stay Home, Protect the NHS, Save Lives' slogan was campaigns of public support for the NHS through the indeed too successful, and may have dissuaded people media, politicians and Thursday night clapping and from going to hospital to treat other urgent conditions. gifts. This context has echoes of Calabresi and Bobbitt’s23 Evidence is also emerging on such avoidance of emer- notion that what counts as a Tragic Choice is in many ways gency care and reciprocal increases in Out of Hospital a matter of public drama. Such public drama may have Cardiac Arrests unrelated to COVID-19, along with stroke been influenced by campaigns such as the 'Stay Home, patients arriving too late to receive vital clot busting Protect the NHS, Save Lives' Protect the NHS’ slogan, drugs.81 reinforced through daily briefings, reports of increasing Paramedics predicted they would be forgotten about by hospital bed capacity, deaths by COVID-19 and front- the public after the pandemic and return to long hospital line workers being unable to access PPE. Calabresi and delays, inappropriate ambulance use and violence and Bobbitt23 argue that when public drama in this way is aggression. Such a situation unfolded during the VE central to designating tragic goods, society treats them as day celebrations, with reports of NHS staff having been tragic when in fact, they need not have been tragically stabbed in the back, with street parties and increases in scarce, and devise an alternative allocation scheme to intoxicated and violence patients assaulting staff.82 83 distribute them. Many of the choices and goods during These issues clearly threaten the notion of being ‘United usual times involve policy decision based on a range of in Hardship’ and questions emerge around the relation- factors such as clinical and cost effectiveness. Given warn- ship between HCWs duty of care owed to protect society ings over the inevitability of a pandemic, questions there- during a pandemic and societies reciprocal obligations fore emerge from a public policy perspective around to protect them. Self-sacrifice and martyrism of health the role and influence of such public drama in decision workers played out as tragic public drama forces us there- making. As heart-warming as they are, such outpouring of fore to confront such issues of trust and how society and public appreciation may misdirect attention from funda- governments reward and pay for its healthcare system and mental issues around our planning and resourcing of the its workers84 85 ? current and future responses to pandemics, and indeed The Organisation for Economic Co- operation and may be making these goods and services actually become Development (OECD)86 found that 43.4% of NHS workers more tragic in nature. We argue there may however be work up to 5 hours unpaid overtime per week, while 3.5% more choice inherent in the allocation and distribution reported working more than 11 hours of unpaid per of these issues, tragic as they may be, which led to the week. Huge variations were also found in investment in turning of ordinarily scarce resources into a tragically healthcare, with the UK investing £3257 per capita (9.8% scarce ones, which again relates to value and the cost of of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which is 18th of all costing. OECD countries, despite being the fifth largest economy Participants had been able to access the recommended globally. This again highlights how governments and PPE, but they also reported concerns over its quality, society cannot ignore the informative value of price, costs which has also been raised by other HCW’s71 72. Societies and the value we assign to paramedic care in pandemics. and governments globally have faced problems with PPE Every aspect from pandemic preparation and procure- supply chains, as prior to the pandemic, China produced ment of PPE to paramedic well-being may be informed half the world’s face masks, and as COVID-19 spread by the price we are prepared to pay, how we value health across China their exports stopped.73 This is a vulnera- services and the subsequent costs involved. Societies and bility to society which reflects how this ordinary resource governments will therefore continue to make Tragic quickly became tragically scarce and subject to much Choices in this and future pandemics in order to protect public drama. Pandemic preparations no doubt saved unpriceable lives. lives, but some suggest this response was neither been well prepared nor adequate,74 75 and point to unheeded warn- ings over lack of preparation, including limited numbers DISCUSSION of intensive care beds and PPE which were revealed at Due to the nature of Evolved Grounded Theory Meth- a time of austerity when bed numbers were being cut, odology (EGTM), much of the discussion has been which again highlights the Tragic Choices being made presented through narrative within this paper. We have and potential subsequent costs.75 achieved our aim oexploring paramedic experiences of The high profile campaigns above along with directing providing care during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic of people to 111 as the first point of call, may have proved and developing theory in order to inform future policy effective given increases in 111 calls and reductions in and practice.which has been called for in the literature.69 ambulance use of up to 16%76 77 at a time when ambu- Much of our findings reflect what was already known from lance services had been experiencing record levels of studies with HCW’s in previous pandemics and may have demand and yearly increases of around 5%,.78 79 Despite been somewhat predictable. This highlights the need for this, paramedics talked of patients avoiding care for fear pandemic planning and responses to be informed by the of contracting COVID-19, which again has echoes of best available evidence. Conducting research within this 10 Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677
Open access context presented a unique opportunity, and through impact.35 Future preparation for pandemics should there- swift mobilisation of our research team, development and fore consider the findings of this study and focus on such approval of our study we were able to capture these data issues in planning. as the acute pandemic period unfolded. We have learnt Moral injury can be a risk factor for further mental much from our nimble and efficient approach to this health problems and Billings et al69 found it to be partic- study which may benefit future research with paramedics ularly pernicious in the context of COVID-19 and other and during such crises. pandemics, where many HCW’s feel betrayed by their Paramedic participants within our study were extremely colleagues, organisations and society, some of which concerned about their own physical safety and that of may have also been reflected in this study. Paramedics other family members which was articulated through in our study reported the sense of being United in hard- the category Protect me to protect you. Such safety ship, where the pandemic served as a unifying force in concerns are consistent with reports from this and battling the common enemy of COVID-19. This unity was other pandemics, and exacerbated by inadequate PPE, displayed across the organisation and society and even insufficient resources, and inconsistent information.69 involved powerful militaristic metaphor such as ‘Call to Adequate supply and appropriately designed PPE for arms’. We suggest however that tragic societal choices the prehospital setting should be considered an urgent where revealed through this relationship employers, priority for the current and future pandemic. While society and government. participants were generally supportive of the information Early on in the pandemic, some HCW’s including para- provided by their employer, they reported limited trust medics posted pictures and videos of themselves on social in wider information sources, especially from media and media ranging from messages of protecting the NHS to politicians, which could be a sources of support but also highly choreographed dances in clinical uniforms. Poli- sources of stress as reported in this and other studies.69 ticians, wider society and organisations also publically Protecting paramedics in order to protect the public showed their support through social media and campaigns during pandemics should therefore be a priority in this such as NHS Heroes. While paramedics in our study were and future pandemics. appreciative of this support, they reflected self-deprecatory Participant’s reports of their well- being and mental accounts reported in other studies of such heroic status, health being negatively affected are consistent with other highlighting they were doing their job27 and above all studies.51 61 65 69 Significant efforts had been made prior wanted to protect themselves and their families. They to COVID-19 to improve mental health and well-being reported how they would be forgotten about by the public support for ambulance staff, which was recognised by and return inappropriate use of ambulances and violence participants in our study. However, Clark et al87 reported and aggression directed towards them. As the pandemic that despite a body of research on health and well-being unfolded, some of these predictions were realised through of ambulance staff, there is little evidence on whether reports of increased emergency are us during drunken current actions are working. Our study however may parties VE day celebrations.82 83 As we approached the reflect some progress, as staff talked openly about their anniversary of the pandemic, and look to recover, displays mental health and well-being and gained support through of unity within the media and literature may have been colleagues, friends and the service Chaplain. Formal replaced by a sense of betrayal of HCW’s.88–90 occupational health support through their employers Powerful media and communication narrative however was not however generally valued or used, which and metaphor were employed during the pandemic, is consistent with reports in the literature.10 This should revealing tragic societal choices in relation to the rela- be of concern, and we therefore support calls from Clark tionship with paramedics and other HCW’s. Militaristic, et al87 and others to further investigate strategies from an battle-like metaphors and unitedness in hardship within organisational and individual/ social level. Such strate- the media appeared to be replaced by a polarised narra- gies should consider the positive impact of exercise and tive in later stages of the pandemic. Accusations have being in nature as reported in this study, which is known been made of a striking absence of any plan for long to support well-being and mental health.48–51 term recovery of health and social care services from the The Tragic Choices reported within this study are influ- pandemic in the UK Government 2021 budget, which enced by ethical, moral and professional dilemmas. Para- they argue is aimed at protecting the jobs and livelihoods medics reported feeling they were unable to deliver the of the British people.91 92 Gone are the highly choreo- standard of care they would usually provide, which has graphed social media posts such as TIK-TOK items of been reported in other studies, and may increase risk of NHS worker dancing in clinical uniforms. #NHS Pay moral injury.45 69 It was acknowledged that moral injury Twitter Hashtag dominates social media in later stages of during crises can result in post-traumatic growth,34 and the pandemic.93 Questions also remain around the influ- the many examples of rapid disruption and adaptation ence of campaigns such as the ‘Stay Home, Protect the within this study may reflect such growth, especially NHS, Save Lives’80 slogan, and if they were too successful around decision making. It should however be recognised and scared accessing emergency care as reported in this that such growth relies on supportive cultures, training study by paramedics who reported fear among patients in and preparation to overcome the negative emotional accessing emergency care. Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677 11
Open access
Strengths and limitations incentives for working overtime in staff who may be
The study was conducted in one ambulance service and is fatigued during a pandemic, intrusive media reports
therefore somewhat limited from this perspective. Remark- which some avoided to protect their mental health,
able consistency and agreement was found throughout and the positive role of being in nature and exercise.
analysis, member checking and previous studies which Much of our findings were previously reported in the
adds to the trustworthiness and transferability of our find- literature, and therefore when planning for future
ings. Non-response bias may have occurred as participants pandemics organisations can also continue choose to
may be more proactive, and likely to engage in research. draw on this evidence base (or not).
Using the VoIP of Skype was deemed a strength, despite The relationship between society and paramedics
technical difficulties and one corrupted recording. The was visibly played out, with public shows of support
research team included insider researchers with three through social media, the NHS Heroes narrative,
practising paramedics and while this may be considered a clapping and gifts. While appreciative, paramedics
potential bias, we stated up front the constructivist nature told how they were just doing their job, and above
of EGT and how the background of these researchers all wanted to protect themselves and their families.
added to the richness of the EGT. We also made extensive Paramedics predictions on how they would soon be
reflective notes, cross-validated coding and analysis and forgotten about by the public and return to inappro-
conducted member checking with a very good response priate use of ambulances and violence and aggres-
rate and heterogeneity in responses. sion directed towards them, transpired during the
We were unable to involve patients and public in the pandemic through reports of partying and lack of
study due to the speed of developments. We do, however, social distancing VE day celebrations. We argue these
plan to disseminate the results to study participants and issues reflect Calabresi and Bobbitt’s notion that what
patient organisations counts as a Tragic Choice is in many ways a matter of
public drama, and society may have treated them as
tragic, when in fact they need not be. While much of
CONCLUSION the impact of COVID-19 may be unavoidable, society
The COVID-19 pandemic is arguable the biggest can choose to limit spread of the disease by observing
challenge to have faced providers of healthcare glob- social distancing for instance. Much of our findings
ally. Paramedics are at the forefront of the pandemic had already been reported in literature from other
response, and this research has revealed rich insights HCW’s in previous pandemics, and while the current
on their experiences, which are consistent with response benefited from these insights, warnings were
reports in other studies with HCW’s in pandemics. made on the inevitability of such a pandemic and how
We, however, synthesised emergent categories within preparations should focus on issues of PPE, utilisa-
this study with the work of Calabresi and Bobbitt 23 tion and resourcing of healthcare, communication
and developed a new theoretical context which richly and staff well-being. A counter narrative subsequently
articulates the range of issues faced by paramedics grew within our study and wider society, around these
through the constructed EGT of ‘Tragic Choices in issues especially in later stages which included health-
providing paramedic care during the 2020 COVID-19 care funding and better pay for HCW’s.
pandemic’. Paramedic care during the COVID-19 pandemic was
Paramedics faced Tragic Personal and professional provided in the context of a world with competing and
choices, which included concerns over appropriate conflicting decisions and resources, where a wide range
PPE, protecting themselves and their relatives, the of Tragic Choices have to be made which may challenge
impact on their mental health and difficult clinical the pricelessness of life. It is therefore a disturbing, but
decisions in areas such as EoLC and patients scared undeniable reality that such Tragic Choices have to be
to attend hospital. The rapid disruption and adapta- made. The impact of COVID-19 may persist if we fail
tion endured may represent significant organisational to learn from this and other pandemics and sufficiently
and professional growth, which has been reported in resource our healthcare system and provide the prereq-
previous pandemics and following trauma, however uisite supportive and safe workplaces, through adequate
accounts in this study may also reflect collective moral supply of appropriate PPE, education, and provision of
injury, which may persist long after the pandemic. mental health and well- being support. If not, we risk
Tragic organisational choices were also revealed, losing more lives in this and future pandemics, paradoxi-
around a culture of support in areas such as clin-
cally undermining life’s pricelessness and threatening the
ical decision making, EoLC, communication, mental
overwhelming collective effort which united society in
health and well-b eing, and while somewhat forced,
hardship when responding to the COVID-19 Pandemic.
they are influenced by choices made to focus on these
areas before, during and after the pandemic. Organ- Correction notice This article has been corrected since it was first published. In
isations may choose to explore further reports in the article title, 'Wales' has been capitalised.
our study of why paramedics did not engage in well- Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all of the paramedics who
being support provided by their employer, the role of participated in this study and WAST for sponsoring.
12 Rees N, et al. BMJ Open 2021;11:e048677. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048677You can also read
