OPHTHALMOLOGY AND MAGIC - MORRIS N. YOUNG, M.D - NCBI
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
638
OPHTHALMOLOGY AND MAGIC
MoRRIs N. YOUNG, M.D.
Director Emeritus
Ophthalmology Service
New York Infirmary/Beekman Downtown Hospital
New York, New York
First Honorary Consultant to the Library of Congress
In the Literature of Magic
OPHTHALMOLOGY'S TIES WITH MAGIC are inherent. In contrast, as an
art, magic thrives on its bonds with the occult. Magic may be variously
defined as synonymous with sorcery, necromancy, conjuring, enchantment,
legerdemain, and the like. Representative examples of each of these catego-
ries, dependent upon visual effects, are encountered in the practice of
ophthalmology.
To understand ophthalmology's involvement with magic, one must ex-
plore its roots. Ophthalmology has been called the oldest medical specialty,
going back thousands of years. ' Unavoidably, it has an equally critical expe-
rience with magic in all its forms.
Conflicting aspects of ophthalmology and magic are worth review. One
deals with the visible, the other with the invisible. Divine religion is inti-
mately involved with some areas of the occult. Early Egyptian cosmology is
understood to have regarded the sun and the moon as the right and left eye of a
deity, Horus, whose domain was life.2 It was sacrilegious to gaze at the
deity's features manifested chiefly by the sun. Blindness could result.
A convenient classification of magic separates it into two major divisions:
supernatural and natural. Simply defined, these consist of the occult and the
physical phenomena. Both were prevalent in prehistoric times.
SUPERNATURAL MAGIC
Aside from divine religion, supernatural magic serves as an umbrella for
black magic, the "bad", and white magic, the "good". Devotees continue
to flourish, encouraged perhaps by increasingly sensational media and a
mushrooming literature. Many of these elements must be contended with in
patient care.
Address for reprint requests: 150 Broadway New York, NY 10038
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med.WIHTHALMOLOGY AND MAGIC
OPHTHALMOLOGY AND M A GIC639.- 639
BLACK MAGIC
Proverbially, most sinister is the evil eye.3 In many societies the eye has
been regarded as the center of power and influence in man. The earliest
records of history show the eye as an object of fear, hence the evil eye. In
Italian the alleged possessor of an evil eye was ajetatore, whose opposite was
the muscatto. From this, our modem "mascot" takes its name. German
identified an evil eye as bise Blick; the Dutch, booze Blick, Hebrew, ayin ha
hora; the Chinese, ok ngan.
Ancient beliefs took the sun as an eye symbol. Resembling the sun, the egg
with its yolk was a more earthly object of reverence. The punitive powers
ascribed to these deified eyes assumed prominence. Treatises on the evil eye
abound. These covered powers, detection, and methods of outwitting its
effects, and discussed in all seriousness the eyes of dragons, vampires, and
witches as wielding nefarious eventualities. Many unfortunate persons so
regarded were put to death to prevent further evils emanating from them.
Prophylactic expressions have evolved to be spoken after an object was
suspected to have been affected by the gaze of an evil eye, such as "May God
preserve it." Etymologically the pupil of an eye derived its name from the
Latin pupilla, "little doll." Often, a miniature image seen within the pupil
was believed to be retained by the eye. If capable of evil, it could injure the
party looked at. Credence was given to the notion that the eyes of the dead
might become mischievous and therefore should be prevented from doing so
by covering them with copper coins.
Preying on fear, ignorance, and curiosity, black magic evolved into nu-
merous avenues of demonology, cults, evil forms of sorcery, and conjuring
magic depending greatly upon visual demonstrations. These found ready
followers, who must be confronted perceptively and impassionately when
met with.
WHITE MAGIC
White magic aims to undo the pretended art of black magic in a super-
natural manner. Assuming a parallel role, it endeavors to initiate favorable
outcomes. Many intellectuals have, in fact, subscribed to these concepts for
securing counsel. Self appointed experts have acted as informed intermedi-
aries, thereby wielding subtle powers. Examples of these through centuries
are the "heathen" priests, the oracles, soothsayers and seers, astrologers,
third eye stalwarts, fortune tellers, iridologists, psychics, and spiritualists.
Usually aware of their positions as pseudoscientists, some sought authenticity
Vol. 66, No. 6, November-December 1990640 MN. YOUNG
M.N. YOUNG
by proclaiming themselves as "scientific" counterparts. Their objectives
usually have been money, power, ego satisfaction, or unabashed enactment
of psychiatric aberrations.
"Heathen" priests in ancient Greece had to provide visible manifestations
of the gods they served. Concealed pneumatic and hydraulic powered devices
caused doors to open, fluid to flow continuously from jugs, and figures to
move. Apparently, these ingenious contrivances were effective convincers to
the vision of the beholders. Contemporary soothsayers could be found at
Delphi and questioned in their mysterious abodes, foretelling events, un-
doubtedly influencing history.
Astrology, whose agents conveyed what the constellations had to say also
harkens way back in time. Astrologers' talents have always been much in
demand. More recently, "scientific" astrologers have emerged. Without
hesitation, they claim support from the interference of the planets with the
magnetic emanations from the sun, and even pointed to magnetic resonance
as an effect to be reckoned with.
Kindred aspirations to pierce the veils of the unknown are heard from
Tibet. Visualization of an aura surrounding living bodies is related as possible
for specially endowed individuals. Science fiction has fostered the existence
of a "third eye" lying between the two normal ones. Trephining is called
upon to liberate this pseudocyplops. Attributed to it is ability to understand
about a person's health, personal makeup, and future from interpretation of
an electromagnetic enveloping spectra said to be seen.
A more readily encountered group of prospectors of the character and the
future are fortune tellers. Among these are the crystal ball gazers and readers
of tarot cards. Best known are the specialists in palmistry, psychologically
imaginative decipherers of the lines and mounds of the palm. Less mysterious
is dermatoglyphics, the truly scientific study of skin surface folds and crev-
ices that feature irregularities of the hands and soles as clues to medical and
congenital abnormalities.4 For example, whorls, particulary of the thumb,
are noted to be increased in Wilson's disease.
Another visible complex demanding interpretation is the iris.5 The patterns
have attracted students of the occult bent on a unique source of presumed
revelations concerning an individual. Self-styled opticoiridologists have
mapped out in microscopic detail the pseudoscientific significance of the iris.
Its features are identified as cues to health problems and inevitable future
events in a person's life.
In a more abstract manner, there are the psychics. Perhaps with all sin-
cerity, they report what their minds see, either aimlessly or after specific
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med.OPHTHALMOLOGY AND MAGIC
OPHTHALMOLOGY~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ AN MAI 641
4
queries or stimuli. Oddly, they have been publicized as utilized by police to
locate lost children or victims of murder. Occasionally telekinesis effects are
ascribed to them. Closely related are the adherents to telepathy as an avenue
of communication. Willing researchers may be well funded and remain ada-
mant as to its reality despite exposure of inaccuracies elsewhere.
With brazen lack of embarrassment compared to the psychics, outspoken
practitioners of reputed communication with the dear departed are the spiritu-
alists. Often teamed with psychics, closing their eyes, following some
mumbo jumbo, they claim contact with an ethereal representative.6 Through
this channel a question and answer period occurs. Spiritualists may offer
seances, with or without a religious ambience, and may at times seem to
demonstrate antigravity movement of objects. Ouija boards tap out answers
to questions. Crystal balls provide a visible medium in which the gazing eye
(gifted eye) sees interpretative responses. Obviously, an unceasing variety of
means supposedly penetrate the abode of ghosts upon request from the
gullible.
BLACK AND WHITE MAGIC: TREATMENT FALLACIES
Too frequently, ophthalmologists must respond to patients who volunteer a
history of recourse to some offbeat treatment.7 Basking in the arena of white
magic, a host of such fallacies have been fostered.8 Those relating to the eye
occupy a special niche. Several examples are cited here.
A foreign body may be dislodged by rubbing the good eye, or by pulling
the upper lid over the lower lid and blowing the nose hard. An alternative is to
place a raw oyster over the injured eye. The sore eye of a baby is treated
by squirting the mother's milk into it. Earrings are to be worn for care of
red eyes.
Sight without glasses continues to be offered as an expedient by some
opportunists. A number of systems have been promoted in recent years, most
popular of which was that of Dr. William H. Bates. Several centuries ago,
with the same purpose, British naval seamen wore earrings in the belief that
this would improve their vision. A moustache was once considered essential
to good vision by the British military.
Panaceas abound for pain in the eye. An amulet is to be worn containing
the eye of a green lizard, whereas the eye of a live crab is used in the amulet
for relief of photophobia. Sties are assisted in healing by being rubbed nine
times with the tail of a black cat. Glaucomatous eyes are rubbed hopefully
with each corresponding eye of a wolf. The care of a black eye with applica-
Vol. 66, No. 6, November-December 1990642
642 M.N. YOUNG
M.N.
tion of raw meat is popular. To darken the iris of a baby's eyes, the back of the
head is to be rubbed with burnt hazel nut.
SUPERSTITIONS9
Akin to fallacies, superstitions are rampant as concerns the eyes. They
remain symbolic factors in eye care, persisting from white magic. In any
descriptive writing, the eyes and their adnexa are relished as keys to the
character of the individual being portrayed. Subliminal suggestions occur in
such qualifying adjectives as "wicked", "cunning", "shifty", and so on.
Unwittingly, one's thought and behavior are influenced by myriad supersti-
tions. An ophthalmologist must include this factor in assessing a patient's
complaints, history, and reactions.
Contrary implications exist as to what may have led to heavy or meeting
eyebrows that have been partly plucked. Surprisingly, eyebrows may have
been removed entirely to create unattractiveness. One hears that fallen eye-
lashes are to be saved, placed on back of a hand which is then struck under-
neath three times. If it is dislodged, a wish is to be made. Otherwise, the lash
must be destroyed.
"Crossed eyes" are reputed bad luck if in a card game partner. To over-
come the imagined evil of that person, one outstares him. Many still cross
their fingers to counter the supposed evil of being looked at by a blind person,
or being touched by one. Suspected by some in gambling circles is a winking
eye. Twitching of the left eyelid is claimed to signal receipt of a letter, while
that of the right predicts bad luck, so needs urgent treatment. Care may be
sought for correction of these untoward reactions, the patient being unaware
of a possible subconscious basis, or wishing to be a more welcome participant
in the games of chance.
Blood-stained tears have miraculous connotations despite revelations of
pathologic abnormalities. Their appearance on paintings has been cherished
by the credulous, who disdain other disclosures.
NATURAL MAGIC
Ophthalmologic science demands rational explanations for physically evi-
dent phenomena as to all visual perception. While delving into the sphere of
illusion, natural magic directs attention to ways and means of inducing cred-
ibility for these either for laudable or mischievous purposes. Two major
subdivisions are delusions and illusions.
Delusions. Aberrations of the mind occur in widest possible variety. These
manifestations may be accepted with different degrees of sincerity. Ophthal-
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med.OPHTHALMOLOGY AND
OPHThALMOLOGY MAGIC
AND MAGIC 643
mology evaluates their significance with resort to standardized methodology,
including psychologic aspects.'0 Etiologic factors such as medication or hard
drugs are never forgotten. Spiritualistic influences, cults, autosuggestion and
intellectual inadequacies must be taken into account. Unidentified flying
objects, ghosts, spirit knockings, deja vu, premonitions, telepathy, all lead to
frustrated research expenditures, which the ophthalmologist is often chal-
lenged to explain.
Illusions of vision-physiologic. As an incompletely programmed memory
resource, the brain may give prodigiously erroneous interpretations of what is
seen. Inanimate flat presentations of works of art are visualized as three
dimensional. Sculptured masses of clay or bronze figures almost come alive.
Their artisans are masters in appreciation of physiologically deceptive optical
illusions.
One classification of these deceptions designates them as the ambiguous,
the distortions, the paradoxes, and the fictitious. 1 1 Each type accomplishes
incorrect conclusions. The ambiguous group includes the well known portrait
once found in a physician's office waiting room, "All is vanity". The mir-
rored image of a lady seated before a vanity table changes to a skull. Another
is a carved banister post, the edge of which assumes the outline of a face
profile and body. Distortions deal with length and curvature of lines. Expla-
nations are based on the fact that the mind is more alert to vertical than
horizontal lines; an illusion occurs when horizontal and perpendicular lines of
equal length are compared visually, and the upright one appears longer.
Paradoxes form a group in which objects seen are rationalized as being
unlikely or impossible. Fictitious illusions involve hypothetical presentation,
the mind replacing missing elements to satisfy expectations. This happens
when objects lie over one another and the assumption is made that continuity
exists.
Seeking answers, Jean Eugene Robert-Houdin, who has been dubbed "Fa-
ther of modem magic", devised instruments for examining the interior of the
eye. 12,13 He reported these to medical circles in France in the 1880s. Among
these instruments were an iridoscope, a pupilloscope, and an ophthalmoscope
(1863). 14
ILLUSIONS OF VISION -OVERT AND COVERT
An understanding of illusion unmasks the deceptions of magic in all its
tantalizing displays of impossibilities. 15 Successful performances for enter-
tainment are offered by an actor-magician. Covert applications are the spe-
cialty of the practitioners of fraud, who must be constantly guarded against.
Representative aspects confront ophthalmologists.
Vol. 66, No. 6, November-December 1990644
644
M.N. YOUNG
MN. YOUNG
"Quicker-than-the-eye" is a popular simplification of the marvels ascribed
to the prestidigitator. Motion picture effects have led to an understanding of
the limitations of flicker fusion, while reinforcing that misdirection of atten-
tion is an even more important feature of successful deception. It implies the
essentiality of diverting the gaze away from any secret maneuver. Along with
this, a certain amount of deftness - legerdemain - may be required as in the
manipulation of coins or cards.
Ease in handling of trial lenses is enhanced through practice similar to that
used in coin tricks. Accomplishment in rope tricks involves familiarity with
knots, an excellent introduction to surgical ties.
Masking of objects and movements achieves some of the puzzling vanish-
ings and appearances that befuddle audiences. Ophthalmologic plastic and
other surgical procedures have much to relate to when planning approaches to
concealment.
Glare and dazzle phenomena, which are being studied and more broadly
understood, have been utilized in stage presentations by magicians of "black
art". A black background is framed by bright lights that overwhelm the eyes
so that white objects seem to float and contort mysteriously, motivated by
unseen black clothed and masked individuals.
Ophthalmologic instrumentations are intricately involved with such re-
flecting surfaces as mirrors and lenses. They play a key role in diagnosis and
treatment in the form of complex optical, photographic, and laser technolo-
gies. Early applications of their basic elements to magic contributed to their
development for health care. Hidden uses continue to be employed by magi-
cians to delight innocent observers. 16
Ventriloquism depends upon passive deception of the eye and ear. It ex-
ploits the prevalent impression that "Seeing is believing". A voice is mis-
directed as belonging to the mouth of an inanimate doll.
Remarkable strength of the eyes was demonstrated to travelers in India,
who reported seeing weights raised by the eyes. A small boy was placed on a
sling net at the feet of the performer. A metallic artifical eye shell with central
perforation and ends of strong twine attached was inserted stealthily under the
performer's eyelids. Bending forward and looking down, he secretly affixed
the opposite ends of the hook-ended twine to each side of the net. Then,
bending backward, with twines resting on his chest and cheeks, he slowly
raised the boy. Viewed at a distance, unaware of the contrivance, some
audiences reported that the child had been lifted by the power of the eyes.
This was before the advent of contact lenses and may have helped encourage
trials in that direction.
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med..~ ~~PTAMLGOPHTHALMOLOGY AND MAGIC
N AI 645
4
Closely allied to feats of strength of the eyes is the field of hypnotism.
Ophthalmologists must always be aware of the effect of their eyes when
regarding a patient, and the influence of other persons' eyes with which the
patient has frequent contact. Hypnotism resorts to many devices aimed at
tiring or fascinating the eyes and mind, such as looking at a small gold ball,
mystic diagrams, upward gaze, closing eyelids, and suggesting feelings.
Hypnotism may include as a subspecialty of mentalism that of the magician of
the mind. The hypnotist may proclaim that he "sees all, knows all" even if
hampered by a blindfold. Keratoprosthetic type devices for use in blindfolds
were sought from me years before they became available for scarred corneas.
When eyes were not blindfolded, resort could be made to confederates who
might use gestures or movements of the eyes to indicate messages.
Next of kin to mentalists are the memory experts. These embrace the
mnemonicists and lightning calculators. In the mid 1880s William Stokes, a
British teacher of memory, voluntarily instructed blind people in the art of
memory. A French ophthalmologist, Dr. Emil Javal, had become blind sud-
denly at the age of 52.17 He found mnemonics useful in replacing the loss of
ability to write down numbers and facts that he wished to recollect later.
Various memory aids for the blind have been devised based on mnemonic
systems.
Conversely, purposeful obscuration of vision is managed by the art of
camouflage, as applied to equipment used in stage illusions. A prominent
British magician, Jasper Maskelyne, was employed during World War II by
the British military services for development and implementation of conceal-
ment defenses.
FRAUD-A MIXED BAG
Only a frail line divides entertainment magic from the bunko artists. Nev-
ertheless, each learns from the other how to take advantage of visual percep-
tion inadequacies. Aptly, the legendary Houdini expressed this in the title of
one of his books, The Right Way to do Wrong. 18 Exposures of fraud, charla-
tanry, cheating, con men, quackery, pickpockets, crooked gambling, and
pretenders of communication with the spirits are often publicized. Despite
this, an inexhaustible gallery of operators thrives upon a seemingly endless
supply of gullible or innocent victims. 19 During his later years, Harry
Houdini spearheaded crusades aimed at unfrocking fraudulent spiritualists
and other brazen vendors of a supposed facility of vision to penetrate the
occult. His book, A Magician Among the Spirits, details a few of his expo-
sures. 20 Lamentably, he was unable to persuade a congressional committee to
legislate against these malfeasances.
Vol. 66, No. 6, November-December 1990646 M.N. YOUNG
CONCLUSION
Inadvertently, ophthalmology's instrumentation and remedies have bene-
fited from the resources of the practitioners of magic. However, ophthalmo-
gists must maintain a perpetual vigil as to the ingenious deceptions by which
patients and they themselves may be affected. The influence of magic and its
technology continues to be a significant factor for optimum ophthalmologic
care, particularly in its psychological aspects.
REFERENCES
1. Hirschberg, J.: The History of Ophthal- panion to the Mind. Oxford, Oxford
mology. Vol. I. Antiquity, Blodi, F.C., University Press, 1987.
translator. Bonn, Wayrenborgh, 1982. 12. Robert-Houdin, J.E.: La Radiation Lu-
2. Pierret, P.: Le Pantheon tgyptien. Paris, mineus. Blois, 1869.
Leroux, 188 1. 13. Robert-Houdin, J.E.: Exploration de la
3. Maloney, C., editor: The Evil Eye. New Retine. Blois, 1869.
York, Columbia University Press, 1976. 14. Evans, H.R.: History of Conjuring and
4. Gibbs, R.C. and Warburton, D.: Funda- Magic. Kenton, OH, Int. Brotherhood
mentals ofDermatoglyphics. New York, of Magicians, 1928.
authors, ca. 1966. 15. Hopkins, A.A.: Magic, Stage Illusions
5. Jensen, B: Science and Practice of Iri- and Scientific Diversions. New York,
dology. Escondido, CA, Hidden Valley 1928
Health Ranch, 1952. 16. Sharpe, S.H.: Conjurers' Optical Se-
6. Rinn, J.: Sixty Years of Psychical Re- crets. Calgary, Hades, 1985.
search. New York, Truth Seeker, 1950. 17. Javal, Is.: On Becoming Blind, Advice
7. Thomen, A. A. Doctors Don't Believe for Persons Losing Their Sight, Edson,
It. Why Do You? New York, Regent, C.E., translator. New York, McMillan,
1940. 1905.
8. Enthoven, H.E.: The Folklore of Bom- 18. Houdini, H.: The Right Way To Do
bay. Oxford, Clarendon, 1924. Wrong. Boston, author, 1906.
9. De Lys, C.: A Treasury of American Su- 19. Gardner, M.: The New Age. Notes of a
perstitions. New York, Philosophical Fringe Watcher. New York, Prom-
Library, 1948. etheus, 1988.
10. Sharpe, S.H.: Conjurers' Psychological 20. Houdini, H.: A Magician Among the
Secrets. Calgary, Hades, 1985. Spirits. New York, Harper, 1924.
11. Gregory, R.L., editor: The Oxford Com-
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med.You can also read
