Literature Review in Mobile Technologies and Learning - REPORT 11: FUTURELAB SERIES
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FUTURELAB SERIES
REPORT 11:
Literature Review in Mobile
Technologies and Learning
Laura Naismith, Peter Lonsdale, Giasemi Vavoula, Mike Sharples
University of BirminghamFUTURELAB SERIES
REPORT 11: CONTENTS:
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2
Literature Review in Mobile SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION 6
Technologies and Learning SECTION 2
AN ACTIVITY-BASED
APPROACH TO CONSIDERING
LEARNING WITH
Laura Naismith, Peter Lonsdale, Giasemi Vavoula, Mike Sharples
MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES 9
University of Birmingham
SECTION 3
TEACHING AND
LEARNING WITH MOBILE
TECHNOLOGIES –
CASE STUDIES 20
FOREWORD
SECTION 4
Mobile technologies are a familiar part of This review provides a rich vision of IMPLICATIONS FOR
the lives of most teachers and students the current and potential future LEARNERS, TEACHERS
in the UK today. We take it for granted developments in this area. It moves AND TECHNOLOGY
DEVELOPERS 33
that we can talk to other people at any away from the dominant view of mobile
time, from wherever we may be; we are learning as an isolated activity to explore SECTION 5
beginning to see it as normal that we can mobile learning as a rich, collaborative THE FUTURE OF TEACHING
access information, take photographs, and conversational experience, whether AND LEARNING WITH
record our thoughts with one device, and in classrooms, homes or the streets of MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES 36
that we can share these with our friends, a city. It asks how we might draw on BIBLIOGRAPHY 37
colleagues or the wider world. Newer existing theories of learning to help us
developments in mobile phone technology evaluate the most relevant applications APPENDIX 1
are also beginning to offer the potential of mobile technologies in education. It CHARACTERISTICS OF
for rich multimedia experiences and for describes outstanding projects currently MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES 42
location-specific resources. under development in the UK and around APPENDIX 2
the world and it explores what the future MAJOR MOBILE LEARNING
The challenge for educators and might hold for learning with mobile RESEARCH PROJECTS 42
designers, however, is one of technologies.
understanding and exploring how best
we might use these resources to support We look forward to hearing your views
learning. That we need to do this is on this review and welcome comments
clear – how much sense does it make at research@futurelab.org.uk
to continue to exclude from schools,
powerful technologies that are seen as Keri Facer
a normal part of everyday life? At the Director of Learning Research
present time, however, the models for Futurelab
using and developing mobile applications
for learning are somewhat lacking.
1EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY existing theories. Our review of the
literature reveals six broad theory-based
The whole world is going mobile. Phones, categories of activity, and identifies a
computers and media devices now fit in number of examples of the use of mobile
our pockets and can connect us to a technology in each of them:
variety of information sources and enable
communication nearly everywhere we 1 Behaviourist – activities that promote
go. There is considerable interest in learning as a change in learners’
exploiting the almost universal appeal observable actions
and abundance of these technologies for In the behaviourist paradigm, learning
their educational use. is thought to be best facilitated through
the reinforcement of an association
the whole world The following issues are the most salient: between a particular stimulus and a
response. Applying this to educational
is going mobile technology, computer-aided learning is
WHAT ARE THE NEW MOBILE the presentation of a problem (stimulus)
followed by the contribution on the part
TECHNOLOGIES, AND WHY ARE
of the learner of the solution (response).
THEY RELEVANT TO LEARNING? Feedback from the system then provides
the reinforcement. In a mobile learning
With respect to technologies, ‘mobile’ context, classroom response systems
generally means portable and personal, like ‘Classtalk’ (Dufresne et al 1996) and
like a mobile phone. Many examples of ‘Qwizdom’ (Qwizdom: Assessment for
learning with mobile technologies fit in Learning in the Classroom 2003) fall in
to this description. Personal digital this category, as well as examples of
assistants and mobile phones are the content delivery by text messages to
most commonly used technologies for mobile phones (BBC Bitesize 2003,
mobile learning, but they exist within 2004; Thornton and Houser 2004).
the larger space of possible mobile
technologies that can be broadly 2 Constructivist – activities in which
categorised on the two dimensions of learners actively construct new ideas or
personal vs shared and portable vs static. concepts based on both their previous
and current knowledge
In the constructivist approach, learning
NEW LEARNING AND TEACHING is an active process in which learners
PRACTICES AND MOBILE construct new ideas or concepts based
TECHNOLOGIES on both their current and past
knowledge. Learners are encouraged
Most previous reviews of mobile to be active constructors of knowledge,
technologies and learning have been with mobile devices now embedding
concerned with the use of these them in a realistic context at the same
technologies to address specific time as offering access to supporting
curriculum areas. In this review, we tools. The most compelling examples
take an activity-centred perspective, of the implementation of constructivist
considering new practices against principles with mobile technologies
2REPORT 11
LITERATURE REVIEW IN MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES AND LEARNING
LAURA NAISMITH, PETER LONSDALE, GIASEMI VAVOULA, MIKE SHARPLES, UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM
come from a brand of learning in Vygotsky’s socio-cultural psychology
experience termed ‘participatory (Vygotsky 1978), including activity theory
simulations’, where the learners (see for example Engeström 1987).
themselves act out key parts in an Though not traditionally linked with
immersive recreation of a dynamic collaborative learning, another theory
system. Examples include the Virus that is particularly relevant to our
Game (Collella 2000), Savannah consideration of collaboration using
(Facer et al in preparation), and the mobile devices is conversation theory
Environmental Detectives (Klopfer (Pask 1976), which describes learning
and Squire in preparation). in terms of conversations between
different systems of knowledge. Mobile
3 Situated – activities that promote devices can support mobile computer-
learning within an authentic context supported collaborative learning
and culture (MCSCL) by providing another means of
Situated learning posits that learning coordination without attempting to
can be enhanced by ensuring that it replace any human-human interactions,
takes place in an authentic context. as compared to say, online discussion
Mobile devices are especially well suited boards which substitute for face-to-face
to context-aware applications simply discussions (Zurita et al 2003; Cortez et
because they are available in different al 2004; Zurita and Nussbaum 2004).
contexts, and so can draw on those
contexts to enhance the learning activity. 5 Informal and lifelong – activities mobile devices
The museum and gallery sector has that support learning outside a
been on the forefront of context-aware dedicated learning environment
are especially
mobile computing by providing and formal curriculum well suited to
additional information about exhibits Research on informal and lifelong
and displays based on the visitor’s learning recognises that learning
context-aware
location within them. Examples of happens all of the time and is applications
mobile systems that situate learning in influenced both by our environment and
authentic contexts include the Ambient the particular situations we are faced
Wood (Rogers et al 2002), MOBIlearn with. Informal learning may be
(Lonsdale et al 2003, 2004), and the intentional, for example, through
multimedia tours offered at the Tate intensive, significant and deliberate
Modern (Proctor and Burton 2003). learning ‘projects’ (Tough 1971), or
it may be accidental, by acquiring
4 Collaborative – activities that promote information through conversations, TV
learning through social interaction and newspapers, observing the world
Collaborative learning has sprung out or even experiencing an accident or
from research on computer-supported embarrassing situation. Such a broad
collaborative work and learning view of learning takes it outside the
(CSCW/L) and is based on the role of classroom and, by default, embeds
social interactions in the process of learning in everyday life, thus
learning. Many new approaches to emphasising the value of mobile
thinking about learning developed in technologies in supporting it. An
the 1990s, most of which are rooted example in this category is the system
3EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
described by Wood et al (2003) where WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS
breast cancer patients are enabled to FOR LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND
access trustworthy information about
CURRICULUM DEVELOPERS?
their condition, to communicate with
other patients, and to keep track of
Learning and teaching with mobile
the issues that concern them.
technologies is beginning to make a
breakthrough from small-scale pilots
6 Learning and teaching support –
to institution-wide implementations. In
activities that assist in the coordination
order for these implementations to be
of learners and resources for learning
successful, educators and technology
activities
developers must consider the following
Education as a process relies on a
key issues:
great deal of coordination of learners
and resources. Mobile devices can be
• Context: gathering and utilising
used by teachers for attendance
contextual information may clash with
reporting, reviewing student marks,
the learner’s wish for anonymity and
general access of central school data,
privacy.
and managing their schedules more
effectively. In higher education, mobile • Mobility: the ability to link to activities in
devices can provide course material the outside world also provides students
to students, including due dates for with the capability to ‘escape’ the
assignments and information about classroom and engage in activities that
timetable and room changes. Examples do not correspond with either the
of using mobile technologies in this teacher’s agenda or the curriculum.
context include a mobile learning • Learning over time: effective tools are
organiser which has been developed and needed for the recording, organisation
tested at the University of Birmingham and retrieval of (mobile) learning
(Holme and Sharples 2002; Sharples et experiences.
al 2003; Corlett et al 2004), and the use
• Informality: students may abandon
of mobile phone technologies to support
their use of certain technologies if they
computing students (Riordan and
perceive their social networks to be
Traxler 2003; Traxler and Riordan 2003).
under attack.
a blended A blended approach to enabling learning • Ownership: students want to own and
with mobile technologies is necessary as control their personal technology, but
approach to successful and engaging activities draw this presents a challenge when they
enabling learning on a number of different theories and bring it in to the classroom.
practices.
with mobile Research-informed guidelines can help to
technologies is address these issues along with more
practical concerns such as cost, usability,
necessary technical and institutional support. A set
of such guidelines (O’Malley et al 2003) is
presented in Section 4.1 and outlined here:
41 Investigate a cost model for WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF MOBILE learning and
infrastructure, technology and services. TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION?
teaching with
2 Study the requirements of all those Mobile technologies are becoming more mobile
involved in the use of the technology embedded, ubiquitous and networked,
(learners, teachers, content creators) with enhanced capabilities for rich social
technologies
to ensure it is usable and acceptable. interactions, context awareness and is beginning
internet connectivity. Such technologies
3 Assess that the technology is suited can have a great impact on learning.
to make a
to the learning task and examine Learning will move more and more outside breakthrough
advantages and disadvantages of each of the classroom and into the learner’s
technology before making a decision on environments, both real and virtual, thus
which one to use. becoming more situated, personal,
collaborative and lifelong. The challenge
4 Assign the necessary roles for initiating will be to discover how to use mobile
and thereafter supporting mobile technologies to transform learning into
learning. a seamless part of daily life to the point
where it is not recognised as learning at all.
5 Develop procedures and strategies for
the management of equipment when it
is provided by the institution.
6 Provide training and (ongoing) technical
support to the teachers to enable them
to use mobile technologies to enhance
current and to enable new instructional
activities.
7 Consider the use of mobile technologies
for student administration tasks.
8 Consider the use of mobile technologies
to support collaborative and group
learning.
9 Discover and adopt suitable applications
that match the needs of your specific
classroom and map directly to your
curriculum needs.
10 Ensure security and privacy for the
end users.
5SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1 INTRODUCTION the use of computers in education.
The specific aims of this review are:
Today we are witnessing the emergence of
a connected, mobile society, with a variety • to identify the different types of mobile
of information sources and means of technologies that are applicable to
communication available at home, work, learning
school and in the community at large. • to explore new and emerging practices
Some even describe this as the beginning relating to the use of mobile
of the next social revolution (for example, technologies for learning
Rheingold 2003). A high proportion of UK
residents have mobile phones (75% • to identify the learning theories that are
general population, 90% young adults; relevant to these new practices
Crabtree et al 2003) that can handle both • to present a set of exemplary case
voice calls and the display of textual studies demonstrating uses of mobile
information. Many newer phones also have technologies for learning
the ability to connect wirelessly to the • to present key issues and guidelines to
internet. Hand-held computers, otherwise inform current educational practice and
known as personal digital assistants policy
(PDAs), are also becoming more
widespread (BBC 2004), being distributed • to encourage educators and technical
by employers who are eager to keep their developers to rethink their roles for the
workforce productive whilst on the move. future of learning with mobile
Laptops, though already a well-established technologies.
technology, have gained new appeal when
combined with the connectivity of newer
mobile phones – a laptop can now use a 1.1 MOTIVATION FOR THIS REVIEW
mobile phone as a means to dial-up the
internet and in doing so offer a truly The prevalence of mobile technologies is
mobile web experience. Furthermore, in itself a motivator to exploit them for
kiosks and information screens are learning. Mobile technologies are already
appearing all around the country, and widespread among children (NOP 2001).
both researchers and industry are It makes sense, then, for an educational
keen to exploit the potential of these system with limited information and
‘ambient’ approaches to providing rich communication technology (ICT) resources
information spaces. to make the most of what children bring to
the classroom. Sharples (2003) suggests
There is considerable interest from that rather than seeing them as disruptive
educators and technical developers in devices, educators should seek to exploit
exploiting the unique capabilities and the potential of the technologies children
characteristics of mobile technologies to bring with them and find ways to put them
enable new and engaging forms of into good use for the benefit of learning
learning. This review explores the use of practice. Mobile technologies provide an
these mobile technologies for learning, opportunity for a fundamental change in
considered against a backdrop of existing education away from occasional use of a
learning theories that have been applied to computer in a lab towards more embedded
6use in the classroom and beyond in individualised learning experiences, and
(Hennessy 1999). Soloway et al (2001) have to giving them increased ownership (and
further argued that to make any difference hence responsibility) over their own work.
in the classroom at all, computers must be
mobile and within ‘arm’s reach’. Most previous reviews of mobile
technologies for learning categorise
The nature of learning is closely linked examples of use according to curriculum
to the concept of mobility. Vavoula and area. We believe that the benefits of mobile
Sharples (2002) suggest that there are technologies for learning encompass more
three ways in which learning can be than just what an individual can do with a
considered mobile: device, and that there is thus a need for
a wider review of new and emerging
“learning is mobile in terms of space, ie it practices and how these relate to theories
happens at the workplace, at home, and at and paradigms previously established for
places of leisure; it is mobile between the use of computers in education.
different areas of life, ie it may relate to
work demands, self-improvement, or
leisure; and it is mobile with respect to 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MOBILE
time, ie it happens at different times TECHNOLOGIES
during the day, on working days or on
weekends” (p152). There are many different kinds of
technology that can be classed as ‘mobile’.
The close relation of learning to the Mobile, to most, means ‘portable’ and
context and the situation in which the ‘movable’. It also seems to implicate a
learning need arises has been widely ‘personal’ as opposed to ‘shared’ context
discussed in the literature (Brown et al of use, and the terms ‘mobile’ and
1989; Lave and Wenger 1991) and the ‘personal’ are often used interchangeably –
benefits of just-in-time, situated learning but a device might be one without
have been explored (Goodyear 2000). Nyiri necessarily being the other.
(2002) notes that knowledge is information
in context and since mobile devices enable We can classify the range of mobile
the delivery of context-specific information technologies using the two orthogonal
they are well placed to enable learning and
the construction of knowledge. 1 2
Personal
Mobile phones
Mobile technologies offer learning Games PDAs
Classroom
experiences which can effectively engage consoles
Tablet PCs response systems
and educate contemporary learners and Laptops
which are often markedly different from Portable Static
those afforded by conventional desktop
Videoconferencing
computers. These devices are used Kiosks
Electronic
dynamically, in many different settings, whiteboards
giving access to a broad range of uses and Shared
situated learning activities. The personal 3 4
nature of these technologies means that
they are well suited to engaging learners Fig 1: Classification of mobile technologies
7SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
dimensions of personal vs shared and on the move, but the devices themselves
portable vs static, as outlined in Fig 1. are not physically movable. Street kiosks,
Quadrant 1 shows devices that can be interactive museum displays and other
classified as both portable and personal. kinds of installations offer pervasive
These kinds of devices are what people access to information and learning
most commonly think of in relation to experiences, but it is the learner who is
mobile technologies: mobile phones, portable, not the delivery technology. Such
PDAs, tablet PCs and laptops. It also devices are typically seen as being less
includes hand-held video game consoles, personal, and are likely to be shared
with Rosas et al (2003) and Lee et al (2004) between multiple users. Their larger size
reporting on early evaluations of their means they are also better suited to
educational use. Since these devices multiple-user interactions. These are
normally support a single user, they are shared portable technologies.
generally perceived as being very personal.
The networked nature of such devices For more shareable interactions, the
affords communication and information devices themselves must become larger
sharing, meaning that while the devices and hence less portable. Examples include
themselves are personal, the information interactive classroom whiteboards and
within them can be shared easily. These video-conferencing facilities, as shown
devices are portable because they are in quadrant 4. These technologies have
taken from place to place and hence been included to show the complete
they can be available in many different space of possibilities engendered by our
locations. These are personal portable classification, but they would generally
technologies. not be classed as mobile technologies.
Some other technologies, less portable We believe that ‘mobile technologies’
than mobile phones and PDAs, can still comprise all devices from quadrants 1-3,
offer personal interactions with learning and those from quadrant 4 that are not at
experiences. Classroom response systems, the extreme end of the ‘static’ dimension.
shown in quadrant 2, consist of individual
student devices that are used to respond
anonymously to multiple choice questions 1.3 SCOPE OF THIS REVIEW
administered by a teacher on a central
server. This technology is static in the In this review we will primarily be
sense that it can only be used in one considering personal portable
location, but remains personal because of technologies. We shall focus on
its small size and allocation to (typically) hand-held devices including PDAs and
one single user. These are personal static mobile phones. Many of the implications
technologies. for learning are shared by other
portable devices such as tablet PCs
Being physically moved from one place to and laptops.
another is not the only way in which mobile
technologies can be ‘portable’. In quadrant Even within the narrow range of devices
3, there are examples of technologies that considered there is a variety of capabilities
can provide learning experiences to users and features. Appendix 1 presents an
8SECTION 2
AN ACTIVITY-BASED APPROACH TO CONSIDERING
LEARNING WITH MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
overview of features and specifications. 2 AN ACTIVITY-BASED APPROACH
Further discussion of mobile device TO CONSIDERING LEARNING WITH
characteristics can be found in Sharples
MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
and Beale (2003) and Becta (2004).
Much of the research into the use of
This review advocates an activity-focused
mobile technologies for learning is driven
perspective on the use of mobile
by the technical capabilities of new
technologies for education, and presents
devices. This is not unexpected, given the
these activities along with relevant
rapidly changing face of mobile computing.
learning paradigms and theories in Section
These new capabilities inspire new
2. In Section 3, we illustrate the categories
practices which can lead to valuable
of practice through case studies drawn
outcomes, but, to date, application of
from the literature. In Section 4, we
theory to the use of these technologies for
consider the implications for policy and
educational purposes is lacking. In this
educational practice, and present
section we consider the kinds of activities
research-informed guidelines as to how
that can be enabled through the use of
these can be addressed. Finally, with
mobile devices under the categorisation
reference to both emerging trends in
of relevant theories from the study of
mobile technology and learning research,
learning and, in particular, learning with
we speculate on the future of mobile
technology.
technologies and learning and the
implications this will have for today’s
Mobile technologies are computers, but
educators and technology developers.
that does not mean that they should be
viewed as simply providing more portable
versions of the learning activities that
are currently supported on more static
machines. Being mobile adds a new
dimension to the activities that can be
supported, both because of the personal
and portable nature of the devices
themselves, and because of the kinds of
interactions they can support with other
learners and the environment.
Klopfer et al (2002) identify five properties
of mobile devices (PDAs in this case) that
produce unique educational affordances:
• Portability – the small size and weight being mobile
of mobile devices means they can be
taken to different sites or moved around adds a new
within a site. dimension to the
• Social interactivity – data exchange and
collaboration with other learners can
activities that
happen face-to-face. Nyiri (2002), with can be supported
9SECTION 2
AN ACTIVITY-BASED APPROACH TO CONSIDERING
LEARNING WITH MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
reference to Dewey’s emphasis on 3 Situated – activities that promote
the need to facilitate face-to-face learning within an authentic context
interactions, posits a new philosophy and culture.
of mobile learning that points to mobile 4 Collaborative – activities that promote
technologies as facilitators for the learning through social interaction.
innate anthropological need to
communicate. 5 Informal and lifelong – activities that
support learning outside a dedicated
• Context sensitivity – mobile devices learning environment and formal
can both gather and respond to real or curriculum.
simulated data unique to the current
location, environment and time. 6 Learning and teaching support –
activities that assist in the coordination
• Connectivity – a shared network can be of learners and resources for learning
created by connecting mobile devices activities.
to data collection devices, other devices
or to a common network. Note that these categories are by no
• Individuality – scaffolding for difficult means mutually exclusive, but are
activities can be customised for intended to provide a loose theoretical
individual learners. background for reviewing the case studies
presented in Section 3.
To fully appreciate the potential of mobile
technologies for learning, we must look
beyond the use of individual devices and 2.2 BEHAVIOURIST LEARNING
consider their use embedded in classroom
practice, or as part of a learning The use of mobile devices to present
experience outside the classroom. learning materials, obtain responses
from learners, and provide appropriate
feedback, fits within the behaviourist
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES learning paradigm. This paradigm draws
on Skinner’s work on operant conditioning
We have structured the classification of and behaviourism (Skinner 1968; itself
activities around the main theories and based on Pavlov’s work on classical
areas of learning relevant to learning with conditioning). Within this paradigm,
mobile technologies. learning is thought to be best facilitated
through the reinforcement of an association
The six main themes we have identified are: between a particular stimulus and a
response. Applying this to educational
1 Behaviourist – activities that promote technology, computer-aided learning is
learning as a change in observable the presentation of a problem (stimulus)
actions. followed by the contribution from the part
2 Constructivist – activities in which of the learner of the solution (response).
learners actively construct new ideas or Feedback from the system then provides
concepts based on both their previous the reinforcement. This type of learning
and current knowledge. adopts a transmission model – learning
takes place through the transmission
10of information from the tutor (the 2.2.1 Classroom response systems – even the
computer) to the learner. hybrid drill and feedback
most basic of
Despite a move away from the behaviourist The use of mobile devices to gather activities can be
perspective within the field of learning feedback from learners during a session
theory, many e-learning systems still rely being delivered by a teacher employs a
embedded within
heavily on this approach. Computers hybrid model that emphasises the a meaningful
provide the ideal opportunity to present integration of mobile devices into existing
content, gather responses, and provide teaching practice, not the replacement of it.
learning context
appropriate feedback. It would seem that
this approach has lost none of its Classroom response systems facilitate
momentum in transferring to the use of whole-class drill and feedback activities
mobile devices instead of desktop PCs; by allowing teachers to:
there is currently a great deal of interest in
the use of mobile devices as a means to • Present content-specific questions.
deliver such content, as the case studies These questions can range from simple
in the next section will demonstrate. review to probing questions at the heart
of the subject matter. Suggested
With regard to mobile delivery, we find that solutions are invited by way of multiple
we are faced with challenges similar to choice options on the students’ devices.
those faced by early designers of
computer-assisted learning (CAL) systems, • Gather student responses rapidly and
when the technology was more limited. anonymously.
Compared to today’s desktop computers, • Quickly assemble a public, aggregate
mobile devices have limited displays, display to show the variation in the
restricted input methods, and low rates of group’s ideas while maintaining
connectivity. individual anonymity (Roschelle et
al 2004).
Despite these problems, ‘drill and
feedback’ activities still offer a number The underlying principle is simple, but
of advantages: there appear to be a number of gains over
traditional methods of classroom interaction.
• content and feedback can be tailored Roschelle (2003) reports the following
to suit particular curriculum areas benefits for classroom response systems:
• valuable data can be gathered about
the progress of individual students. • Formative assessment/peer feedback
and the benefit of anonymity: students
The use of mobile devices also means that can see that others share their own
even the most basic of such activities can misconceptions, but this information
be embedded within a meaningful learning is anonymous, which means there
context, as exemplified by classroom is no potential loss from answering
response systems. incorrectly. This also aids the teacher
in assessing the current level of
understanding in the class as a whole.
11SECTION 2
AN ACTIVITY-BASED APPROACH TO CONSIDERING
LEARNING WITH MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
• The use of devices for responses gives and sound were now possible) and
rise to a change in the nature of the interaction methods. The computer was no
teaching, as the responses themselves longer just a conduit for the presentation
can serve as a catalyst for richer of information; it was a tool for the active
discussion of the pertinent topics. manipulation of that information. The user
or learner gained a locus of control in the
• The role of the technology is small but learning activity that was missing from
valuable: it provides anonymity, speed behaviourist approaches, and so dawned
of response collection, and shared the era of ‘Powerful Ideas’ (Papert 1980).
visualisations that enhance mutual
pattern recognition. For Papert, and others of the time, the
computer became the tutee, rather than
These advantages give an indication of the the tutor, and the learner engaged in the
ways in which mobile devices in particular learning process through instructing the
can enhance the behaviourist learning computer how to perform tasks and
process. This remains, however, a fairly solve problems. This was accomplished
basic application of mobile devices in through a specially designed computer
learning. As explored in the subsequent programming language called Logo.
sections, mobile devices can provide more Papert termed this alternative approach to
direct ways for learners to interact with constructivist learning constructionism, as
materials in an authentic learning context. learners were actively constructing their
own knowledge and learning by building
interactive models.
mobile devices 2.3 CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING
Within a constructivist learning framework,
can provide more Constructivist theories of learning were instructors should encourage students
direct ways for developed during the 1960s and 70s, to discover principles for themselves.
inspired by the rise in cognitive theories of In order to transform learners from
learners to learning. Bruner, a principal contributor, passive recipients of information to active
interact with theorised that learning was an active constructors of knowledge we must
process in which learners construct new give them an environment in which to
materials in ideas or concepts based on both their participate in the learning process, and
an authentic current and past knowledge (Bruner 1966). the appropriate tools to work with that
The use of a cognitive structure to select knowledge. Mobile devices give us a
learning context and transform information, construct unique opportunity to have learners
hypotheses and make decisions was embedded in a realistic context at
heavily based on Piaget’s descriptions of the same time as having access to
the patterns of physical or mental action supporting tools.
that underlie specific acts of intelligence
and correspond to stages of child The most compelling examples of the
development (Piaget 1929). implementation of constructivist principles
with mobile technologies come from a
The personal home computer of the 1980s brand of learning experience termed
offered tremendous advances in terms of participatory simulations.
display capabilities (text, graphics, video
122.3.1 Participatory simulations 2.4 SITUATED LEARNING
In participatory simulations, the learners The situated learning paradigm, as
themselves act out key parts in an developed by Lave et al (1991), holds that
immersive recreation of a dynamic system. learning is not merely the acquisition of
Each learner carries a networked device knowledge by individuals, but instead a
which allows them to become part of the process of social participation. The
dynamic system they are learning about. situation where the learning takes place
The aim of this approach is to move the has a great impact on this process. Brown
simulation away from the computer screen et al (1989) also emphasise the idea of
and more into the tangible world that cognitive apprenticeship, where teachers
students can interact with. By making (the experts) work alongside students (the
them part of the simulation itself, they are apprentices) to create situations where the
engaged in the learning process, and get students can begin to work on problems
to immediately see the effect their actions even before they fully understand them.
can have on the system as a whole. They
do not just watch the simulation, they are Situated learning requires knowledge in participatory
the simulation. Colella et al (1998) to be presented in authentic contexts
describe a participatory simulation where (settings and applications that would simulations,
learners play the role of hosts in the normally involve that knowledge) and the learners
spread of a virus; small wearable learners to participate within a community
computers keep a track of who they meet of practice. By developing appropriate themselves act
and the transmission of the disease. context-based teaching strategies with out key parts in
Additional descriptions of participatory mobile technologies, we can fulfil both
simulations enabled through the use of of these requirements. an immersive
mobile technologies can be found in Facer recreation of a
et al (in preparation) and Klopfer and Three strands that are especially relevant
Squire (in preparation). Further details of to the use of mobile devices can be dynamic system
these studies will be reported in Section 3. considered in relation to the situated
learning paradigm. They are problem-
These studies report positive responses based learning, case-based learning,
from the learners involved, but the main and context-aware learning.
issue of concern is whether learning that
takes place within simulations like this
transfer across to other situations and 2.4.1 Problem-based learning
settings. Despite the initial enthusiasm
and the groundbreaking nature of Papert’s Problem-based learning (PBL)
work, there have been questions about the (Koschmann et al 1996) aims to develop
transferability of the skills that students students’ critical thinking skills by giving
develop in a microworld such as Papert’s them an ill-defined problem that is
Logo. These same questions remain reflective of what they would encounter as
unanswered for the microworlds within a practicing professional. The problem is
participatory simulations. used as a basis for “learning by analogy
and abstraction via reflection” (O’Malley
et al 2003) .
13SECTION 2
AN ACTIVITY-BASED APPROACH TO CONSIDERING
LEARNING WITH MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
context-aware The distinct characteristics of PBL 2.4.2 Case-based learning
(Stepian and Gallagher 1993) include
computing the following: Case-based learning (CBL) (Kolodner and
represents a Guzdial 2000) is similar to PBL, but relies
• Problems do not test skills; they assist on more well-defined problems, that may
relatively new in the development of skills, and are or may not be representative of what
area of research used to drive the curriculum. students might encounter in the real
• Problems are ill-structured, with world. CBL is more flexible than PBL in
minimal presenting information. that it can be used in small or large
Gathering information, perceiving the classes and can be used as either an
problem and developing the solution assessment exercise or as a catalyst for
becomes an iterative process. class discussions and lectures.
• Students (usually in groups of five to
six) solve the problems; teachers and
coaches act as facilitators and give
2.4.3 Context-aware learning
guidelines as to how the problem may
Context-aware computing represents a
be approached.
relatively new area of research. Context
• Assessment is authentic and awareness means gathering information
performance based. from the environment to provide a
measure of what is currently going on
Throughout the process of exploring a around the user and the device. Activities
problem, students are encouraged to and content that are particularly relevant
identify the areas of knowledge they will to that environment can then be made
require to understand the problem. The available. Mobile devices are especially
group then collects these learning issues, well suited to context-aware applications
along with data, hypotheses and plans for simply because they are available in
future inquiry in a structured manner, different contexts, and so can draw on
which can be facilitated by shared those contexts to enhance the learning
information resources (eg physical or activity. Context-aware mobile devices can
electronic whiteboard), and uses the support learners by allowing a learner to
collected information to develop a plan for maintain their attention on the world and
the next iteration of problem formulation, by offering appropriate assistance when
solution, reflection and abstraction. required. This kind of appropriate support
can be seen as a form of scaffolding
Applications of PBL include medical (Wood et al 1976).
education (Albanese and Mitchell 1993),
business administration (Merchant 1995; The museum and gallery sector has been
Stinson and Milter 1995) and nursing on the forefront of context-aware mobile
(Higgins 1994). computing by providing additional
information about exhibits and displays
based on the visitor’s location within them.
142.5 COLLABORATIVE LEARNING of knowledge. Pask was careful not to
make any distinction between people and
Both the capabilities of mobile devices and interactive systems such as computers,
their wide context of use contribute to their with the great advantage that the theory
propensity to foster collaboration. Mobile can be applied equally to human teachers
devices can easily communicate with other and learners, or to technology-based
devices of the same or similar type, teaching or learning support systems.
enabling learners to share data, files and
messages. They can also be connected to In order to constitute a ‘conversation’,
a shared data network, further enhancing the learner must be able to formulate a
possibilities for communication. These description of himself and his actions,
devices are also typically used in a group explore and extend that description and
setting, and so interactions and carry forward the understanding to a
collaboration will tend to take place not future activity. In order to learn, a person
just through the devices but also at and or system must be able to converse with
around them as well. itself about what it knows.
Research into collaborative learning with Learning can be even more effective
mobile devices is greatly informed by when learners can converse with each
previous research on computer-supported other, by interrogating and sharing their
collaborative learning (CSCL). In reality, descriptions of the world. We can say that
much current research into mobile the two people share an understanding
learning can be classed as mobile-CSCL if Person A can make sense of B’s
or MCSCL, and there is a specific focus on explanations of what B knows, and person
the use of mobile technologies to promote, B can make sense of A’s explanation of
facilitate and enhance interactions and what A knows. Thus, it is through mutual
collaborations between students. conversation that we come to a shared
CSCL draws on many different learning understanding of the world. Learning is a
theories. Situated learning theories continual conversation; with the external
emphasise the role of social interactions world and its artefacts, with oneself, and
in the process of learning. Many new also with other learners and teachers.
approaches to thinking about learning The most successful learning comes when
developed in the 1990s, most of which the learner is in control of the activity, able
are rooted in Vygotsky’s socio-cultural to test ideas by performing experiments,
psychology (Vygotsky 1978), including ask questions, collaborate with other
activity theory (see for example Engeström people, seek out new knowledge, and
1987). plan new actions.
Though not traditionally linked with Laurillard (1993) relates Pask’s theory to
collaborative learning, another theory that the realm of academic knowledge. Though
is particularly relevant to our consideration primarily concerned with the application of
of collaboration using mobile devices educational technology to university-level
is conversation theory (Pask 1976), teaching, the ‘conversational framework’
which describes learning in terms of she puts forward can be applied to the full
conversations between different systems range of subject areas and topic types.
15SECTION 2
AN ACTIVITY-BASED APPROACH TO CONSIDERING
LEARNING WITH MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
The learning process includes the activities or its own knowledge. And because
following aspects: apprehending structure, it cannot hold a conversation at the level
integrating parts, acting on descriptions, of descriptions, it has no way of exploring
using feedback and reflecting on goal- students’ misconceptions or helping
action-feedback. As illustrated in Fig 2, them to reach a shared understanding.
technology may play multiple roles within Technology can also demonstrate ideas or
the conversation space. offer advice at the level of descriptions, as
with the world wide web or online help
Technology may take the place of the systems, but their practical advice, at the
teacher, as in drill and feedback. The level of actions, is limited.
difficulty here is that the computer can
hold a limited dialogue at the level of Alternatively, the technology may provide
actions - “look here”, “what’s this?”, “do the environment in which conversational
that” - but is not able to reflect on its own learning takes place. It can extend the
Technology provides an environment
to enable conversation
Why questions and responses
Technology Offers theories and ideas Learner
demonstrates or Re-describes theories demonstrates
elicits models understanding of
and elaborates Offers conceptions and explanations models and
problem solutions Re-describes conceptions problem solutions
How questions and responses
Sets goals
Technology Learner acts
acts to build Adjusts model to build models
the technology models and assist and solve
Acts
may provide in solving problems problems
Modifies actions
the environment
in which Technology provides facility for
conversational practical model building
learning takes
place Fig 2: Role of technology in supporting conversational learning
16range of activities and the reach of a 2.6 INFORMAL AND
discussion into other worlds through LIFELONG LEARNING
games, and to other parts of this world by
mobile phone or e-mail. The technology Learning happens all of the time and
provides a shared conversational learning is influenced both by our environment
space, which can be used not only for and the particular situations we are
single learners but for groups of learners. faced with. Informal learning may be
intentional, for example through intensive,
significant and deliberate learning
2.5.1 Small group collaboration ‘projects’ (Tough 1971), or it may be
accidental by acquiring information
Mobile devices can support MCSCL by through conversations, TV and
providing another means of coordination newspapers, observing the world, or by effectively
without attempting to replace any human- even by experiencing an accident or
human interactions, as compared to say embarrassing situation. Eraut (2000)
coupling an
online discussion boards which substitute classifies these ‘non-formal’ learning informatic layer
for face-to-face discussions. activities along a continuum of the
learner’s intent, with the former activities
with the social
Hand-helds support MCSCL activities by representing deliberate learning and the network layer,
directly addressing usability problems with latter activities representing implicit
conventional CSCL activities. The hand- learning. Activities in the middle of the
learning gains
held stores all of the material and continuum are described as reactive can be
information necessary to organise the learning, which occurs in response to
activity, and the user interface addresses changing circumstances such as career
significant
coordination by forcing the participants to promotion or parenthood.
perform one task at a time in a specific
sequence. Communication is supported by Indeed, studies of informal learning
making messages about activity status, (Tough 1971; Livingstone 2001) show
data, error or results available to all that most of adults’ learning happens
participants, and synchronisation is outside formal education. While informal
supported as each hand-held has to wait learning is a reality in people’s lives, they
for the action of the other hand-helds may not recognise it as learning.
before moving to the next stage of the
activity. By requiring all participants to Tough (1971) notes:
agree on an answer before proceeding, the
application facilitates interactivity and “…when the person’s central concern is a
provides a negotiation space. Finally, the task or decision, he will not be very
hand-helds support mobility by allowing interested in learning a complete body of
the participants to take the technology subject matter. Instead, he will want just
anywhere, and by allowing for natural the knowledge and skill that will be useful
social interactions. By effectively coupling to him in dealing with the particular
an informatic layer with the social network responsibility of the moment” (p51).
layer, learning gains can be significant
(Zurita and Nussbaum 2004).
17SECTION 2
AN ACTIVITY-BASED APPROACH TO CONSIDERING
LEARNING WITH MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
Thus, people learn in order to be able to 2.7 LEARING AND
perform a new task, or even to be able TEACHING SUPPORT
to carry out a routine task in a better,
more efficient or elegant way. Technology The use of mobile technologies in
that is used to support learning should education is not restricted to exploiting
be blended with everyday life in the same them for learning activities. Education
way that learning is blended with everyday as a process relies on a great deal of
life: seamlessly and unobtrusively. Mobile coordination of learners and resources.
technologies, with their reduced size and Mobile technologies can help in supporting
ease of use, provide the potential to teaching and learning without explicitly
support such activities. being part of the learning activity
themselves.
the use of mobile With regard to accidental learning,
learning episodes are impossible to There is scope for supporting both
technologies in predict. The personal and portable nature students and teachers, and also for
education is of mobile technologies makes them supporting administration more generally.
very strong candidates for recording, Perry (2003) reports on the successful
not restricted to reflecting on and sharing this type of use of PDAs for administration and
exploiting them informal learning. supporting classroom management.
for learning
activities Theme Key Theorists Activities
Behaviourist Skinner, Pavlov • drill and feedback
learning • classroom response systems
Constructivist Piaget, Bruner, • participatory simulations
learning Papert
Situated Lave, Brown • problem and case-based learning
learning • context awareness
Collaborative Vygotsky • mobile computer-supported
learning collaborative learning (MCSCL)
Informal Eraut • supporting intentional and accidental
and lifelong learning episodes
learning
Learning n/a • personal organisation
and teaching • support for administrative duties
support (eg attendance)
Table 1: An activity-based categorisation of mobile technologies and learning
18Mobile devices can be used by teachers for of mobile devices in the classroom and the informal
attendance reporting, reviewing student beyond comes from being able to combine
marks, general access of central school different elements in ways that are nature of the
data, or managing their schedules more appropriate to the learning activities to devices can
effectively. In higher education, mobiles be supported.
can provide course material to students lead to positive
including due dates for assignments and rewards
information about timetable changes or
room changes.
The informal nature of the devices can lead
to positive rewards; Strom and Strom
(2002) report that PDAs helped with
teacher-parent communication, enabling a
means for teachers to inform parents of
absenteeism and thus manage this
problem more effectively.
2.8 SUMMARY
Table 1 summarises the main activity
themes discussed in this section.
While mobile devices are not necessarily
required to support these activities, their
use affords a highly personal experience
embedded within an authentic context of
use. The range of activities for which
mobile devices are being used suggests
that these technologies are fundamentally
changing the nature of learning provision.
It is beyond the scope of this review to
attempt a synthesis of the theories
presented here and elsewhere that are
relevant to learning with mobile
technologies. There is, as yet, no over-
arching ‘theory of mobile learning’, but
what we can work towards is an integrated
pedagogy for the use of mobile devices
that draws on a number of areas. What is
needed is a blended, integrated approach –
as explored in the next section, the power
19SECTION 3
TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH MOBILE
TECHNOLOGIES – CASE STUDIES
3 TEACHING AND LEARNING ‘matches’ against computer-generated
WITH MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES – opponents, ranked by difficulty. Difficulty is
increased by increasing the speed at which
CASE STUDIES
the problems display on the screen.
This section presents both current and
Compared to traditional worksheets,
recent examples of teaching and learning
Skills Arena was designed to offer faster
with mobile technologies, categorised
feedback, the ability for each student to
under the themes introduced in Section 2.
select the appropriate difficulty level and
The particular examples were chosen
to provide increased motivation.
because they possess one or more of the
following key characteristics:
An initial pilot study of Skills Arena was
tested with two classes of second grade
• broad impact, mainly inferred from
students (39 students in total) over 19
the number of learners supported
days. Students completed an average of
• strong theoretical basis 1,296 problems each during this period,
• support of an interesting or three times what would be expected with
novel activity traditional worksheets. Skills Arena also
had a significant impact on the classroom
• inclusion of both qualitative and
culture. Both teachers found the activity
quantitative evaluation results.
was easy to administer and control, and
one teacher even used Skills Arena as a
reward for good behaviour. Students’ active
3.1 BEHAVIOURIST LEARNING engagement with Skills Arena extended
beyond the time allotted in the classroom,
The following case studies demonstrate as they were inspired to create stories
the unique capabilities for anytime, about both their experience and their
anywhere learning that mobile devices can characters.
offer, even for the most straightforward
‘drill and feedback’ activities. Based on the results of the pilot study,
additional classroom studies are planned
to quantify whether using Skills Arena
3.1.1 Skills Arena improves student’s performance in
addition and subtraction, and to compare
Skills Arena (Lee et al 2004) is a the impact with traditional drill activities
mathematics video game, implemented such as worksheets.
using the Nintendo Game Boy Advance
system, that supplements traditional
curricula and teaching methods. Drills in 3.1.2 BBC Bitesize
addition and subtraction are presented as
a game with advanced scoring and record- BBC Bitesize (2003; 2004) is an initiative
keeping, character creation and variable to provide revision materials via mobile
difficulty level. Students can select phones, using a downloadable Java game
the name and physical traits of their and SMS text messages. Given the limited
character, which they use to compete in amount of information that can be
20displayed on-screen and sent via text, the SMS was used as part of an English
revision materials really are ‘bite-sized’. language course, where students were
This initiative has been running since 2003, sent frequent vocabulary messages, which
and has proved to be very popular, also act as reminders to revise. The
especially with the growing number of lessons proved effective and were well
phones with Java capabilities. The main received by the students. The system takes
impact of the BBC Bitesize programme advantage of ‘push’ technologies and
comes from the size of its audience - over promotes regular study. Researchers did
650,000 GCSE students (as well as a note, however, that students were
number of curious adult learners). postponing study until they would have
Some implementation problems the time to concentrate on the task.
highlighted include:
Video delivered on mobile platforms
• Problem of localised content: some (both mobile phone and PDA) was used
questions were not relevant to what to demonstrate the literal meaning
a particular student had studied. and the special use of English idioms.
• Lack of detailed feedback for learners: Students found the video quality low,
the small screen size and memory but the experience of using the videos
capacity of the mobile phones meant engaging.
that no detailed feedback about question
responses could be given. This was A related commercial application is Pocket
highlighted as a key issue that learners Eijiro 1, started in December 2002 as an
wanted to see addressed. English-Japanese, Japanese-English
dictionary. The site now receives more
• Compatibility across devices: despite than 100,000 hits per day and subscribers
Java being promoted as a cross- number in the hundred thousands.
platform environment, it was difficult
to get the Java game running on all
phones.
3.1.4 Classroom response systems
• Costs: the SMS service was originally
free, but excessive demand forced the Classroom response systems can be
BBC to charge for messages, leading implemented as either specialist systems,
to a significant decline in popularity. comprising both the hardware and
software such as Educue 2, or as
software-only systems that can be installed
3.1.3 Mobile phones for on mobile devices, such as Discourse 3.
language learning
Dufresne et al (1996) report on the use of
Two mobile language learning systems for a classroom response system called
mobile phones were implemented and ‘Classtalk’ with first year physics students
tested in 2003 (Thornton and Houser 2004). at the University of Massachusetts, USA.
1 http://ojr.org/japan/wireless/1080854640.php
2 http://www.educue.com
3 http://www.ets.org/discourse/about.html
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