Moving beyond informal action: sustainable energy and the humanitarian response system
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Thomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action
https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-021-00102-x
(2021) 6:21
Journal of International
Humanitarian Action
RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access
Moving beyond informal action: sustainable
energy and the humanitarian response
system
Peter James Matthew Thomas1* , Sarah Rosenberg-Jansen2 and Aimee Jenks3
Abstract
Energy and humanitarian action have long been uneasy bedfellows. In the field, many humanitarian practitioners
lack the time or remit to engage with a complex issue such as energy, and the topic to date has received relatively
little attention from the private, development and academic sectors. This paper hopes to provide more clarity on
energy in forced displacement settings by analysing how energy is interwoven with the humanitarian cluster
system. This paper has two aims: (1) to assess existing evidence in the sector and explain the links between energy
and each of the humanitarian clusters and (2) to provide recommendations on how humanitarian response efforts
can transition from informal action to a comprehensive response on sustainable energy provision. This paper is the
first to investigate the role of energy using the cluster system as a framework and contributes to a rapidly evolving
field of research and practice on energy in humanitarian contexts. Our analysis demonstrates that energy is not fully
integrated within humanitarian programme planning. Further, it highlights pathways for improving humanitarian
outcomes enabled by improved energy practices. We identify ten ways clusters can integrate action on energy to
support crisis-affected communities.
Keywords: Energy access, Energy planning, Refugees, Displacement settings, Humanitarian response, Cluster system
Introduction practice. Existing research has already established that
Humanitarian situations affect approximately 120 mil- energy has not been systematically considered in re-
lion people every year (Clarke and Parris 2019) and cur- sponse planning and is underfunded by humanitarian
rently there are around 70.8 million forcibly displaced agencies (Lahn and Grafham 2015; D’Annunzio et al.
people living worldwide (UNHCR 2019a), a figure which 2016; Gerrard 2016; Lehne et al. 2016; Thulstrup and
has increased significantly in recent years (UNHCR Joshi 2017; Corbyn and Vianello 2018). This is despite
2011). Displacement situations are seen as a strain on recognition that energy is essential for ensuring well-
the already stretched resources of developing economies, being and livelihoods (Pachauri and Spreng 2004; Nuss-
where an estimated 80% of displaced people live baumer et al. 2012; Nerini et al. 2017; Jeuland et al.
(UNHCR 2020a). Although energy-related issues have 2021), as well as an increasing awareness amongst hu-
appeared on the humanitarian agenda for over 20 years manitarian practitioners that energy is a key resource for
(Bellanca 2014), with energy recognised by the United enabling the security of people in vulnerable situations.
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) as Recent initiatives at the international level have drawn
“a basic need for everyone” (UNHCR 2015), energy has attention to the importance of energy and sought to im-
received relatively little focus overall in humanitarian prove coordination in humanitarian contexts. Examples
include the working group on Safe Access to Fuel and
Energy in Humanitarian Settings established in 2007 to
* Correspondence: peter.thomas@bristol.ac.uk
1
University of Bristol, Senate House, Tyndall Ave, Bristol BS8 1TH, UK facilitate a more coordinated and timely response to the
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© The Author(s). 2021 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if
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licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.Thomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 2 of 20 fuel and energy needs of conflict-affected populations shelter, food, health, education and work. Initially, we (Bellanca 2014), the Moving Energy Initiative (MEI) explore what type of energy is needed for basic human programme implemented in 2014–2018 to elevate the survival and its intersection with the protection, shelter importance of humanitarian energy in policy and prac- and settlements and household items, food security and tice (Chatham House 2019), and the Global Platform for nutrition clusters. Second, sustainable energy provision Action on Sustainable Energy in Displacement Settings for essential services and its intersection with the health, (GPA) launched in 2018 with the objective of systemat- WASH and education clusters is dicussed. Third, we ex- ically integrating sustainable energy into humanitarian plore how renewable energy can be utilised to power hu- response (UNITAR 2018). At the field and national manitarian operations through the intersection with the levels, energy and environment working groups have Camp Coordination and Camp Management (CCCM), been established in some countries (for example in logistics and emergency telecoms clusters. Finally, we Uganda, Jordan and Bangladesh) to coordinate sustain- describe these mechanisms and provide specific mea- able energy programming. There has also been an in- sures which could be adopted by the clusters to embed crease in the number of humanitarian energy projects sustainable energy solutions across cluster policies and including the Humanitarian Engineering and Energy for programming. Displacement project (Coventry University et al. 2019), the Alianza Shire projects (2017), the SET4food project Research approach and methodology (Barbieri et al. 2018), and the Renewable Energy for Ref- A wide range of topics which discuss energy in humani- ugees project (Practical Action 2019). tarian response including emergencies and protracted Despite this initial progress, the delivery of sustainable crises were reviewed as part of the analysis for this energy solutions remains an under-researched and paper. Since there is limited peer-reviewed work on hu- under-valued topic within humanitarian response (Bar- manitarian energy (Rosenberg-Jansen 2018), non- bieri et al. 2018). The existing cluster system and hu- academic publications have also been reviewed including manitarian coordination mechanisms have been slow to case studies, project documents and reports. integrate sustainable energy planning in practice. For ex- The review was conducted using the Scopus research ample, a recent survey of Rohingya refugees in database and a set list of keywords developed by the au- Bangladesh found that energy was their most important thors. Separate searches of the Journal of International unmet need (Hopkins and Hetzer 2018). Despite emer- Humanitarian Action and Journal of Humanitarian En- ging action, existing mechanisms have fallen short of gineering were conducted using the same keywords be- providing regular or sustainable access to clean cooking cause these were not indexed by Scopus. Searches were or modern energy services. limited to Title, Abstract and Keyword, and only English The objective of this paper is to present evidence from language publications were included, as the majority of the existing literature regarding the role of energy across the analysis published on this topic is in English and the humanitarian response system and to critically re- only then occasionally translated into other languages. flect on the current provision of energy services within Grey literature available on key websites such as Energy- it. This is the first paper to investigate energy access and pedia, ReliefWeb, the individual humanitarian cluster use in humanitarian relief in this way and supports the websites, the websites of key humanitarian organisations, sector’s collective understanding of the practice of hu- and unpublished evidence and data available to the au- manitarianism and how issues of protection, technology thors was also included. The reference lists of texts iden- and governance connect with the energy sector. This tified during the literature search were also reviewed and paper provides a summary on energy within the humani- any texts not already identified were evaluated. Over 400 tarian clusters and the high-level analysis needed to sup- documents were identified to provide the foundation of port sector-specific guidance on integrating energy the analysis. Evidence collected through informal discus- within the humanitarian system. The article then sets sions with practitioners is also presented. These discus- out recommendations on how energy can be further em- sions build on the experience of the authors in bedded within the individual cluster sectors. delivering humanitarian energy interventions and con- The following sections outline our research approach ducting academic research at the humanitarian energy and present an overview of existing energy provision in nexus. Reflecting on these lessons and experience within humanitarian response. The clusters are presented in this paper brings balanced and critical reflections to this three sections and analyse sector-specific literature in a research article to support the evidence presented from similar order to the provision of humanitarian assistance academic sources. which broadly follows the Universal Declaration of Hu- The paper uses the Inter-Agency Standing Committee man Rights (United Nations, 1949), whereby the right to (IASC) Cluster System as a framework for understanding protection is closely followed by an individual’s right to the role energy currently plays in humanitarian response
Thomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 3 of 20
and opportunities for further integration in the future. self-settled refugees, host communities, and Internally
The cluster system is only activated in non-refugee hu- Displaced Peoples (IDPs)” (Rosenberg-Jansen 2020).
manitarian emergencies (UNHCR 2020b), however, it Humanitarian services, including energy responses,
closely mirrors the sectoral working groups imple- have traditionally been provided under the “protect and
mented by the UNHCR under the Refugee Coordination provide” model often present in emergency response,
Model (RCM) in refugee situations (UNHCR 2020b). As where camps or settlements are set up (theoretically for
a result, it provides a good framing to present a sectoral the short term) to offer a physically protective space for
analysis across the technical and humanitarian interven- displaced people. Humanitarian agencies then provide
tion areas. Examining the cluster system also enables us products to meet their basic needs for shelter, food,
to understand how energy connects to issues of humani- water and safety. Responses are led by humanitarian aid
tarian protection, response programming within aid agencies including the UNHCR, the International
agencies, and the role energy technologies play within Organization for Migration (IOM), the World Food
the humanitarian sphere. Programme (WFP), the Food and Agriculture
The paper is primarily focused on displaced people Organization (FAO), and the United Nations Office for
residing in camps or similar settlements in developing the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA),
countries, which fall under the mandate of international alongside Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
humanitarian organisations. In these contexts, energy is and humanitarian partners. These organisations coordin-
classed as a service which can be provided alongside ate action using a range of processes, including the clus-
other critical areas of aid such as water, food, and shel- ter system, the RCM and working groups on specific
ter. In other displacement contexts, a national govern- issues. Specifically, the cluster system (Fig. 1) coordi-
ment or other agencies might provide alternative nates over-arching action across a range of technology
methods of support on energy. For example, following an and intervention areas, such as water, protection, health
earthquake or flood, governments may support energy and logistics (IASC 2015). Each cluster has a lead agency
services through their national electricity suppliers. responsible for coordinating the delivery of humanitarian
Under national government remits, technical energy ex- assistance within that sector.
perts are often in charge of the response and use well- Figure 1 provides a preliminary overview based on the
established or national delivery mechanisms. In the hu- authors’ experience of the areas where energy interlinks
manitarian sector, however, responses are often uncoor- with the cluster system. It also highlights that there is
dinated and rely on individuals with a basic operational currently no official cluster for energy despite previous
knowledge of energy. It is for this reason that we focus on attempts to create one (Bellanca 2014; Callaghy 2020).
camps or similar settlements to understand the role hu- As a result, energy responses are currently only con-
manitarian actors and the cluster system plays in deliver- nected informally to the existing cluster system. This is
ing energy to displaced people. However, it is recognised problematic because previous research has established
that many displaced people live in urban or peri-urban that significant gaps exist in sectors and on specific
areas, reliant on the local infrastructure, which is outside cross-cutting issues where there is no clearly mandated
the scope of this analysis but still requires research. lead agency (Van Dorp 2009). This means that energy
solutions are often not supplied despite increasing recog-
nition that it is essential for improving people’s quality of
Humanitarian response and energy access life and should be viewed as a human right (Bradbrook
In this paper, energy access includes cooking, heating and Gardam 2006; SE4ALL 2017; Kyte 2019). Where en-
and cooling and the electricity needs of people in ergy has been provided, it has been in a largely ad hoc
displaced settings, including energy use by field- manner through methods of distributing products and
practitioners. It includes access within homes, services for free (Bellanca 2014; Lahn and Grafham 2015;
enterprises, community facilities and humanitarian oper- Thulstrup and Joshi 2017; Corbyn and Vianello 2018).
ations. This paper uses the terms “humanitarian energy” One often-cited reason for the lack of governance on
and “energy in displacement settings” interchangeably to energy provision in humanitarian response is that it is
cover sector-wide action on energy provision within hu- not viewed as an essential need during emergencies
manitarian response. The intersection of humanitarian (UNITAR 2019). However, many international commit-
response and energy, informally referred to as humani- ments have proposed that humanitarian and develop-
tarian energy, can be defined as the “institutions, pol- ment responses must be linked from the early stages of
icies, programmes, global initiatives, actions and a crisis rather than once a situation becomes protracted
activities which use a range of sustainable and fossil fuel (Agenda for Humanity 2016; Idris 2017; UN 2018a; UN
energy sources in contexts of displacement to meet the 2018b; UNITAR 2018). Delivering long-term solutions is
energy needs of people in camps and urban settings, vital because humanitarian situations are increasinglyThomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 4 of 20
Fig. 1 The cluster system with examples of energy uses. Source: Adapted from (OCHA, 2020)
becoming long term (ALNAP 2018), and protracted situ- such support and often it is outside their core remits.
ations are becoming the “new normal” (Sova 2017; The sections below consider the evidence on energy
Boodhna et al. 2019). Often the processes and coordin- within the humanitarian system, presented under each
ation mechanisms which are appropriate for short-term of the clusters to summarise how access to energy is
response are not suitable for protracted a situation (Ben- viewed from a cluster perspective.
nett 2015; Sanderson et al. 2015; Knox Clarke and
Campbell 2018). Energy is a quintessential example of Energy for protection and survival
this. The distribution of energy products in emergencies Energy is essential for the delivery of core humanitarian
works in the short term. For example, the provision of services such as powering registration services and the
solar lanterns and cookstoves helps meet the basic needs transportation of people and/or equipment. It is also
of vulnerable populations by preventing starvation and needed to ensure the basic survival of displaced popula-
providing basic lighting for safety. However, following tions such as for cooking food and heating shelters. This
the initial phase of an emergency (after around six section covers energy provision across the protection, shel-
months)1, such distribution mechanisms no longer meet ter, food security and nutrition clusters. Household items
people’s needs. Households need more diverse sources have also been included in the shelter cluster because this
of energy, communities need street-lighting and power is the typical structure implemented under the RCM.
for basic public services like health and water pumping,
and humanitarian operations need large amounts of Protection
electricity to continue their work (UNITAR 2018). The UNHCR leads the protection cluster which aims to
Humanitarian aid organisations are not set up to deliver ensure that the rights and dignity of displaced people in-
cluding legal and physical protection is achieved. Al-
1 though the UNHCR recently produced an energy
This is the duration of a system-wide response to a sudden onset or
rapidly deteriorating humanitarian situation under the IASC system strategy (UNHCR 2019b), its protection remit means
(UNHCR 2015). that most of the assistance provided so far has focusedThomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 5 of 20 on cooking rather than electricity. Cooking has trad- recent review on the role that cookstoves and fuels have itionally been considered a protection issue because on preventing gender-based violence found that there when displaced people collect their own fuel, they may was a lack of compelling evidence as to whether and face conflicts with local communities, increased risks of how cookstove and fuel projects reduced the risk and being involved in an accident, or become more exposed overall frequency of gender-based violence (Global Alli- to situations in which gender-based violence can occur ance for Clean Cookstoves 2016). (Hassen 2006; Musse 2012; Spangaro et al. 2013; Gun- Although many protection debates have tended to ning 2014; Gianvenuti et al. 2015; Thulstrup and Henry focus on violence, displaced communities face several 2015). Most of the evidence regarding the nexus be- other protection-based issues regarding energy. Dis- tween energy and protection in the existing literature placed people are sometimes confined to camps, unable regards firewood collection for cooking. However, safety to legally move outside of these spaces to access energy. in dark public spaces and feeling secure within camp This presents several legal challenges that align with the and non-camp environments is also a major protection remit of the protection cluster such as refoulement. challenge where energy plays an important role. There are examples in Bangladesh, Djibouti and Ethiopia Multiple studies connect firewood collection and vio- where refugees have been arrested for illegal fuelwood lence against displaced people, including examples in collection, and in Tanzania, there are incidences of Uganda, Ethiopia, Chad, Darfur, South Sudan, Namibia, refoulement after refugees left camps for various reasons Nepal, Kenya and the Democratic Republic of Congo including firewood collection (Lyytinen 2009). Where (Médecins Sans Frontières 2005; Patrick 2006; Lyytinen movement is allowed, tensions and conflict between host 2009; Danish Refugee Council 2012; Gunning 2014; Glo- and refugee communities can build due to dependence bal Alliance for Clean Cookstoves 2015; Gerrard 2016). on local natural resources such as firewood for cooking. The literature demonstrates that the burden and risks of Furthermore, according to the MEI, “the fact that collecting firewood falls overwhelmingly on women and firewood collection outside camps is illegal in many girls (Lyytinen 2009; Booker et al. 2012; WRC 2014; countries further encourages exploitation of the vul- Thulstrup and Joshi 2017; Listo 2018), exposing them to nerable and under-reporting of assaults” (Lahn and greater risks. However, it is important to note that most Grafham 2015). gender-based violence is inter-partner and inter-familial Several reports link lighting and the protection remits violence that happens within or close to homes (Duvv- in humanitarian contexts (McKinsey 2010; Merieau and ury et al. 2004; Kishor and Johnson 2004; World Health Egziabher 2012; Munz and Rasoul 2013; IOM 2014). For Organization 2005; Grafham 2020), rather than ‘stranger’ example, one of the reasons women fear using commu- violence which happens during firewood collection. nal kitchens and sanitation facilities is a lack of lighting There are some examples of inter-partner firewood vio- (Gunning 2014; Hastie et al. 2019). Lighting around lence in the literature such as Mulumba (2011) who clinics and hospitals also increases the perception of found that the time women spent away from their public safety and acceptability of health services (Gun- homes collecting firewood had a negative effect on their ning 2014). Increased perception of safety is not just re- domestic relations. While protection narratives primarily lated to sexual and gender-based violence. For example, focus on women and girls, there is also some evidence of in Kenya and Nepal, it has been reported that lights violence against men occurring, particularly men who helped people spot snakes and scorpions at night (FaIDA earn an income producing charcoal (Thulstrup and Joshi 2013). As a result, street lighting is often a high priority 2017; Bermudez et al. 2018; Hastie et al. 2019). for camp residents (Corbyn and Vianello 2018) and To address the protection challenge associated with the UNHCR has provided solar street lights to camps firewood collection, humanitarian agencies have pro- such as in Bangladesh, which had a positive impact on vided fuel and improved cookstoves (which reduce the the overall security situation (Fuentes et al. 2018). How- amount of fuel required) to displaced people. However, ever, in the past, poorly designed programmes have most of the literature demonstrates that there is little meant that streetlights have had a high failure rate, with evidence that providing basic fuel or improved clean theft and poor maintenance common issues (Corbyn cookstoves meets protection needs (CASA Consulting and Vianello 2018). Furthermore, lighting is not a pana- 2001; Abdelnour 2015; Listo 2018). For example, in Dar- cea for protection and can present its own challenges. fur, despite receiving improved cookstoves, firewood dis- For example, despite receiving solar lamps, women in tribution was still insufficient to meet displaced people’s Haiti still perceived their camps as unsafe (Dynes et al. needs, and women were forced to collect firewood (Pat- 2014) and Gunning (2014) found that in some circum- rick 2006). This has created a perception amongst NGOs stances such as in the Democratic Republic of Congo, that improved cookstoves have little or no impact on people did not use their lights because they were worried protection (Langol and Wolf 2005). Furthermore, a it would enable rebel groups to identify their location.
Thomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 6 of 20
This review has so far focused on how energy is cur- and in Venezuela, the cluster distributed over 1,129 solar
rently connected to the remit of the protection cluster. lamps (OCHA 2020). However, this is not the case in all
However, in line with others (e.g. Harrell-bond and situations, and although the sphere standards recognise
Chambers 1986; Steets et al. 2016; UNHCR 2016; Betts the importance of energy, they make limited recommen-
and Collier 2018), our analysis suggests that the protec- dations on minimum standards (Sphere Association
tion remit on energy could be expanded. For example, 2018). A failure to provide clear guidance and the setting
household expenditure on energy should be considered of minimum energy access targets in the sphere stan-
more carefully because displaced people spend between dards leaves humanitarian practitioners without a bench-
15 and 31% of their income and resources on energy mark or common guidance to work towards. However,
(Lahn and Grafham 2015; Corbyn and Vianello 2018). this is beginning to change. At the 2019 Global Refugee
Such high levels of expenditure represent a huge burden Forum, the UNHCR made a commitment that all refu-
on displaced people and could be considered part of the gee and host community households will have Tier 2
protection remit of humanitarian agencies. Therefore, electricity access by 2030 (UNHCR 2019c).
the protection cluster has an important role to play in The construction of shelters using wood, as both a
both advocating for the energy needs of displaced people construction material in shelters and to fire bricks for
and finding ways to reduce the financial burdens placed shelter construction, adds further pressure on depleting
on refugees and displaced people who fund their own local wood sources (Birendra and Nagata 2006;
energy access. Thulstrup and Joshi 2017). As a result, some govern-
In conclusion, the connection between energy and pro- ments, such as Rwanda, have responded by restricting
tection is complex, with evidence demonstrating that the in- the use of wood for shelter construction (Lyytinen
sufficient provision of cooking fuel and lighting can 2009). Furthermore, a review conducted by the Women’s
exacerbate protection issues such as sexual and gender- Refugee Committee recommended providing material
based violence (SGBV) and refoulement. Most research has for shelter construction to avoid exacerbating environ-
focused on reducing firewood collection as a way of pre- ment degradation and tension with host communities
venting SGBV. However, there is increasing evidence that (WRC 2011). Humanitarian settlements are typically
this approach does not address the root causes of SGBV densely packed and represent a high risk of fire (Atiyeh
(Abdelnour 2015). Improving access to light has faced simi- and Gunn 2017). The reliance that communities have on
lar challenges and the impact of projects to date has been traditional energy sources (such as open fires, kerosene
limited. However, there have been no projects that fully ad- lanterns and candles) exacerbates this risk (Gunning
dress all household and community lighting needs. 2014; Lahn and Grafham 2015), and there are a number
of examples of fires in humanitarian camps in the litera-
Shelter and household items ture (UNHCR 2008; UNHCR 2013; Medecins Sans Fron-
The shelter cluster is co-chaired by the International Fed- tieres 2020). A systematic review carried out by
eration of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the body Kazerooni et al. (2016) found that fires in refugee and
responsible for leading in disaster situations, and the displaced persons settlements (excluding urban settings
UNHCR who lead in conflict situations. The cluster is re- where most displaced people reside) have resulted in at
sponsible for overseeing the identification and planning of least 487 deaths and 790 burn injuries since 1990. While
humanitarian settlements and the coordination of shelter there is some evidence suggesting that the distribution
actors to ensure displaced people have access to safe, dig- of solar lamps has decreased the risk of fires (IOM 2014),
nified and appropriate shelter. In many contexts the shel- no comprehensive studies have investigated this. Ensuring
ter cluster is also responsible for the supply of household the safe design of camp cooking areas can also help to re-
items, often referred to as non-food items (NFIs). duce fire risk (WRC 2014). However, a Building Research
To date, only a proportion of household energy needs Establishment Trust analysis of fire risk in humanitarian
have been met. For example, in some contexts, solar lan- camps found that while better camp design would reduce
terns and clean cookstoves have been provided (IKEA the risks of fire spread, it was often not possible to adhere
Foundation 2014; WakaWaka 2017; WakaWaka 2018). to the standards in terms of the required spacing between
However, the shelter cluster is increasingly seen as an shelters (Shipp and Annable 2008).
appropriate place to integrate a more comprehensive In many climates, such as Afghanistan, there is a need
household energy response. For example, energy has for heating shelters in winter and cookstoves often
been successfully integrated into the shelter cluster in double as a room heater during cold weather (Gunning
recent emergency responses in Bangladesh and 2014). In countries such as Jordan, organisations have
Venezuela. In Bangladesh, the shelter cluster set mini- supported displaced families to thermally insulate their
mum standards for household lighting and Liquefied homes to reduce the need for heating in winter (Lahn
Petroleum Gas (LPG) stoves (Shelter/NFI Cluster 2019), and Grafham 2015; Lahn et al. 2016). There is a closeThomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 7 of 20
link between the shelter and health cluster here because per person per month depending on the type and quan-
insufficient heating can be a serious health risk in colder tity of food cooked, stove efficiency and cooking prac-
climates (Zabaneh et al. 2008; Lahn and Grafham 2015). tices (D’Annunzio et al. 2016). Notably, previous
There is also a link to the logistics cluster because sup- research has found people are reluctant to admit to fire-
plying sufficient fuel to ensure comfortable conditions wood collection (Patrick 2006) and existing estimates
for occupants in poorly insulated accommodation can may be unreliable. In most cases, the amount of fuel or
create a major logistical challenge (Obyn et al. 2015). In firewood distributed by aid agencies is typically not
warmer climates such as Jordan, Libya, and Iraq, fans, enough to meet the needs of displaced communities
and air conditioners are needed (IRIN 2015; Dupin (Lyytinen 2009). For example, in the Farchana camp in
2018). Some newly designed shelters also have insulation Chad, 7 kg was provided per person per month (Gun-
to improve thermal comfort in both winter and summer ning 2014). As a result, households collect firewood
(Better Shelter 2018). However, these “modern” shelters from the surrounding environment to meet their needs
have been criticised as being inappropriate in many con- and, although existing estimates vary depending on the
texts (Scott-Smith 2019). context, this can involve walking up to 15 km and take
Many authors now suggest that moving to new forms up to 8 h per trip (Langol and Wolf 2005; Rogers et al.
of humanitarian delivery, such as alternative procure- 2013; Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves 2015). How-
ment processes and market-based solutions, could im- ever, previous research has established that there is a
prove the effectiveness of cluster action on energy tendency to underestimate the amount of time spent
(Oxfam and WFP 2013; Whitehouse 2019). In particular, collecting firewood (Langol and Wolf 2005). Most stud-
the impact of the free distribution of household items ies reviewed here suggested that clean cookstove pro-
such as solar lanterns by shelter cluster members has been grammes reduced firewood collection by approximately
criticised (Cohen and Patel 2019), as these technologies 50% (Langol and Wolf 2005; Patrick 2006; Lyytinen
often do not meet the needs of households and families 2009; Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves 2015; Lahn
have no choice concerning the products they receive. This and Grafham 2015).
could be enabled by linking energy to cash assistance A range of cooking technologies and fuels are available
(IRENA 2019) such as the inclusion of energy in mini- that potentially alleviate the need for firewood com-
mum expenditure baskets in Uganda (WFP 2019). pletely, including solar powered electric cooking (Batch-
elor et al. 2018) and LPG (UNHCR 2014; UNHCR 2017;
Food security and nutrition UNHCR 2018a). In situations where alternative fuels
Co-chaired by the WFP and the FAO, the food security and cooking technologies are promoted, implementation
cluster aims to ensure food availability and utilisation. The however is not without challenges. For example, the cost
nutrition cluster is led by the United Nations Children's of alternative fuels can be a barrier for refugee house-
Fund (UNICEF) and aims to safeguard and improve nutri- holds (Patel and Gross 2019) or a high operating ex-
tional standards. In non-emergency humanitarian situa- pense for the humanitarian operation, and fuels can also
tions, food security is typically its own sectoral working face logistical and political issues even where policies are
group and nutrition is combined with the health group. implemented to promote them (Rogers et al. 2013). In
Although food is often provided in humanitarian situa- Nepal and Chad, people sold the provided kerosene fuel
tions, access to fuel and cooking technologies is often to purchase firewood instead (ProAct 2012). Further-
overlooked and poorly funded (Thulstrup and Henry 2015; more, positive outcomes of clean cookstove interven-
Caniato et al. 2017). As fuel and cook stoves are classified tions have rarely been significant or sustained because
as NFIs, they often fall under the responsibility of the shel- clean cookstoves have not been widely adopted and they
ter cluster, leading to a disconnect between the food being have not sufficiently replaced traditional cookstoves
delivered and the tools used to cook it. This is a significant (Wilson et al. 2016). Solar cookers are a good example
oversight because in some cases up to 95% of basic foods of this, as in most cases solar cookers have been ineffect-
are not fully digestible without adequate cooking (Gunning ive (ProAct 2012). Corbyn and Vianello (2018) found
2014). As a result, ensuring that food security and nutri- that despite the perceived advantages of solar cookers in
tion targets are achieved are challenges inherently linked sun-rich regions being clear, solar cookers failed for
to the supply of energy in humanitarian contexts. multiple reasons including the inability to cook when it
Households often employ a variety of cooking tech- is not sunny, the impact the cookers had on the way
nologies (D’Annunzio et al. 2016). Three-stone fires and food tasted, the inability to store the large cooker in
traditional cookstoves are the primary forms of cooking small houses, and because of a lack of training. There is
in most settings in sub-Saharan Africa (Galitsky et al. recognition in the literature that cookstove programmes
2005; Gunning 2014). Most households rely on firewood are more complex than many organisations recognise,
as a result, and estimates suggest 21-91 kg is consumed and require significant planning and expertise toThomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 8 of 20 implement well, which is inhibited by short-term budget security (Energypedia 2020a; Energypedia 2020b; Energy- cycles (USAID 2007). pedia 2020c). A lack of fuel and appropriate cooking technologies in In conclusion, energy for food security and nutrition humanitarian contexts often causes people to adopt are inherently interwoven with cooking energy needs be- negative coping mechanisms such as undercooking food, cause, without fuel or firewood, displaced people strug- reducing the frequency and size of meals, only cooking gle to cook edible food. This section has focused therefore once a day, choosing between which family members get on cooking needs, as this is the primary area where food to eat, skipping meals, selling food for fuel or switching and energy connect. This review finds that much of the to less nutritious foods that have a shorter cooking time literature on food and energy has focused on the free dis- (Langol and Wolf 2005; Lyytinen 2009; Gianvenuti et al. tribution of clean cookstoves, rather than considering how 2015; Muthiah and Aleinikoff 2015; Thulstrup and Joshi market-based or alternative delivery models may meet the 2017; Mendum and Njenga 2018; Sandwell et al. 2020). needs of displaced people. It is also worth noting that the In situations where firewood collection is not possible, majority of projects and research on energy and food has displaced communities need to purchase cooking fuel been focused on sub-Saharan Africa and it is not clear to which reduces the amount of money they have available what extent the findings of these can be applied to other to spend on food (Caniato et al. 2017). displacement settings. There is evidence of markets for cooking fuels and cooking technologies in most displaced settings (Rogers Energy for essential services and livelihoods et al. 2013). However, innovative delivery and funding Energy access is needed for essential humanitarian ser- models are needed to mitigate the challenges associated vices and to improve the livelihoods of displaced com- with limited access to funding for cooking and nutrition munities. In these sectors, energy is needed to power support (Caniato et al. 2017; Patel and Gross 2019). healthcare facilities, for water pumping to ensure access Adopting market-based approaches such as providing to clean water, and to support access to electricity in vouchers or embedding energy into cash initiatives en- schools and educational facilities. ables the acquisition of goods in the open market (Via- nello 2016; Caniato et al. 2017; IRENA 2019; Patel and Health Gross 2019). This also enables displaced people to Led by the World Health Organization (WHO), the choose the solution most appropriate to their needs and health cluster aims to relieve suffering and save lives increases their sense of ownership over the solution (Patel while improving the well-being and dignity of displaced and Gross 2019). However, this is potentially difficult to communities. Most energy health-related research has achieve in contexts where “free resources” such as fire- focused on households (Suhlrie et al. 2018) and a nexus wood are locally available; displaced people are likely to between energy, health and food is apparent within the utilise these and spend vouchers or cash on other needs. literature. According to Barbieri, Riva and Colombo According to Aste et al. (2017), food preservation due (2017), this is caused by a lack of technologies for appro- to a lack of technologies and access to energy is one of priate and safe food utilisation which leads to malnutri- the most neglected pillars of food security in humanitar- tion and weak health and enhanced causes of mortality. ian contexts. In Jordan, refugees reported that their diets Comparatively little discussion exists regarding energy improved after they received access to electricity because provision in health facilities, an important omission con- they were able to refrigerate food (Dupin 2018). The po- sidering modern energy access plays a critical role in the tential of evaporative cooling technologies which cool capabilities of healthcare facilities (Porcaro et al. 2017). through the evaporation of water and are common Within the current context of the COVID-19 crisis, en- across sub-Saharan Africa is also often overlooked in hu- ergy needs and the health sector are likely to become in- manitarian settings (Cross et al. 2019). Energy can also creasingly pressing: both in terms of the provision of play an important role in contexts where displaced electricity to power healthcare centres and clean cooking people are engaged in agricultural activities. For ex- solutions to reduce respiratory risks for indoor air pollu- ample, solar systems can be used for irrigation and water tion (UNITAR 2020). distribution during food production; to power machines Electricity is required in healthcare facilities for light- for crop processing, milling and packaging; and to ing, laboratory services, vaccine, blood and medicine charge mobile phones that can be used for selling prod- storage, and equipment sterilisation (Gunning 2014; Por- ucts and mobile banking (WFP 2018). Resources such as caro et al. 2017; Suhlrie et al. 2018). It is also important the Toolbox on Solar-Powered Irrigation Systems and for the delivery of maternal and neonatal healthcare the Powering Agriculture portal can be utilised by hu- (Adam et al. 2005; Say and Raine 2007) and can help manitarian staff in situations where solar irrigation is medical facilities attract and retain staff (WHO 2015). In possible to support improved livelihoods and food Yemen, fuel shortages have caused several health-related
Thomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 9 of 20 challenges because hospitals and drug manufacturers are times higher in refugee communities in Burundi when unable to operate without electricity (Burki 2016). Fur- compared to their non-displaced peers. thermore, as part of a systematic review investigating the Another health concern when using traditional fuels is availability and safety of blood transfusions during hu- the risk of poisoning (Qudaih et al. 2013). For example, manitarian emergencies, Abdella, Hajjeh and Sibinga there is evidence that children are sometimes poisoned (2018) found that a reliable power supply was one of the by accidentally consuming kerosene (Lahn and Grafham major challenges associated with maintaining the avail- 2015). This is further exacerbated by the common prac- ability and safety of the blood supply system. While no tice of insecure storage in soft-drink bottles (Lam et al. data could be found for humanitarian contexts, estimates 2012). No estimates could be found specific to humani- in the development literature suggest that 60% of refrig- tarian contexts. However, according to Tshiamo (2009), erators used to store vaccines and medications face un- the ingestion of kerosene fuel and resultant poisoning is reliable electricity supplies (Gavi Alliance 2012). a leading cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in Ensuring households have access to energy also im- developing countries. In some contexts, such as Ethiopia, proves the ability of refugees to store medication them- there is also a fear amongst refugees of using ethanol selves (Dupin 2018). Further health-related impacts fuels because of safety issues (Rogers et al. 2013). Trad- identified in the literature include a reduction in bicycle itional approaches to cooking such as three-stone fires accidents as a result of improved street lighting and a re- and lighting using hurricane lamps also significantly in- duced risk of contracting a cold and general feeling of crease the risk of burns (Peck et al. 2008; Gianvenuti well-being associated with the use of washing machines et al. 2015). Displaced communities in Somalia reported to clean clothes (Dupin 2018). The lack of light and that burns were the biggest health hazard encountered power in camps and urban situations also drives dis- with traditional cooking methods (Musse 2012). Again, placed people to deploy high-risk coping strategies such no humanitarian specific figures could be found but as power theft which risks electrocution (Lahn and Graf- Mills (2016) found that more than 95% of deaths from ham 2015). burns worldwide occur in low- and middle-income Energy and health are also connected through the countries where most forcibly displaced people reside. negative impacts of air pollution and respiratory risks. There are several other health impacts emerging from Displaced communities typically rely on traditional fuels using traditional fuels. For example, research conducted which emit high concentrations of pollutants including by Pieterse and Ismail (2003) found that incidences of carbon monoxide, particulate matter and other organic diarrhoea increased when firewood was scarce because compounds when burned (Gunning 2014; Barnes 2014; people cooked food for more than one day, increasing Albadra et al. 2020). These pollutants can cause a range the likelihood of bacteria developing in the food. In of negative health issues including respiratory problems, some contexts, displaced women also carried firewood headaches, tuberculosis, eye disease, cancers, low birth loads of 20 kg or more, putting them at risk of dehydra- weight and increased rates of pneumonia (Dherani et al. tion and short- and long-term physical injury (Rogers 2008; Pennise et al. 2009; Pokhrel et al. 2010; Rogers et al. 2013; Muthiah and Aleinikoff 2015). et al. 2013; Gunning 2014; Albadra et al. 2020). Based on In conclusion, while some literature exists on the con- WHO data, the MEI estimated that reliance on polluting nections between health and energy in displacement set- fuels causes 20,000 premature deaths amongst displaced tings, this has focused on two issues: energy provision of people per annum (Lahn and Grafham 2015). These health services and the negative health impacts of cook- negative health impacts disproportionately affect women ing fuels. Provision of sustainable services for health and young children who spend large amounts of time needs often seems to be focused on the provision of cooking; such impacts are especially dangerous where solar or hybrid electricity and energy-efficient appliances cooking takes place inside (Gianvenuti et al. 2015; for health clinics, and rarely extends to interventions for Thulstrup and Henry 2015). Most of the literature on in- households. There is also intermittent action on energy door air pollution focuses on cooking. However, there and health under the current cluster system and health- are other causes of indoor air pollution, including burn- focused agencies lack the support needed in this area. ing kerosene for lighting (Gunning 2014). While clean cookstoves can enable a reduction in indoor air pollu- Water, sanitation and hygiene tion they can still breach WHO guidelines for indoor air Led by UNICEF, the WASH cluster aims to ensure pollution (Pennise et al. 2009). The issue is particularly the equitable and culturally acceptable provision of acute for refugee communities. For example, Muthiah water sanitation and hygiene services. Energy plays a and Aleinikoff (2015) found that acute respiratory infec- critical role (Butler et al. 2013) and is needed for tion mortality rates were up to seventeen times higher water pumping, purifying drinking water and provid- amongst refugee communities in Nepal and up to four ing clean water to shower and bathe. Warm water is
Thomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 10 of 20 also needed by hospitals and health clinics for sterilis- waste and convert it into energy such as biogas digesters ing equipment and providing warm baths for newborn could be an effective solution to this challenge (Regat- babies and mothers who have just given birth. tieri et al. 2018; Makhanu and Waswa 2018). In Kakuma, Supplying water in emergency situations can be both Kenya, faeces were combined with other waste products, costly and inefficient (UNHCR 2018b). For example, including charcoal dust, to create briquettes for heating analysis by Fohgrub (2018) established that 60% of the or cooking (Nyoka et al. 2017). The briquettes burn with diesel used in the Nyarugusu refugee camp in Tanzania much lower indoor concentrations of carbon monoxide was used for groundwater pumping. Several studies have compared to traditional charcoal and reduced the need established that the life cycle costs of solar-powered sys- for refugee households to collect firewood (Karahalios tems are more cost-effective than generator-powered et al. 2018). However, the success of these projects has systems (Odeh et al. 2006; Meah et al. 2008; Runo and been limited because of a lack of access to finance to ini- Muema 2014; Andreasi Bassi et al. 2018). Replacing tiate and scale projects, along with the challenges associ- diesel-powered water pumps with a solar- or hybrid- ated with competing with donated products and a lack powered (diesel and solar) system in camps in South of clarity on private-humanitarian partnerships (Graf- Sudan had an average payback period of approximately ham 2020). Although projects are starting to explore the 1.4 years (IOM 2017). A global assessment estimated implications of e-waste (i.e. Innovation Norway 2020), that implementing solar water pumping in all the what happens to electronic waste such as solar products UNHCR managed camps could save US$ 43 million over and batteries when they reach the end of their life has a 20-year period (Ossenbrink et al. 2018). Solar-powered also been neglected (Cross and Murray 2018; Kumar systems can replace diesel-powered systems and are a vi- and Turner 2020). able option in most camps (Armstrong and Nakafeero In conclusion, although proven technologies exist such 2016; Corbyn and Vianello 2018). According to Krae- as solar water pumps, the use of renewable energy for henbuehl et al. (2015), solar-powered systems are espe- water pumping is not yet standard operating practice. cially viable where fuel supply is challenging due to Many water pumping systems, especially in refugee logistical or security constraints. However, several solar camps, still rely on diesel generators and expensive fuels. water pumping projects have encountered issues with Considerable cost and efficiency savings could be made the theft of solar panels and the initial capital costs of by switching water pumping and WASH facilities to sus- systems remains a barrier (Runo and Muema 2014). Ac- tainable power sources (Grafham and Lahn 2018; Ossen- cording to Corbyn and Vianello (2018), the most signifi- brink et al. 2018). cant barrier to the successful solarisation of water points in the camps is the low solar technical expertise of Education WASH field teams. However, efforts to overcome these Co-led by UNICEF and Save the Children, the education barriers have been made through the development of cluster aims to ensure a timely, effective and coordinated technical guidance (i.e. UNDP 2019; Energypedia 2020a; education response in humanitarian crises. Energy is Llario and Kiprono 2020). needed to enable children to study at night and to power Evidence also exists in the literature of a nexus be- school and training facilities, and in some cases, cooking tween WASH, protection and energy risks. For example, fuels and technologies are needed to cook school meals. night-time use of WASH facilities is often limited due to Access to electricity in households, particularly for a perception of insecurity, particularly amongst women lighting, is identified in the literature as an enabler of and children, caused in part by a lack of lighting (Mer- good education delivery. Light enables children to study ieau and Egziabher 2012; Gunning 2014; Regattieri et al. in the evenings and electricity enables access to learning 2018; Hastie et al. 2019). In Doro camp, South Sudan, technologies (Merieau and Egziabher 2012; Gunning the Danish Refugee Council (2012) found that 52% of 2014; Moss et al. 2014). Refugees often report that better 131 respondents reported incidents of violence against access to electricity improved their children’s ability to women at water points. This is recognised in the study (FaIDA 2013; Dupin 2018). However, this type of UNHCR WASH Manual (UNHCR 2018b), which also feedback is potentially unreliable and other authors have notes the challenge of men congregating around female found limited evidence that study time increased (Cor- WASH facilities if these are the only facilities with byn and Vianello 2018), or that learning outcomes im- lighting. proved (Furukawa 2014) following improved access to Managing waste within refugee camps is also highly just lighting. Evidence from the development literature challenging (Regattieri et al. 2018) and unprocessed also suggests that current research on energy and educa- waste can have serious impacts on human health (Con- tion is simplistic and fails to properly consider gender, nolly et al. 2004; Waring and Brown 2005; Garfì et al. socio-economic status or local economic factors (Kumar 2009; Zakaria et al. 2018). Technologies that process 2018). Access to electricity in schools allows classrooms
Thomas et al. Journal of International Humanitarian Action (2021) 6:21 Page 11 of 20
to remain open before or after the sun sets and facili- However, reducing emissions from energy use has
tates the use of connected technologies such as com- tended to be seen as impeding the primary objective of
puters, internet access, printers and projectors. For delivering humanitarian assistance (Grafham and Lahn
example, in Jordan, the Renewable Energy for Refugees 2018). Until recently, sustainable energy for humanitar-
project installed solar systems and energy efficiency up- ian operations had not been considered in a substantive
grades to reduce expenditure following the Syrian refu- or sustainable way (UN Environment 2017; Grafham
gee crisis (Practical Action and UNHCR 2018). Having a 2020). However, recognising the need for responsible ac-
reliable energy source can also help schools attract and tion, the United Nations has made commitments to
retain teaching staff (UNDESA 2014; Welland 2017). achieve climate neutrality (UN Environment 2017), al-
There is also evidence in the literature of an energy- though progress towards this aim has been slow.
food-education nexus. Schools in Kenyan refugee camps
charged students who did not bring firewood for cook- Camp coordination, logistics and telecoms
ing their lunch meal (Gunning 2014). Women and girls The CCCM cluster is led by the IOM in disaster situa-
also have less time to participate in educational pro- tions and the UNHCR in conflict situations. It aims to
grammes because they need to collect firewood for their ensure that humanitarian assistance in all settings is well
households (Lyytinen 2009; FAO 2018). In Uganda, coordinated, supports the governance of operations, and
Mulumba (2011) observed girls dropping out of school ensures the representation of refugees in decision-
to look after younger siblings while their mothers col- making processes. WFP leads the logistics which facili-
lected firewood, and in Ethiopia, children missed school tates access to logistics services and provides informa-
because they had to collect firewood (Tadele and Geta- tion management and the telecoms cluster which aims
neh 2016). Kumar (2018) also suggests that providing to provide shared communication and connectivity
electric lights benefits boys and men more than girls and services.
women. However, no studies investigating this issue in Limited attention has been paid to energy use in hu-
depth could be found in a humanitarian context. manitarian compounds (Bellanca 2014). Moreover, re-
Education can also ensure that users know how to op- sponsibility for powering camp facilities often falls to
erate modern energy systems correctly and play a role in humanitarian logisticians who lack knowledge and ex-
dispelling myths and improving trust (Scott 2017; Ebers perience of energy systems which means they typically
Broughel 2019). For example, evidence from the devel- implement diesel generators which are often over- or
opment literature indicates that households may not be underloaded (Bellanca 2014; Lahn and Grafham 2015).
aware of their energy use or the options available to In some contexts, administrative offices without power
them (Sovacool 2013; Kapoor et al. 2014). Households must conduct work using pen and paper or mobile
with higher education are also more likely to switch phones (Corbyn and Vianello 2018).
from dirty fuels (Urpelainen and Yoon 2015; Joshi and Exacerbated by the often remote location of displaced
Bohara 2017; Baul et al. 2018; Yadav et al. 2019). How- people, the provision of fuel for generators can be both
ever, households with higher education levels also tend expensive, costing upwards of US$ 0.60–2.00 per kWh,
to be wealthier and have a higher ability to pay for en- and energy intensive (Kraehenbuehl et al. 2015; Grafham
ergy as a result. Furthermore, crisis-affected people are and Lahn 2018; Mozersky and Kammen 2018). Further-
more likely to keep and use stoves or alternative fuels if more, according to Disparte (2007), in many humanitar-
they are educated about the benefits of the product and ian organisations, vehicle fleets represent their second
trained in its proper use and maintenance (Global Alli- largest operating costs after staff. The difference between
ance for Clean Cookstoves). a well-managed and poorly managed vehicle over a 6-
In conclusion, much more research needs to be done year period can run to over US $35,000 (Herrmann
on the links between energy and education. To date, 2006). While many agencies collect data on their energy
there has been a focus on schools as a primary physical usage it is not currently reported in a standardised way
location, but in the future, the education cluster could or separated from other uses such as transport, making
consider the wider economic situation and how home the assessment of alternative approaches challenging
and social environments are connected to energy. (Lahn and Grafham 2015; Grafham and Lahn 2018; Gib-
son 2020). Maintenance provision is also a challenge,
Energy for humanitarian facilities and operations and although modern energy systems often include re-
As well as providing energy for displaced communities, mote monitoring systems, these rely on phone networks
humanitarian agencies and partners also need energy for that can be unreliable in some humanitarian settings
their own operations, including power for the offices (Lahn and Grafham 2015).
and residences of humanitarian staff, electricity for regis- Electricity is also needed for information and commu-
tration spaces and fuel to support humanitarian logistics. nication technologies in humanitarian settings. ForYou can also read
