ISSUE BRIEF - Baker Institute
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
ISSUE BRIEF 06.24.20
Women in Action in Tunisia
Khedija Arfaoui, Ph.D., Independent Human Rights Researcher
Tunisia has long been recognized for its concern is the status of women in state
progressive attitude toward women,1 with institutions, including courts, police stations,
feminist organizations emerging as early and gendarmeries. Nine years after the
as 1936.2 Moroccan author Tahar Ben 2011 uprisings, Tunisian women have not
Jelloun suggests that, “[Tunisia] is the most lost any of their rights, but the move for
progressive country in the Arab world.”3 equality is far from over and the need to
Caroline Perrot asserts that “Tunisia is seen change societal norms remains a core issue.
as a forerunner for women's rights in the Discrimination has persisted in Tunisia and it
Arab world.”4 Valentine Moghadam shares seems the freedoms granted to women were
the same view, stating, “Legal reforms mostly implemented in order to improve
made Tunisia the most liberal country in the country’s reputation in the West. This
the Arab world.”5 Women have been able brief aims to further an understanding of the
to successfully lobby the government to substantive changes, if any, that women in
ratify the Commission on the Elimination of Tunisia have experienced.
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)6
and have demanded action against all forms
of discrimination and violence.7 Women RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS AND
continued to elevate their status after the SETBACKS IN WOMEN’S EQUALITY
2011 uprising using grassroots mobilization
Education
efforts, leading to support from politicians.
Previously, decisions about women’s The government’s will to decrease gender
status were made at the government level inequality has allowed women’s access to
and women were not consulted. This was education in Tunisia to continue to expand.
the case with the Code of Personal Status Tunisia’s prioritization of female education is
(CSP)—a series of progressive laws that admirable and bound for success. Tunisia’s Nine years after
aimed to promote gender equality—adopted future looks much more liberal and altruistic
the 2011 uprisings,
in 1957. The CPS was said to be “a gift on a than many of its regional counterparts,
silver tray” to women because, as President though only time will tell if this leads to Tunisian women have
Habib Bourguiba argued, it was created genuine change for the country.10 not lost any of their
without any demands from women.8 Nearly 100% of the country’s girls rights, but the move for
The shift toward women’s autonomy are educated — a higher percentage than equality is far from over
and the power to enact change was quite boys.11 According to UNESCO figures , the
education rate between young men and
and the need to change
an achievement, as the Tunisian Association
of Democratic Women (ATFD)9 experienced women in Tunisia is almost equal; in 2007, societal norms remains
difficulties denouncing matrimonial violence 96.7% of girls and 95.5% of boys were a core issue.
and marital rape under the repressive enrolled in primary education.12 Sexual
regime of President Zine el-Abidine Ben health education has also increased after
Ali (1987-2011). Now, a growing area of a backlash regarding a teacher who raped
over 20 children in a small city in southern
RICE UNIVERSITY’S BAKER INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC POLICY // ISSUE BRIEF // 06.24.20
Tunisia. In 2018, Yamina Zoghlami, a Following Essebsi’s death in July 2019,
conservative member of parliament and of conservative politicians were elected to
the Islamic Ennahdha party, unexpectedly the position of president (Kais Said) and
supported this move, saying, “There are head of parliament (Rached Ghannouchi,
young Tunisians who consider the body the head of Ennahdha). President Said was
to be haram [forbidden in Islam]. The elected with 72.8% of the vote, despite his
ministry of education is very outdated on lack of political experience. He promised
this subject; young people must be taught to “make the most of his popularity to bring
scientific sex education so that they can about substantial changes."16 After several
protect themselves and others.”13 months of debate, a new cabinet was
Despite its modern
Women would not have been able to finally proposed in February 2020, which—
approach to many move forward in their struggle for equality unfortunately—contains too few women.
issues, Tunisia has without an education, though many in poor Despite its modern approach to many
not been able to bring and rural areas still face major barriers, such issues, Tunisia has not been able to bring
about needed changes, as a lack of public transport or a shortage of about needed changes, partly as a result
water. In these rural regions, primary and of the number of extreme Islamists and
partly as a result of the secondary school children may still have Shari’a proponents who are increasingly
number of extreme to walk kilometers to school, facing many found in parliament. There are a total of 74
Islamists and Shari’a risks. In 2019, a young girl named Maya Islamists in Tunisia’s parliament out of 217
proponents who are had to walk through a flooded river to get members, one third of whom are women.17
home from school. She died, resulting in In March 2020, Mohamed Affes, the deputy
increasingly found substantial media attention. Maya was the from the Al-Karama coalition, proudly
in parliament. daughter of a poor couple who lived in utter and vociferously defended takfir-ism—or
poverty. They viewed her education as a accusing non-believers of being infidels—
path to stable employment and to helping when he proposed that security agents
her parents lead more comfortable lives. should cut off the hands of thieves, as is
While this incident led to demands that done in more religiously conservative states
the government spend more on educational such as Saudi Arabia. Such pronouncements
institutions and hospitals, rather than indicate that extreme Islamist government
mosques, such requests inevitably provoke officials would like to see a move away from
the ire of Islamists who consider them to a secular state and a return to Shari’a law.18
be blasphemy. Additionally, there are several restrictive
laws impeding progress on women’s rights.
Government Bochra BelHmida, a lawyer, former president
Tunisia owes much of its success in the area of ATFD, a former member of parliament,
of women’s rights to former President Habib and chair of the special commission created
Bourguiba, “who introduced the concept by former President Essebsi for the defense
of modernity with a secular spirit and of individual rights (COLIBE), has noted
respecting female rights” and dared to speak several violations of human rights in existing
about equal rights to inheritance.14 Women’s laws.19 For example, a couple caught kissing
demands also led the late President Beji in a car in the northern suburb of Tunis
Caied Essebsi—a follower of Bourguiba who resulted in the man—who was a foreigner—
was very supportive of women’s equality— being jailed for days. There was also the
to appoint a commission dedicated to case of a woman who was refused service
women’s rights. Kemal Daoud, an Algerian at a courthouse because a female public
writer, wrote of Essebsi, “The president of servant said she was dressed indecently.
Tunisia has become the leading figure of These are just some of the tactics currently
reformism in the Arab world by advocating used by Islamists to change the fabric of life
equal inheritance rights for Muslim women in Tunisia.
and their right to marry non-Muslim
foreigners.”15
2
WOMEN IN ACTION IN TUNISIA
Activism Against Sexual Harassment Aswat Nissa took part in this defensive
Tunisian feminists have followed the global feminist wave against sexual harassment.
“#MeToo” movement. Headed by Aswat They organized an event and created a
Nissa (Women’s Voices) and other feminist corresponding app called the 2019 Electric
NGOs, “Me Too” became “EnaZeda ” in Dunes, which they used to denounce sexual
Tunisia. The aim was to encourage female harassment through various slogans and
and male victims of sexual violence to break methods of storytelling. Slogans they used
their silence.20 Aswat Nissa now comprises included: “Don’t tell me how to dress,
32,648 members who share their stories and tell them not to rape,” and “Have your
experiences on a daily basis via organized whistle on you in order to denounce.” A
meetings, seminars, press conferences, and former Ennahdha minister and member of
radio interviews. parliament also spoke out as part of this
In 2019, a Tunisian schoolgirl accused movement by reporting her own sexual
one of her teachers of sexual harassment, harassment at age 12.24
which he denied. The parents removed their Other recent mobilizations include a
daughter from that school, but when no sit-in organized by the Tunisian Association
action was taken against the teacher, the of Democratic Women (ATFD) on January
father sued and the teacher was jailed. In 23, 2020, at the Tunis Tribunal. It was
mid-January 2020, the teacher’s colleagues organized in support of Rachida Kouki, who
went on strike on his behalf with the support experienced workplace violence. On January
of the Tunisian Workers’ Union (UGTT). 28, 2020, human rights activist Lina Ben
However, there has also been solid support Mhenni was carried to the El Jellaz cemetery
of the school girl. On January 29, 2020, and buried by women instead of men, even
Aswat Nissa organized a press conference on though this is against a strict tradition in
her behalf, with witnesses who are currently Muslim communities.
receiving death threats for speaking up.
At present, the plaintiff has not been able
to prove the sexual harassment and the IMAGE 1 — LINA BEN MHENNI’S FUNERAL
investigation conducted by the school
administration was not able to find any
evidence in support of the accusation.21
In October 2019, a young student
reported a parliamentary candidate for
allegedly masturbating in front of her
school. A video of the shameful event
was published on Facebook and widely
shared. He attempted to hide behind his
parliamentary status, which granted him
immunity, but on December 14, 2019, a
mass demonstration was organized against
this exhibitionist in front of the government
headquarters. He was subsequently jailed
but after a trial failed to find him guilty he
was released on February 13, 2020.22 The
demonstration against him was organized
by a new feminist group, “Falgatna” (“We’re
Fed Up”), which prides itself on being “an SOURCE Karim Benabdallah, via the International Observatory of Human Rights
independent, feminist, citizenry movement
that aims to resist patriarchy, discrimination,
and violence against women assigned at
birth or those identifying as women.”23
3RICE UNIVERSITY’S BAKER INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC POLICY // ISSUE BRIEF // 06.24.20
This upending of tradition bred anger, of
course, among many Tunisian conservatives.
CONCLUSION: A LONG ROAD AHEAD
Yet it was not the first time that Tunisian Although women have made numerous
women have broken this taboo. For example, gains in Tunisia, they have yet to attain
in January 2017, my daughter and I followed full, equal rights. Former President Ben Ali’s
the coffins of my son and his wife to the repressive laws were much feared and they
cemetery; they were among the 39 people still remain an obstacle for anyone who
killed in a terrorist attack in Istanbul on dares to express criticism. Labor laws and
January 1, 2017. We took this action despite the Penal Code need to be homologated in
opposition and shock from our relatives. In line with the 2014 Constitution. Tunisian
the past, this would have never occurred, women have not lost any of their rights, but
but attitudes are changing. unfortunately, the move toward equality
was somewhat halted after the death of
former President Beji Caied Essebsi. He
IMAGE 2 — MOHAMED ALI AND SENDA AZZABI'S FUNERAL was a strong supporter of women’s rights,
encouraging the creation of the COLIBE
committee to report on legislative reforms
concerning individual freedoms and equality.
In order to truly gain parity in the political
sphere and promote female leadership,
the glass ceiling must be broken. Indeed,
although both horizontal and vertical
parity have been integrated into electoral
legislation on municipalities, gender equality
has not yet been reached.
While the Parity Law adopted in 2011
mandated that candidate lists must include
alternating male and female candidates
in any election, women remained under-
represented. Hela Gharbi, president of the
National Union of Public Works Councillors,
declared that men cannot understand
NOTE Khedija Arfaoui (left) and daughter Mouna Azzabi at the funeral of Mohamed Ali (Arfaoui’s son)
women’s intrinsic problems; they believe
and Senda Azzabi (his wife) in Tunis. Ali and Azzabi were killed during a terrorist attack in Istanbul in
January 2017. Traditionally coffins in Tunisia are carried solely by men, but Arfaoui and a large group that women’s political activism can only be
of women joined the procession. of secondary significance. She added that
SOURCE Sofienne Hamdaoui, Agence France-Presse men alone speak in public, “as if one was
conveying the message that women cannot
be leaders.”25 More broadly, Tunisia ranks
toward the bottom of the Global Gender
Gap Report, 124th out of 153 countries.26
As Amna Guellali, director of Human Rights
Watch in Tunisia, has argued, women’s
rights will remain threatened as long as
repressive laws do not allow for “key
safeguards against abuse.”27
4WOMEN IN ACTION IN TUNISIA
until 2011. They worked despite close scrutiny
ENDNOTES from Ben Ali’s police, without any help from
1. Mounira M. Charrad and Amina Zarrugh, the media. They formed working groups and
“The Arab Spring and Women’s Rights in alliances with women activists elsewhere in
Tunisia,” E-International Relations, September the world, in particular in Morocco, Algeria,
4, 2013, https://www.e-ir.info/2013/09/04/ Mauritania, and more recently Libya. They
the-arab-spring-and-womens-rights-in- sought to “to reinterpret the Islamic texts
tunisia/; Tucker Hallowell, “Tunisia Makes from a gender sensitive perspective” (Hatem,
Strides for Women’s Rights in the Arab World,” 47). Their objective since the beginning has
The Borgen Project, August 28, 2017, https:// been to eliminate all forms of discrimination
borgenproject.org/womens-rights-in-the- against women (CEDAW). They have not
arab-world/. reached this goal, as the battle for equal
2. Khedija Arfaoui, “The Development inheritance continues.
of the Feminist Movement in Tunisia: 10. Daniel Lehewych, “Continuing the
1920s-2000s,” The International Journal of fight for girls’ education in Tunisia,” Borgen
the Humanities 4, no. 8 (2007): 4. Project, July 18, 2018, https://borgenproject.
3. Tahar Ben Jelloun, “Tahar Ben org/girls-education-in-tunisia.
Jelloun: Courageuse Tunisie,” Le Point, 11. Sophie Bessis, Les Arabes, Les Femmes,
March 5, 2018, https://www.lepoint.fr/ La Liberté (Albin Michel Editions, 2007), 43.
invites-du-point/tahar-ben-jelloun/ 12. Jordan Powell, "7 Facts about
tahar-ben-jelloun-courageuse- Education in Tunisia," Borden Project, March
tunisie-03-05-2018-2215617_1921.php. 8, 2019. In https://borgenproject.org/7-
4. Caroline Nelly Perrot, “A World facts-about-education-in-tunisia/
Redrawn: Re-think gender roles, says 13. Sarah Leduc, “Tunisia’s 'trailblazing'
Tunisian feminist Bochra Belhaj Hmida,” AFP, sex-ed programme struggles out of starting
May 28, 2020, https://news.yahoo.com/ blocks,” France 24, January 29, 2020,
world-redrawn-think-gender-roles-says- https://www.france24.com/en/20200129-
tunisian-feminist-014545724.html. tunisia-s-hailed-sex-education-launch-
5. Valentine M. Moghadam, Modernizing struggles-off-starting-blocks#_=.
Women: Gender and Social Change in the 14. Tahar Ben Jelloun, “Tahar Ben
Middle-East (Lynne Reiner Publishers: Jelloun: Courageuse Tunisie,” Le Point,
2013), 44. March 5, 2018, https://www.lepoint.fr/
6. Both Tunisia and Egypt ratified the invites-du-point/tahar-ben-jelloun/
CEDAW in 1985, with some reservations. tahar-ben-jelloun-courageuse-
7. Mervat F. Hatem, “In the Shadow tunisie-03-05-2018-2215617_1921.php.
of the State: Changing Definitions of Arab 15. Kamel Daoud, “The next Arab
Women’s Developmental’ Citizenship Rights,” Spring? Women’s Rights,” New York Times,
Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 1, October 1, 2017, https://www.nytimes.
no.3 (Fall 2005): 42. com/2017/10/01/opinion/the-next-arab-
8. Mounira M. Charrad, States and spring-womens-rights.html.
Women’s Rights: The Making of Postcolonial 16. Thierry Brésillon, “Tunisia: For
Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, (Berkeley, Los President Kais Saied, Democracy Can Be a
Angeles and London: University of California New Idea,” Orient XXI, November 6, 2019,
Press, 2001), 219. https://orientxxi.info/magazine/tunisia-
9. ATFD, or the Tunisian Association for-president-kais-saied-democracy-can-
of Democratic Women, was accepted as be-a-new-idea,3402.
an autonomous women’s organization 17. Lisa Bryant, “Tunisian Women Hope
in 1989, two years after Ben Ali came to to Secure Gender Parity Gains in Legislative
power, and at the same time as AFTURD Vote,” VOA News, February 10, 2019,
(Association of Tunisian Women for Research https://www.voanews.com/africa/
on Development). They were to be the only tunisian-women-hope-secure-gender-
autonomous women’s rights organizations parity-gains-legislative-vote.
5RICE UNIVERSITY’S BAKER INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC POLICY // ISSUE BRIEF // 06.24.20
18. M.B.Z., “Mohamed Affes: nous 26. Gharbi, Chokri, “Parité hommes-
n’avons pas honte d'émettre des femmes en Tunisie: Au dessous de la
accusations d'apostasie!” Business News, moyenne mondiale,” La Presse, June 5,
March 3, 2020, https://www.businessnews. 2020, https://lapresse.tn/48915/parite-
com.tn/mohamed-affes--nous-navons- hommes-femmes-en-tunisie-au-dessous-
pas-honte-demettre-des-accusations- de-la-moyenne-mondiale/.
dapostasie,520,95824,3. 27. ANSAmed, “Tunisia’s lack of
19. Asharq Al-Awsat, “Tunisia: Civil constitutional court hinders rights, HRW,”
Society Urges Adoption of Code for Individual January 16, 2020, http://www.ansamed.
Freedoms,” January 31, 2020, https:// info/ansamed/en/news/sections/
aawsat.com/english/home/article/2108466/ politics/2020/01/16/tunisias-lack-of-
tunisia-civil-society-urges-adoption-code- constitutional-court-hinders-rights-
individual-freedoms. hrw_2385138d-00f8-48ec-a346-
20. Mariam Nabbout, “Arab women e75b1faad67c.html.
were unstoppable, loud, and tenacious
in 2019,” Step Feed, December 17, 2019,
https://stepfeed.com/arab-world-s-iconic- REFERENCES
date-palm-culture-recognized-by-unesco-
Allouche, Yasmina. “Hero of Tunisia’s 2011
heritage-list-9082
revolution, Lina Ben Mhenni dies at
21. A Tunisian newspaper reported that
36.” Middle East Eye, January 27, 2020,
the girl had been upset at her teacher who
https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/
had refused her proposals, and that she
tunisian-activist-dies-after-battle-
had likely invented the story. See Le Temps,
chronic-illness.
January 19, 2020, Société plus. Du côté du
prétoire, page 5. Brésillon, Thierry. 2019. “Tunisia: For
22. Unfortunately, nothing came out President Kais Saied, Democracy Can Be
of this, and he remained in parliament. An a New Idea.” Orient XXI, June 10.
explanation provided in activist circles on Daoud, Kamel. 2017. “The Next Arab Spring?
Facebook was that being diabetic, he had Women’s Rights.” New York Times,
“disturbances” while he was in his car, with October 1. https://www.nytimes.
a violent need to urinate. So he used a bottle com/2017/10/01/opinion/the-next-
to urinate and the girl took a photo while he arab-spring-womens-rights.html.
was urinating into the bottle. Delmas, Benoît. 2020. “Coup de tonnerre
23. The Arab Weekly, “Tunisian women politique en Tunisie.” Le Point,
build momentum in fight against sexual January 11. www.lepoint.fr/afrique/
violence,” December 22, 2019, https:// coup-de-tonnerre_politique-en-
thearabweekly.com/tunisian-women- tunisie-11-01-2020-2357227_3826.php.
build-momentum-fight-against-sexual- Ghanmi, Lamine. 2020. “In Tunisia
violence-0. ‘normalisation’ debate invades tennis
24. Faïrouz Ben Salah, “#EnaZeda, courts.” The Arab Weekly, February 8.
Tunisian ‘MeToo’ movement, meets with https://thearabweekly.com/tunisia-
both support and swear tactics,” Middle normalisation-debate-invades-
East Eye, February 22, 2020, https://www. tennis-courts.
middleeasteye.net/news/enazeda-tunisian- Hatem, Mervat. 2002. “Gender and Islamism
me-too-movement-support-smear- in the 1990s.” Middle East Report 222:
campaigns. 44-47.
25. Karim Ben Said, “Briser le plafond de
Leroux, Luc. 2019. “La lutte contre les
verre,” La Presse, April 16, 2017, 6.
féminicides bouleverse les pratiques de
la justice.” Le Monde, December 3, 12.
6WOMEN IN ACTION IN TUNISIA
Marzouki, Ilhem. 1993. Le mouvement des
femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle:
ABOUT THE SERIES
Féminisme et politique. Tunis: Cérès This brief is part of a series on “Women’s
Productions. Grassroots Mobilization in the MENA Region
Njuki, Jeminah. 2020. “Generation equality: Post-2011.” The briefs were presented
4 ways to accelerate progress.” IPS at workshops in Rabat, Morocco and
News, February 21. http://www. Amman, Jordan in February and March
ipsnews.net/2020/02/generation- 2020 hosted by the Moroccan Institute
equality-four-ways-accelerate- for Policy Analysis and the American
progress/. Center for Oriental Research and involving
Kiunguyu, Kylie. 2020. “Tunisia’s Ons Jabeur scholars and activists from Morocco, Tunisia,
Is the First Arab Woman to Reach a Lebanon, Turkey, Palestine, and Jordan. The
Grand Slam Quarter-Final.” Alla Africa, workshops were funded with the generous
January 30. https://allafrica.com/ support of the Kelly Day Endowment as part
stories/202001300944.html. of the Baker Institute’s program on Women’s
Saidi, Marwa. 2019. Promouvoir le Rights, Human Rights and Refugees.
leadership féminin: Briser le plafond
de verre. La Presse, June 16. https://
lapresse.tn/12025/promouvoir-le-
AUTHOR
leadership-feminin-briser-le-plafond- Khedija Arfaoui, Ph.D., is an independent
de-verre/. human rights and feminist researcher, and a
Seager, Joni. 2018. The Women’s Atlas. New Tunisian activist based in La Marsa, Tunisia.
York: Penguin Books. She is the author of two books, The Tunisian
Tanit, Sara. 2019. “EnaZeda: Le mouvement Women’s Rights Movement: From Nascent
qui désire sensibiliser et lever les tabous Activism to Influential Power-broking (Taylor
sur le harcèlement sexuel en Tunisie.” & Francis, 2017), co-authored with Jane D.
Tekiano, November 22, https://www. Tchaicha; and Views of American Female See more issue briefs at:
tekiano.com/2019/11/22/enazeda-le- Identity in the Sixties and Seventies (Presses www.bakerinstitute.org/issue-briefs
mouvement-qui-desire-sensibiliser-et- Académiques Francophones, 2018).
This publication was written by a
lever-les-tabous-sur-le-harcelement-
researcher (or researchers) who
sexuel-en-tunisie-videos/. participated in a Baker Institute project.
Women Living Under Muslim Laws. 2011. Wherever feasible, this research is
“Tunisia: New Electoral Law Prescribes reviewed by outside experts before it is
released. However, the views expressed
Gender Parity in Upcoming Constituent
herein are those of the individual
Assembly Elections.” July 22. www. author(s), and do not necessarily
wluml.org/node/7452. represent the views of Rice University’s
Baker Institute for Public Policy.
DEDICATION © 2020 Rice University’s Baker
Institute for Public Policy
This brief is dedicated to Lina Ben Mhenni,
This material may be quoted or
a Tunisian blogger, author, and human
reproduced without prior permission,
rights activist who denounced violence provided appropriate credit is given to
and abuse under former President Zine the author and Rice University’s Baker
el-Abidine Ben Ali and beyond. She was Institute for Public Policy.
known best for her book, A Tunisian Girl
(2011). She died at age 36 on January 27, Cite as:
Arfaoui, Khedija. 2020. Women in
2020, after a chronic illness.
Action in Tunisia. Issue brief no.
06.24.20. Rice University’s Baker
Institute for Public Policy,
Houston, Texas.
7You can also read
