LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE - May 2021 AN ASSESSMENT OF TRADE, MORTALITIES AND ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS FACING - TRAFFIC ...
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May 2021 AN ASSESSMENT OF TRADE, MORTALITIES AND ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS FACING LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE Katrina Mole David Newton LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 1
TRAFFIC REPORT ABOUT US TRAFFIC is a leading non-governmental organisation working globally on trade in wild animals and plants in the context of both Biodiversity Conservation and sustainable development. Reproduction of material appearing in this report requires writtenpermission from the publisher. The designations of geographical entities in this publication, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of TRAFFIC or its supporting organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS boundaries. PROJECT SupervisorS David Newton1,2 The production of this publication was made possible with funding Lead author provided by the Lion Recovery Fund. The authors thank the Katrina Mole1 Mozambiquan Administração Nacional das Áreas de Conservação (National Administration for Conservation Areas) (ANAC), specifically Published by: Dr. Carlos Lopes Pereira for his continued support of this research. TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Thanks also go to Marcelino Foloma from The World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) who assisted in obtaining research permits for our SUGGESTED CITATION work in Mozambique. The authors would also like to thank the Tanzania Mole, K. H., Newton, D. TRAFFIC (2020). An Wildlife Management Authority (TAWA) and the Ministry of Natural assessment of trade, mortalities and anthropogenic Resources and Tourism (MNRT), specifically Elisante Leguma, Fredrick threats facing lions in Tanzania and Mozambique. Ligate and Beatrice Mtui for their continued support and assistance in collecting essential data for this report. Thank you to the TRAFFIC © TRAFFIC 2020. Copyright of material published in this report is vested in TRAFFIC. East Africa office, specifically Shanny Pelle who provided logistical support to Katrina Mole whilst in Tanzania, Linah Clifford who assisted UK Registered Charity No. 1076722 with letters, data collection and general support; and William Crosmary who also provided invaluable support and research contacts whilst in Design Tanzania. Thanks also to Esther Sang’udi who supported with data Marcus Cornthwaite entry and collection. The authors would also like to thank Dr Colleen Begg (Niassa Carnivore Project (NCP), IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group) and Dennis Ikanda (TAWIRI) for peer reviewing the report, as well as providing guidance and 1 input while the document was still in preparation. Thanks to consultants TRAFFIC, East/Southern Africa Regional Office, c/o IUCN ESARO, 1st Floor Block E, Hatfield Gardens, 333 Grosvenor Street, Hatfield, Mourice Victor and Samuel Bilerio who assisted in collecting interview Pretoria, 0083, South Africa data in Tanzania and Mozambique respectively. Thank you to members 2 of staff from KopeLion (Ingela Jansson), WCS (Franziska Steinbruch University of the Witwatersrand, School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, 1 Jan Smuts Ave, Johannesburg, 2000 (now with ANAC)), Peace Parks-Limpopo National Park (Peter Leitner) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (Maige Deogratius) who provided assistance and valuable input into this research. Much gratitude to Michael Mole who assisted with the more complex ArcGIS figures and mapping. The authors also thank Prof Antoinette Kotze from the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) who provided weights for lion parts. The authors also thank Marcus Cornthwaite for the design and layout of the report.
table of contents page 4 INTRODUCTION Executive summary Recommendations Acronyms and abbreviations Literature review Methodology page 34 TANZANIA Results Conclusions and discussion Recoommendations page 56 MOZAMBIQUE Results Conclusions and discussion Recoommendations page 74 References Endnotes Image credits Appendix I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY T H E U N R E G U L AT E D A N D I L L I C I T T R A D E O F W I L D L I F E P R O D U C T S A N D D E R I VAT I V E S P O S E S A S I G N I F I C A N T T H R E AT T O T H E L O N G - T E R M V I A B I L I T Y O F TA X A S U C H A S W H I T E R H I N O C E R O S C E R AT O T H E R I U M S I M U M , A F R I C A N E L E P H A N T S L O X O D O N TA A F R I C A N A , A N D T H E A F R I C A N L I O N PA N T H E R A L E O . In recent years, several studies have TRAFFIC’s Wildlife Trade and Information highlighted concerns about an emerging System (WiTIS); grey and published scientific and increasing trade in African Lion parts literature; interviews with wildlife authorities and derivatives both domestically within and organisations, professional hunters, African countries, and internationally to Asian local community members; and trade data markets. However, the extent and impact of collected from government institutions and this trade on lion populations in Africa remains customs authorities. Aspects of trade which undocumented across most of their range. were investigated and reported on include: the African Lion numbers are in decline primarily perceived trade of lion parts both domestically due to anthropogenic influences such as and internationally; the extent and scale of both retaliatory killing by humans, depletion of their domestic and international trade in lion parts prey-base due to the bushmeat trade, habitat and derivatives, either sourced from legally or loss and conversion, and poorly regulated illegally harvested lions; the geographic extent trophy hunting. Understanding the additional of the illegal trade; and the location of potential impact of trade on wild lion populations is poaching and trade “hotspots” within both critical for current and future conservation of countries (Tanzania and Mozambique). The the species. data gathered were then used to deduce the potential impacts of harvest and trade on the African In this study, TRAFFIC aimed to provide a greater current lion populations within each country. Lion understanding of the impact of harvest and numbers trade on wild lion populations in two countries that have been identified as potential countries In Tanzania, the results illustrate that the majority of lion parts and derivatives are used and traded are in of concern, Tanzania and Mozambique. The locally and have, most likely, been acquired for decline report followed a non-detriment finding outline traditional use through historic and present- primarily due to and utilised information on threats, biological day retaliatory killings. Distinct within-country anthropogenic characteristics, national status, management regional differences existed with regards to influences and monitoring, as well as data gathered from lion product use. Skin, tail and fat were the 4 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
preferred products used in northern Tanzania, events continue on the current trajectory, whilst central Tanzania had a preference for Mozambique’s wild lion populations will become fat followed by claws and skin. In southern increasingly threatened. Tanzania fat was used widely. Poaching data for Tanzania were severely deficient and likely Teeth and claws were the most common, grossly underestimated. While the figures on internationally traded lion commodity from both teeth and domestic, regional, and international trade Tanzania and Mozambique. The most common claws recorded in this study only represent a portion destinations for these lion parts were Asian are the most of the documented lion mortalities, a disparity countries, specifically Viet Nam. It is plausible commonly traded exists between the declines predicted by the that the ease with which lion teeth and claws lion products International Union for Conservation of Nature can be collected and concealed makes the internationally (IUCN) and the Tanzania Wildlife Research trade of these products less risky to move and Institute (TAWIRI). These findings suggest transport regionally and internationally. This that either the full extent of trade is not being finding suggests a new modus operandi for lion asian detected or anthropogenic lion mortalities (i.e. poaching. countries poaching, retaliatory killings) are not being are the most adequately reported. Levels of poaching and trade differ between common Tanzania and Mozambique. In Mozambique international In Mozambique, the data indicate that targeted targeted poaching for parts is substantial, destination for poaching and suspected poaching incidences involving mainly claws, teeth and skin lion parts sourced are high (74% and 48% of anthropogenic lion with evidence of trading towns in northern in both countries mortalities in Niassa and Limpopo National Mozambique. Products used domestically and Park respectively) with evidence of domestic, internationally correspond with parts that are regional, and international trade of lion parts and targeted during poaching events, indicating a derivatives. Slight regional differences existed potential international demand driving illegal within-country with regards to lion product local harvesting. These targeted poaching use. Claws, teeth and skin were the preferred incidences are a threat to Mozambique’s lion products used in northern Mozambique, whilst population. Results suggest that Tanzania’s lion communities in southern Mozambique showed trade is predominantly domestic and regional. a preference for fat followed by skin and claws. Lion product use for traditional purposes is Considering the local decline in lion populations widespread and interviews suggest that the (Niassa and Limpopo National Park), their source of products is from current and historic relatively low abundance in the country, and retaliatory killings. Retaliatory killings make the significant number of targeted poaching up the vast majority of anthropogenic lion events within core lion ranges, the current mortalities and are having a marked negative impact of both domestic and international impact on population numbers. There is also trade in lion parts and derivatives on wild qualitative evidence for targeted poaching populations in Mozambique was found to be incidences which may be occurring in the high and detrimental to Mozambique’s lion Ruaha-Rungwa region, however empirical data populations and species persistence. If these are lacking. LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 5
RECOMMENDATIONS: B A S E D O N T H E F I N D I N G S O F T H I S S T U D Y, T H E C R I T I C A L R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S F O R TA N Z A N I A A R E : To address the substantial numbers of The Tanzania Government should amend the retaliatory killings that are likely to be occurring current hunting regulations to prohibit any lion across Tanzania, more monitoring agencies hunts where lions are younger than the six-year GENERAL are needed in key lion areas such as the Selous minimum age restriction. TANZANIA GOVERNMENT region. These agencies could include NGOs, tourism companies or government staff to The Tanzania Government should adjust trophy assist with monitoring of lions and collaborate hunting fees to charge hunting operators per and support communities to reduce human-lion lion hunt and refrain from charging a yearly fee conflict. regardless of offtake. TAWIRI needs to develop an updated The Tanzania Government should strengthen TA N Z A N I A W I L D L I F E R E S E A R C H I N S T I T U T E Conservation Action Plan specific to the African management of protected areas (PAs) with Lion in Tanzania. The updated Action Plan specific emphasis on vacant hunting blocks should have a specific focus on updating current where management is compromised and lion population estimates to ensure that regular consider pursuing Public-Private Partnerships lion surveys and monitoring programmes are for PA management in areas where no support implemented across the country. or management exists. The activities that have been achieved in the current Carnivore Action Plan (TAWIRI, 2009) need to be consolidated by TAWIRI and the Border control and customs officers at all ports existing activities updated, paying attention to (i.e. sea, land, air) need to improve detection ensure that all activities are accountable, timely, measures to ensure that all illegal trade is CUSTOMS AND LAW ENFORCEMENT and conducted regularly. uncovered and information is gathered on trafficking routes and commodities in demand. TAWA should facilitate workshops and The relevant agencies (TAWA and the Tanzania meetings within wildlife authorities, relevant Customs Authority) need to allocate additional conservation organisations and communities to resources towards staff training in detection TA N Z A N I A W I L D L I F E M A N A G E M E N T A U T H O R I T Y boost awareness of the threat of lion poaching and screening techniques and technologies, and trade. while institutional collaboration needs to be improved to ensure that seizure data are TAWA should develop a country-wide database accurately stored and accessible to those for compiling and storing data on lion poaching needing to access them. incidents. Law enforcement agencies should collaborate TAWA should identify key wildlife authorities in with wildlife authorities and make full use areas recognised as potential trade/poaching of wildlife legislation to prosecute criminals. “hotspots” such as the Ruaha-Rungwa region Tanzania should rate its success in countering and the Ruvuma landscape and assist law illegal wildlife trade by the number of successful enforcement and anti-poaching efforts in these prosecutions, in addition to the detection of lion areas to ensure that lion mortalities are reduced. parts and derivatives at ports of entry and exit. Relevant enforcement agencies such as TAWA need to strengthen work on anti-trafficking and investigations related to the illegal wildlife trade. 6 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
C R I T I C A L R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S F O R MOZAMBIQUE ARE: It is a necessity that Administração Nacional das Border control and customs officers at all ports Áreas de Conservação “National Administration (i.e. sea, land, air) need to improve detection for Conservation Areas” (ANAC) improves measures to ensure that all illegal trade is being regional lion management by providing support uncovered and information is gathered on CUSTOMS AND LAW ENFORCEMENT for research and programmes which promote trafficking routes and commodities in demand. lion conservation, reduce human-lion conflict, The national government should allocate conserve lion habitats and prey base, increase additional resources to training staff in detection law enforcement and reduce illegal trade and and screening techniques and technologies. strengthen community programmes. Increased institutional collaboration between the Mozambique Customs Authority and ANAC should provide a progress report on ANAC is needed to ensure that seizure data activities (and their implementation) listed in the are accurately stored and accessible to those 2016 Conservation Strategy and Action Plan for needing to access them. the African Lion. Subsequent to this progress report, activities in the Action Plan should be Law enforcement agencies should collaborate N AT I O N A L A D M I N I S T R AT I O N F O R C O N S E R VAT I O N A R E A S consolidated and realistic and achievable goals with wildlife authorities and make full use set for lion conservation and management. of wildlife legislation to prosecute criminals. Mozambique should rate its success in Although ANAC has a formal national countering illegal wildlife trade by the number trophy hunting regulation, we encourage of successful prosecutions, in addition to the the Mozambique government to increase detection of lion parts and derivatives at ports monitoring of legal hunting to ensure that of entry and exit. legal lion harvest is sustainable throughout the country. ILLEGAL TRADE AND PROTECTED AREAS ANAC should facilitate workshops and Increased support and resources are needed meetings to increase collaboration between for tackling illegal wildlife trade in Mozambique. different conservation organisations and ANAC should co-ordinate with organisations wildlife authorities. These workshops could be such as the PAMS foundation and Wildlife Crime used as a platform to strategise and devise Prevention (WCP) to support investigations and methods and steps to reduce and mitigate lion anti-trafficking measures. poaching and trade. The management of protected areas (PAs) Areas which have been identified as potential should be strengthened by ANAC, with specific trade/poaching “hotspots” require further emphasis on vacant hunting blocks where investigation and immediate action. ANAC management is compromised. ANAC should needs to identify and provide support to key consider pursuing Public-Private Partnerships wildlife authorities in areas such as the Ruvuma for PA management in areas where no support landscape, Limpopo National Park and Niassa or management exists. Special Reserve to help increase levels of law enforcement and anti-poaching to ensure that lion trade is reduced. Covert investigations should be undertaken to examine and understand the extent of trade in lion parts and derivatives, trade routes, and the actors involved in these areas. LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 7
INTRODUCTION T H E A F R I C A N L I O N PA N T H E R A L E O W A S O N C E W I D E LY D I S T R I B U T E D ACROSS THE AFRICAN C O N T I N E N T W I T H A N E S T I M AT E D P O P U L AT I O N O F 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 I N T H E 1 9 4 0 S . T O D AY T H E T OTA L L I O N P O P U L AT I O N , A P P R O X I M AT E LY 20,000 INDIVIDUALS, OCCUPIES A FRACTION OF ITS FORMER RANGE A N D P O P U L AT I O N S O N LY P E R S I S T I N A R E A S T H AT A R E I N T E N S E LY M A N A G E D ( B A U E R E T A L ., 2 0 1 5 ; B A U E R E T A L ., 2 0 1 6 ). The species is listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). 8 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 8 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
Lions are apex predators and play a central role substitutes in tiger wine or “bone strengthening in maintaining a functioning ecosystem at all wine”; a knock-on effect seemingly related to the trophic levels. The removal of lions or declines heightened protection of tigers in the early to mid- in population numbers in an ecosystem often 2000s (Williams et al., 2015). results in “predator-mediated trophic cascades”, where other wildlife is negatively affected by the While the impact of this trade in lion parts and absence of large carnivores (Green et al., 2018; derivatives is negligible for South African wild Everatt et al., 2019a). Their occupancy at the lion populations, the impact on other populations highest trophic levels, large spatial requirements, outside of South Africa is largely undocumented and their relatively low numbers compared to prey and unknown (Williams et al., 2015). Numerous species also makes lions excellent ecological seizures of illegal lion body parts across various indicators of disturbances and ecosystem African countries where wild populations exist, functionality for large protected area networks along with increased reports of lion poaching (PANS) (Ripple et al., 2014; Watson et al., 2014). incidences, suggest that these trades may pose a significant threat to several populations across African Lion numbers are in decline across most Africa (2004–2014 data from UNEP-WCMC in of their range except in a few southern Africa Funston et al., 2016). Those populations thought countries, namely Botswana, Namibia, South to be most at risk are in East Africa, where lion Africa, and Zimbabwe (Bauer et al., 2015). These populations have decreased by almost 60% in the declines are primarily due to anthropogenic past two decades (Bauer et al., 2016). influences such as retaliatory killing by humans in response to livestock or human deaths (Ikanda In 2015, Williams et al., (2017) undertook a pan- and Packer, 2008), depletion of their prey base African questionnaire and literature survey to due to the bushmeat trade (Lindsey et al., 2013b), investigate the domestic and international trade habitat loss and conversion (Riggio et al., 2013), and consumption of lion body parts across and poorly regulated trophy hunting (Packer et al., current and former African Lion range states. 2009; Packer et al., 2011). In recent years, a new During this study, lion experts were consulted to threat has also emerged: the trade in lion parts assess traditional medicinal practices (in Africa and derivatives (IUCN 2006a,b, Bauer et al., 2016). and Asia), as well as perceived international and domestic trade and use of lion parts and Several studies have highlighted concerns about derivatives. Findings from the surveys suggested the emerging and increasing trade in African that while the impact of international trade on Lion bones and derivatives both domestically wild populations may be high, it remained mostly within African countries, and internationally to undocumented. As a result, the domestic trade Asian markets (Williams et al., 2015; Williams of lion parts was perceived to pose a more et al., 2017). The African Lion bone trade has significant impact on wild lion populations than complex drivers, spanning multiple countries the international trade. To monitor the potential with a diverse array of cultures. Much of this impacts further, 17 countries of concern were trade has been attributed to traditional medicine identified. These countries included Mozambique practices in Africa and Asia (Bauer et al., 2016). and Tanzania. Tanzania is a lion stronghold, Across the African continent, lion parts such as containing more than 40% of the African Lion claws, skin, bones, teeth and fat are often used population (Riggio et al., 2013). Historically, lions in traditional ceremonies and rituals, medicines, were widespread in Tanzania (Mesochina et al., and decorations (Williams et al., 2017), spurring 2010). Today they are still widely distributed in a now illegal domestic trade. South Africa (as a relatively large numbers, but some populations major legal exporter of lion bones) had seen an are decreasing and becoming increasingly increase in the international legal export of lion fragmented. Some 37% of Tanzania’s surface bones and skeletons to East and Southeast Asia area is designated for protection of biodiversity (2017: 800 skeletons; 2018: 1,500 skeletons), in mostly unfenced reserves; however, trophy although the trade was ruled unlawful and hunting occurs in 86% of this entire protected frozen by a court order in 2019 (Venter, 2019). area network (Brink et al., 2016). These lion bones were reportedly being used as LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 9 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 9
Mozambique is a country with a complicated recovery. Mozambique’s National Parks and history, ravaged by civil war spanning many protected areas are unfenced and often have decades (1977–1992). During these times communities living within the parks’ boundaries as well as post-war, poverty was high, where large areas are used to cultivate crops, wildlife poaching was rife, and many wildlife graze cattle, and gather food (Everatt et al., populations were decimated (Bouley et al., 2019a). Bushmeat poaching of ungulates is 2018). Since then, conservation efforts have also widespread across these protected areas, increased, and many organisations are working and in some areas of Mozambique, lions are to restore conservation areas with species that targeted for their body parts (Everatt et al., 2015; were once omnipresent (Bouley et al., 2018). Everatt et al., 2019b), or persecuted for livestock Due to this complex history, lions are facing depredation. both direct and indirect pressures during their OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY: In this report, TRAFFIC investigated the extent 1. The perceived trade of lion of trade and harvest of lions in Tanzania and parts, both domestically and Mozambique. Interviews and consultations were conducted to investigate the presence, internationally. extent, and scale of domestic and international 2. The extent and scale of the trade and harvest in both countries, specific considerations are listed to the right. domestic trade in lion parts and derivatives. The report has been structured to provide a multi-factorial analysis based on the non- 3. The extent and scale of the detriment finding (NDF) format of Rosser and international trade of lion parts and Haywood (2002). As reliable data are patchy, TRAFFIC’s aim was to use information on derivatives, either sourced from threats, biological characteristics, national legally or illegally harvested lions. status, management, monitoring, and the 4. The geographic extent of the illegal impact of legal, illegal, and unregulated harvest and trade to produce an assessment of the trade and harvest of lions within impact of these activities and associated Tanzania and Mozambique and the parameters on the wild lion populations of Tanzania and Mozambique. location of potential poaching and trade “hotspots”. 10 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ANAC Administração Nacional das Áreas de Conservação “National Administration for Conservation Areas” (Mozambique) CDV Canine Distemper Virus CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora HLC Human-lion conflict IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature NCP Niassa Carnivore Project NDF Non-Detriment Finding NGO Non-Governmental Organisation PAC Problem Animal Control PANS Protected Area Networks SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute SSC Species Survival Commission TANAPA Tanzania National Parks Authority TAWA Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority TAWIRI Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute WCS Wildlife Conservation Society WD Wildlife Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism WiTIS Wildlife Trade and Information System WMA Wildlife Management Area UNCAC United Nations Convention against Corruption UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 11
LITERATURE REVIEW 12 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIONS Habitat and Ecological adaptability Lions commonly inhabit savannah habitats lions can be considered as generalists as they across the African continent (Riggio et al., 2013); are not restricted to one habitat or prey species however, lions are not limited to a particular (Government Gazette No. 41393, 2018). While habitat and can adapt to survive in a variety of hunting success is dependent on habitat different landscapes and ecosystems, including types, for example, longer grass (Funston et semi-arid to arid environments (Bauer et al., al., 2001) or increased cover (Hopcroft et al., 2016). Some lion populations have also been 2005), lions do have the ability to adjust their known to occur in the savanna-forest biomes of hunting strategies to hunt in new habitats. Lions Gabon and Congo (Henschel, 2009). Ecological can readily adapt and recover from various adaptability refers to the degree to which a disturbances (Trinkle et al., 2017), for example, species can adapt (i.e. habitat, diet, etc.). When population bottlenecks and disease (Packer et compared to other mammalian carnivores, al., 1991). Dispersal efficiency Lions are the most social species of the Felidae To maintain dispersal pathways, it is essential family, living in fission-fusion family groups to maintain habitat connectivity through called prides (Kotze et al., 2018). Related protected areas and corridors (Cushman et females tend to stay in their prides for their al., 2015). Many factors will influence the entire life, while male offspring will leave their dispersal efficiency of lion populations; these natal prides and go in search of their own include protected area size, the availability of prides when they are about four years old wildlife corridors, as well as human-wildlife (Trinkle et al., 2017). As such, lions have large conflict (Cushman et al., 2018). Space is a rare spatial requirements with vast home ranges commodity in most African countries, with and territories spanning hundreds of square wildlife and humans often competing for space lions are kilometres (Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri, 2002; Stolton and Dudley, 2019). Overall, lions and resources. What space is available is often fragmented and transformed (Macdonald and long-lived often living longer are not considered good dispersers. In many Sillero-Zubiri, 2002). Cushman et al. (2018), than 12 years in cases, these dispersal events result in male suggest that “many existing protected areas the wild lions entering high-risk environments outside of are too small to support large populations and protected areas (Trinkle et al., 2017). are therefore unlikely to be viable in the long social cats term.” These small, protected areas promote they live in fission- From a genetic viewpoint, the ability to disperse isolated populations that have no means of fusion family between populations is a crucial factor in dispersal and may ultimately cause reduced groups, females retaining the genetic viability of populations at a reproductive rates (due to inbreeding), and tend to stick with landscape level by decreasing the likelihood of increased vulnerability to disease (Kissui and one pride for a inbreeding and disease (Cushman et al., 2018). Packer, 2004). lifetime LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 13
Life history Lions are long-lived, with males and females after 6–8 months (Packer and Pusey, 1983). often living longer than 12 years of age in the wild Conception can take place from two years of (Packer et al., 1988). Generally, lionesses give age (Rudnai, 1973) with intervals between litters birth to between 1–4 cubs (Packer and Pusey, averaging two to three years. As a result, lions 1995) with a gestation period of approximately are considered to have a low reproductive rate 110 days (Rudnai, 1973). Cubs are weaned and are sensitive to over-utilisation. Young Maasai men and boys are often responsible for protecting cattle from predators and herding their cattle to appropriate food and water sources Interaction with humans Lions thrive within protected area networks “distinct populations within a wider landscape where human interactions are limited. with limited migration between them.” Thus, in However, threats such as habitat loss, addition to trade impacts, lions are susceptible disturbances, and conversion of wilderness to these fragmentation disturbances. Reduced areas are all having a negative effect on lion or fragmented habitat often results in increases Ala-mayo ranges across Africa (Riggio et al., 2013). in human-lion interactions and livestock a traditional These culminating threats often lead to encounters. In these complex landscapes of Maasai culture lion populations becoming susceptible to coexistence, humans are having a detrimental that included a rite fragmentation across their landscapes which effect on lion population numbers and are of passage where in turn means that populations often display contributing towards their decline both directly young men would a metapopulation structure. Dolrenry et al. and indirectly (Oriol-Cotterilletal et al., 2015; hunt and kill a lion (2014) state that these metapopulations are Suraci et al., 2019). 14 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
MAJOR THREATS DIRECT THREATS FACED BY LIONS EXCLUDING REGULATED HARVEST Targeted poaching Retaliatory killing Traditional medicine and commercial use of lion In areas where humans and wildlife co-exist, parts are driving an unsustainable trade in lion carnivores such as the African Lion are often parts and derivatives across Africa (Williams et killed in retaliation for predation on domestic al., 2015). In some areas, lions are falling victim livestock (Kissui, 2008). In East Africa, for to targeted poaching for parts (Mesochina et al., example, in the Maasai culture, family wealth 2010; Everatt et al., 2019b) and this, along with is measured in cattle numbers, and thus other significant threats facing lion populations, depredation is often a cause of conflict (Ikanda is adding to population declines in most African and Packer, 2008). countries. In most cases retaliatory killings will happen in Ritual/ cultural killing areas adjacent to protected areas where lions occur in large numbers (Bauer et al., 2016; In Africa, several cultures have strong traditional Eustace et al., 2019). With human population links with the lion. In the Maasai culture, for numbers on the rise, it is easy to see why there is example, it is a tradition for young men to hunt an increase in human-wildlife conflict as humans and kill a lion as a rite of passage to adulthood and wildlife compete for space and resources. (Ikanda and Packer, 2008; Mesochina et al., 2010). These hunts are traditionally referred to as “Ala-mayo.” This form of lion hunting ROADKILL was banned in the 1970s (Ikanda and Packer, In some areas, national highways cut through 2008); however, many people believe it still National Parks and reserves. On these national occurs in secret. According to the literature and also reported during interviews carried out roads, people are negligent and do not obey the speed limits. retaliatory for this study, lion products collected are the killings tail, paws, and mane (Mesochina et al., 2010). This leads to numerous unnecessary deaths for predation on These products are used in the celebrations, due to animals being hit by vehicles. In countries dometic livestock following which the tail and paws are discarded where protected areas are often unfenced and are common in (Mesochina et al., 2010). Traditional lion hunting major roads intercept protected areas, incidents areas where lions also occurs in other local pastoral tribal groups, of roadkill are a common occurrence (Kioko et and humans but it is not well documented. al., 2015). co-exist LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 15
Unregulated trophy hunting Sport hunting is a multifaceted practice in for sport, it is the mature males that are targeted commercial those African countries that still allow it. On (six years and older). In social cats such as use the one hand, hunting blocks conserve vast lions, this can create a situation of abnormal and traditional amounts of land for wildlife, which under male replacement that can lead to high levels medicine are different circumstances may have been used of infanticide (Packer et al., 2009; Lindsey et driving an for agriculture and grazing (Brink et al., 2016). al., 2012). Unmanaged or unregulated trophy unsustainable trade The hunting blocks may also provide economic hunting can lead to unsustainable offtake which in lion parts and benefits to neighbouring communities (Brink et can have a negative impact on lion densities derivatives across al., 2016). However, there are also many negative (Lindsey et al., 2012; Brink et al., 2016). Africa facets of trophy hunting. When lions are hunted Problem Animal Control (PAC) Lions are prone to conflict with humans, et al., 2010). In many cases, only the livestock whether it be killing livestock or in some carcasses are discovered and reported, or in cases, people. Problem Animal Control (PAC) other cases, if lions are encountered, they are is a measure used to mitigate this conflict chased away. In many incidences where villages (Mesochina et al., 2010). When human-lion are isolated, and wildlife authorities lack the conflicts (HLC) occur, wildlife authorities, village human resources to send a representative out game scouts, or game officers are called out to to assess the situation, these “problem” lions assess the damage caused by the lions and if face persecution and are often killed or injured deemed necessary, remove the individual. PAC by villagers themselves (retaliatory/revenge can be challenging to implement as the lions killings). According to Mesochina et al. (2010), may have already moved out of the area by the PAC is a viable option if it is implemented time the wildlife authorities arrive (Mesochina correctly. Diseases Diseases such as bovine tuberculosis and small population does not fare as well with canine distemper are a threat to lion populations disease outbreaks when compared to larger, (Mesochina et al., 2010). Canine distemper virus less isolated populations like the Serengeti (CDV) is a severe and often fatal disease (Myers lions (Kissui and Packer, 2004; Mesochina et al., et al., 1997). Outbreaks have been recorded 2010). in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania as well as in the Serengeti ecosystem (Kissui and Packer Lions are also susceptible to bovine tuberculosis, 2004). The Ngorongoro Crater lion population a disease which is closely linked to bovine is isolated due to geographic barriers making species such as cattle and buffalo (Michel this population more susceptible to inbreeding et al., 2006). Buffalo is one of the top prey for and diseases such as CDV (Kissui and Packer, lions and therefore this disease can spread to 2004; Mesochina et al., 2010). Increasing lion prides after lions consume infected buffalo human populations, and thus domestic dogs meat from herds which have a prevalence of (the supposed reservoir for CDV in northern bovine tuberculosis (Michel et al., 2006). When Tanzania), around the crater are creating the bovine tuberculosis is present in a pride it can perfect environment for CDV to be transferred have many adverse effects, one of which is to the isolated crater lions (Kissui and Packer, reduced breeding success (Michel et al., 2006). 2004; Mesochina et al., 2010). This relatively 16 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
Part of a team conducting the lion census in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 17
A vet tries to save young male lion, poisoned after eating a poisoned carcass poisoned by local cattle herders INDIRECT THREATS FACED BY LIONS EXCLUDING REGULATED HARVEST Prey-base depletion The illegal bushmeat trade occurs in many trade is considered a significant factor which countries across Africa (Lindsey et al., adversely affects this predator-prey interaction 2013b). Bushmeat has become an essential due to excessive hunting of certain ungulate source of protein and income generation for species (Lindsey et al., 2013b). This can, in countless people living in rural areas (Lindsey turn, have drastic consequences for predator et al., 2013b). Wildlife was first targeted species that also rely on these prey populations in areas where there was little protection. (Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri, 2002). In However, as areas surrounding protected areas Mozambique, human population numbers are become over-utilised, protected areas are high, thus causing competition for the same becoming negatively affected by unsustainable “prey” resource. In future, over-utilisation of prey bushmeat poaching (Lindsey et al., 2013b). species will reduce their abundance and, in turn, There is a delicate balance in the predator-prey lion numbers if this relationship is not managed ecosystem relationship. The illegal bushmeat (Bauer et al., 2015). Habitat loss due to human encroachment One of the main threats to lion conservation an intensification of the resources needed to is the issue of habitat loss and conversion of sustain more people. These resources could bushmeat natural habitats to support growing human be in the form of grazing land for cattle or depletes prey populations (Ripple et al., 2014; Watson et al., fields for cultivation, both of which transform for lions but is 2014). and fragment natural habitats (Ripple et al., an essential 2014). For protected areas that are unfenced, source of protein/ Lions do not cope well in human-modified encroachment into these natural areas is a income for rural landscapes or areas with high human density. common occurrence. Packer et al. (2011) communities With an increasing human population comes found high human populations around wildlife 18 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
areas in Tanzania and concurrent declines in extremely susceptible to persecution due to prey species (herbivores). Thus, people and increased contact and possible conflict with carnivores are competing for the same limited livestock (Ripple et al., 2014). space and resources, which makes lions Indiscriminate killing (snaring/gin traps) Lions are often the indirect casualty of break free, the snare often remains attached poaching traps used to capture or kill wildlife for to its victim and can cause fatal injuries if bushmeat. left untreated. Gin traps are still the preferred gin traps method of poaching in many areas in are the preferred In particular, wire snares and gin traps pose Mozambique. Lions caught in gin traps often method of a significant threat to lions (Mesochina et al., lose their paws but have been known to recover poaching lions 2010, Figure 1). This method of poaching is and live on three legs. in many areas of indiscriminate, and even if a lion manages to Mozambique FIGURE 1 A lion that lost its paw and died due to a gin trap LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 19
NATIONAL STATUS OF LION POPULATIONS TANZANIA: Abundance, distribution, and population Trends Tanzania is a lion stronghold, containing more Population strongholds with estimates greater than 40% of the African Lion population (Riggio than 1,000 include Selous, Ruaha-Moyowosi- et al., 2013). Using population data provided Ugalla-Rukwa-Katavi, and the Maasailand by TAWIRI, seven broad lion ranges were populations, the Selous population being identified across Tanzania (Table 1; Figure 2). the largest (Figure 2). The latest population The majority of their distributions occur within estimates place the current national population Tanzania’s protected area network, which covers at approximately 13,818 lions (Table 1). approximately 37% of the landscape (Figure 2). FIGURE 2 African Lion Panthera leo distribution across the United Republic of Tanzania. Lion population data provided by the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, 2018. Lion population distributions (brown, labelled 1–7) and population estimates (1–7) are summarised in Table 1. Data source for lion distribution: Panthera and WCS 2016. Total population estimate ~13,818 7000 6000 5000 Estimate 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Population ID table 1 Tanzania African Lion Panthera leo population estimates ID Lion Area Population size Status Year of Survey Source/Reference 1 North-western Tanzania 520 unknown 2010 TAWIRI, 2016b 2 Ruaha, Moyowosi, Ugalla, Rukwa-Katavi, 2,300 unknown 2010 TAWIRI, 2016b 3 Maasailand 3,700 declining 2015 TAWIRI, 2016b D. Guthrie pers. 4 Saadani 40 unknown unknown comm. Mésochina et al., 5 Swaga Swaga 33 unknown 2010 2010 Mésochina et al., 6 Udzungu 25 unknown 2010 2010 7 Selous Ecosystem 7,200 stable 2015 TAWIRI, 2016b Total 13,818 20 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
MOZAMBIQUE: Abundance, distribution, and population Trends According to the IUCN Species Survival population of lions (~ 34 individuals) which Commission (SSC) Cat Specialist Group, (2018), occur within Limpopo National Park (Everatt there are five lion populations distributed et al., 2014). Limpopo National Park forms across Mozambique (Table 2; Figure 3). part of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park These populations are clustered in southern (GLTP); a more extensive ecosystem which Mozambique (Limpopo National Park/Banhine also includes Kruger National Park, Banhine, National Park), central Mozambique (Gorongosa, Zinave, and Gonarezhou National Parks. As a surrounding Coutadas and Tete province) as result, population numbers will likely fluctuate well as northern Mozambique (Niassa and over seasons and years as lions move between surrounding Hunting Blocks). Niassa Special these protected areas. Niassa Special Reserve Reserve has the highest population of lions is considered a stronghold for lions, with several with between 800–1,000 individuals (Niassa older reports estimating stable or increasing Carnivore Project, 2018), followed by central populations (Lindsay et al., 2012; Riggio et al., Mozambique (including Tete province) ~290 2013). However, recent annual report results individuals (Jacobson et al., 2013; Bouley et al., show a declining lion population (Niassa 2018). Southern Mozambique has the smallest Carnivore Project, 2018). FIGURE 3 African Lion Panthera leo distribution across Mozambique. Lion population data are taken from IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, 2018. Lion population distributions (brown, labelled 8–12) and population estimates (8–12) are summarised in Table 2. Data source for lion distribution: Panthera and WCS 2016. TOTAL POPULATION ESTIMATE ~1,295 table 2 Mozambique African Lion Panthera leo population estimates (IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group 2018). ID Lion Area 2005 Population NUMBERS 2018 Population NUMBERS Source/Reference 8 Gile 30 0 Lindsey et al., 2017 9 Tchuma Tchato no data 185 Jacobson et al., 2013 10 Gorongosa/Marromeu 174 104 Bouley et al., 2018 11 Limpopo National Park no data 34 Everatt et al., 2014 12 Niassa Special Reserve 1,025 972 Begg et al., 2017 TOTAL 1,229 1,295 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 21
Searching for lions as part of a national census in Kenya MANAGEMENT PLANS TANZANIA L I O N S A R E R E P O RT E D LY A C T I V E LY M A N A G E D I N M O S T A R E A S O F TA N Z A N I A . I N 2 0 0 9 , A C A R N I V O R E A C T I O N P L A N , W H I C H W A S A C O M B I N E D P L A N F O R L E O PA R D S A N D L I O N S , W A S D E V E L O P E D B Y TA W I R I ( TA W I R I , 2 0 0 9 ) . TAWIRI has implemented this Action Plan and communities, and hunting companies and over the years has undertaken monitoring and photographic tourism are also supporting surveys across Tanzania. TAWIRI (2016a) rural communities. outlined five implementation activities for 4. Policy and land-use: the ongoing lions which the Management Authority are establishment of Wildlife Management Areas undertaking: (WMAs). 1. Management: a status assessment was 5. Trade: Hunting Regulations have been conducted (Mesochina et al., 2010); population amended and updated (newest version monitoring of “key” lion populations (Selous, 2015) to promote a sustainable harvest. The Serengeti, Ngorongoro and Tarangire); and Wildlife Division has developed a monitoring surveys of lion “hotspots” (Selous, Rungwa and programme and harvest rate for lion hunting Maasai Steppe and West Kilimanjaro). Additionally, the Wildlife Division worked 2. Mitigation: identify research priorities and with the International Foundation for Wildlife projects in conjunction with non-governmental Management (IGF Foundation) and this organisations (NGOs) to address the central collaboration resulted in the Conservation Lion issue of human-lion conflict in pastoralist Status report which was published in 2010 by communities to equip communities with Pascal Mesochina et al., as well as a monitoring new techniques to protect their livestock and system for lion hunting and an ageing system improve husbandry practices. and restrictions for these hunts from 2011– 3. Socio-economics: many communities are 2018. The programme is overseen by TAWA. living close to wildlife, especially those near Currently, the Carnivore Action Plan (TAWIRI, National Parks. Some 25% of fees received 2009) is the only plan in use; however, the from professional hunting goes back to Wildlife Division (funding dependent) would like the District Councils. Tanzania National to update the Carnivore Action Plan and develop Parks Authority (TANAPA) has implemented a plan specific to Panthera leo. community programmes that uplift local 22 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
MOZAMBIQUE I N 2 0 0 9 A C O N S E R VAT I O N L I O N S TAT U S R E P O RT F O R M OZ A M B I Q U E WA S P U B L I S H E D (C H A R D O N N E T E T A L., 2 0 0 9 ) . T H I S R E P O RT I S A G U I D I N G D O C U M E N T F O R T H E C O N S E R VAT I O N S TAT U S O F L I O N S I N M O Z A M B I Q U E A N D OUTLINES LION RANGES, HISTORICAL AND CURRENT A B U N D A N C E , T H R E AT S , H U M A N - L I O N C O N F L I C T A N D L I O N HUNTING IN MOZAMBIQUE. This document is not an Action Plan, and as facing lion management and conservation. such, it has no implementation or actionable The 2016 revised Action Plan contains specific, activities for lion conservation, monitoring and actionable activities for lion management research in Mozambique. within Mozambique. These activities fall under six broad objectives namely, 1) Management; In 2010, the first Conservation Strategy and 2) Mitigation; 3) Socio-economics; 4) Policy Action Plan for the African Lion (Panthera l. leo) and land-use; 5) Politics, and 6) Trade. Each were published for Mozambique (Fusari et al., of these objectives has specific targets and 2010). In 2016, the Administração Nacional das activities associated with it, as well as timelines Áreas de Conservação (“National Administration for completion/implementation of each activity. for Conservation Areas”) (ANAC) developed a revised document, the National Action Plan However, the Action Plan also notes several for Conservation of the African Lion (Panthera knowledge gaps for each of the six objectives leo leo) in Mozambique (ANAC, 2016). These listed above. The most important of these from Action Plans are comprehensive documents the 2010 and 2016 Action Plans and relevant which outline the status of lions in Mozambique to this report are summarised below: as well as the threats, gaps and constraints 1. Lack of regular monitoring of lion status and threats. 2. Unknown levels of retaliatory killing (especially in the south of Mozambique). 3. Lack of understanding of cultural and anthropological matters related to lions. 4. Weak law enforcement when violating the use of natural resources. 5. Indiscriminate killing of lions for PAC. 6. Lack of appropriate knowledge and awareness of the existing legal framework. 7. Lack of recognition of the conservation value and importance of lions. 8. Local communities are often not aware of the full economic value of natural resources. 9. Lack of incentives for lion conservation. 10. There is a general shortage of both human and financial resources for the management of wildlife, including lions. LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 23
TROPHY HUNTING HARVEST THE AFRICAN LION IS LISTED AS VULNERABLE ON THE IUCN R E D L I S T TM A N D I N A P P E N D I X I I O F C I T E S . A C C O R D I N G T O C I T E S , I N T E R N AT I O N A L T R A D E I N S P E C I M E N S O F A P P E N D I X I I S P E C I E S M AY B E A U T H O R I S E D B Y T H E G R A N T I N G O F A N E X P O RT P E R M I T O R R E - E X P O RT C E RT I F I C AT E . No import permit is necessary under CITES harvest (for instance, Problem Animal Control) (although a permit is needed in some do take place in Tanzania and Mozambique, countries that have taken stricter measures especially if lions have killed humans. However, than CITES requires). Permits or certificates this type of harvest is conducted by the relevant should only be granted if the relevant authorities wildlife authorities in each country (i.e. ANAC in are satisfied that certain conditions are met; Mozambique and Wildlife Department/TAWA in above all, that trade will not be detrimental to Tanzania) and not by professional sport hunters the survival of the species in the wild. Note (Mesochina et al., 2010). PAC is not used as a that, aside from trophy hunting, other types of method of population control. TANZANIA Tanzania has extensive landscapes that have areas (Game Reserves, Game Controlled Areas, been set aside for wildlife and Biodiversity Open Areas, Wildlife Management Areas), hunting Conservation (~37%), including National Parks, except National Parks and the Ngorongoro blocks Game Reserves, Game Control Areas, Wildlife Conservation Area. Hunting companies are are allocated via Management Areas, or Open Areas (Mesochina leased land (hunting blocks) by the government, a closed tender et al., 2010; Brink et al., 2016). Tanzania also with a lease length of five years and are each process, and has the largest population of lions when issued with a species-specific quota per hunting according to compared to other African countries (Packer et block and season (Lindsey et al., 2013a; Brink et regulations, sport al., 2011; Riggio et al., 2013). Hunting blocks are al., 2016). Lion hunts are only issued to clients hunting is allowed allocated via a closed tender process (Lindsey who purchase a 21-day safari (Packer et al., in designated et al., 2013a), and according to regulations, 2011). wildlife areas sport hunting is allowed in designated wildlife 24 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
Only wild lions are harvested in Tanzania. In terms of sport hunting, Tanzania is at the gross income received from trophy hunting (per km2) was highest in Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and 40% of the top of the list of trophy hunting destinations, Namibia. The ability to harvest lions is financially quota fees especially for species such as lion and leopard significant, and lion quotas are available in most are paid by (Packer et al., 2011; Brink et al., 2016). Trophy hunting areas in Tanzania. According to Lindsey hunting operators hunting brings in a substantial (~USD424/km2)2 et al., (2013a), an amount equal to 40% of the in Tanzania to the amount of revenue for the country (Lindsey total quota fees are paid by hunting operators government et al., 2012). Lindsey et al., (2012) conducted to government, regardless of whether lion hunts a study to assess the financial impact which are successful. Thus, the practice of sport/ lion trophy hunting had across five countries trophy hunting in Tanzania is beneficial to the (Tanzania, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, and economy in terms of annual income. Zimbabwe). The authors concluded that the HUNTING QUOTAS Sport hunting was previously managed by based on surveys and reports (where available), the Wildlife Division of the Ministry of Natural as well as recommendations from hunting Resources and Tourism (Wildlife Division). operators and staff from the Wildlife Division Currently, the newly formed Tanzanian Wildlife (Lindsey et al., 2013a). According to TAWIRI, Management Authority (TAWA) manages (2016a), population estimates, research work permitting, and quota numbers. TAWA issues and field personnel are also consulted when species-specific quotas per hunting company setting the annual quota number. This quota per annum (Brink et al., 2016). The hunting system is in place so that TAWA can monitor companies can then choose how many of these the harvests for each hunting operator. Hunting quotas they would like to sell to clients in the operators are required to notify TAWA of the form of specific hunting packages. number of lions harvested per hunting season, which is verified by local wildlife officials who Annual quotas are set by the Quota Allocation are present on hunts. The government imposes Advisory Committee, which consists of selected a harvest threshold of approximately 200 lions experts from TAWIRI, the University of Dar annually. This is based on the best available es Salaam, Sokoine University of Agriculture, scientific advice which underpins a harvest University of Dodoma, the College of African of 1 lion/1000 km2 for the Selous-Nyerere Wildlife Management, and the Wildlife Division ecosystem and 0.5 lions/1000 km2 for other (TAWIRI, 2016a). These quota numbers are ecosystems (Packer et al., 2011). MONITORING AND REPORTING Tanzania has strict hunting regulations which offences and penalties (Wildlife Conservation were last updated in 2015 (Wildlife Conservation (Tourist Hunting) Regulation, 2015; TAWIRI, (Tourist Hunting) Regulation, 2015). Guidelines 2016a). No opportunistic lion harvests are and reporting measures are in place to ensure permitted in Tanzania. According to The Wildlife that harvests are sustainable (Benyr et al., Conservation Tourist Hunting Regulations 2017). According to the NDF published by (2015), a Wildlife Officer or certified village TAWIRI, (2016a), Tanzania follows an adaptive Game Scout is required to be present during management strategy for trophy hunting so new every hunt, provided the hunting block is under issues can be addressed and regulations can be the management of an Authorised Association. revised continuously. Strict hunting regulations After a hunt is completed, whether successful are followed (Wildlife Conservation (Tourist or unsuccessful, a Safari return form must be Hunting) Regulation, 2015; TAWIRI, 2016a), completed and pictures, measurements and which include application procedures, hunting samples for DNA analysis must be collected and restrictions (e.g. age restrictions), management these, along with the skull, must be delivered and supervision of hunters, and outlines to the management department (Benyr et al., LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 25
2017). The skulls are then aged by the TAWA as Further verification of these “blind” skulls is well as experts from TAWIRI and the results are carried out by lion experts (Benyr et al., 2017). stored in a database (Benyr et al., 2017). These The relevant CITES export permits will only be skulls are then catalogued and stored as “blind” issued if the age of the skulls has been verified, samples with no details of hunting company or and the correct paperwork has been submitted client attached to each skull (Benyr et al., 2017). (Benyr et al., 2017). Ageing protocols Hunting operators and clients may only hunt of trophies in some cases. Hunting operators male lions that are six years or older; this is who hunt lions in the 4–5 age class may still the minimum age for Tanzania (Lindsey et al., export these trophies; however, operators 2013a; Wildlife Conservation (Tourist Hunting) will incur fines (Benyr et al., 2017). Any males Regulation, 2015). The use of age-based hunted which are below four years of age may hunting systems is required to ensure the result in the professional hunter’s licence being sustainable harvest of lions (Miller et al., 2016; cancelled and no export of these trophies Begg et al., 2017). Section 27 (1) of the Wildlife is allowed (Benyr et al., 2017). To age lions Conservation (Tourist Hunting) Regulations, correctly, professional hunters use indices such (2015) states that if hunting operators are as mane development, the colouration of the found to be contravening these regulations, nose and assessment of the lion’s teeth (White fines are prescribed, as well as confiscations and Belant, 2016; Benyr et al., 2017). 26 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
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