Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?' Discussing Current Psychiatric Treatment Options, and the Potential of Psilocybin Mushrooms in the Future of ...
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Chapter 11
‘Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?’ Discussing
Current Psychiatric Treatment Options, and the Potential
of Psilocybin Mushrooms in the Future of Such
Treatments
Sasha Faichuk
“The psychedelics are a red-hot social issue, ethical issue, whatever the term for
it is, and it is precisely because they are a deconditioning agent: they will cast
doubt in you if you are a Hasidic rabbi, a Marxist anthropologist, or an altar boy,
because their business is to dissolve belief systems, and they do this very well and
then they leave you with the raw datum of experience.” (Terence McKenna,
Psychedelic Society Speech, 1984)
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly referred to as “Magic Mushrooms,” are the
various species of fungi that cause hallucinogenic effects. Daniel & Haberman
(2017) indicate that there are over a hundred magic mushroom species worldwide
(e.g., Psilocybe cubensis, Stropharia coronilla, or Panaeolus subbalteatus), both
wild and cultivated, with varying potencies. Cultivated magic mushrooms are often
more potent because of the selection processes for strains with higher levels of
psilocybin (Daniel & Haberman, 2017). Psilocybin, which breaks down into
psilocin in the body, is the active ingredient in magic mushrooms that causes the
hallucinogenic effects. This hallucinogen has been used ritualistically in countries
like Mexico for thousands of years and is still commonly used today (Carod-Artal,
2015). In 1957, this hallucinogen became of interest in western science, and, in the
following years, psilocybin was isolated, identified and synthesized in a laboratory
(Hofmann et al., 1958). In the 1960s, psilocybin started to be researched for its
treatment potential for psychiatric illnesses (Tylš et al., 2014). In the meantime,
189
Are We There Yet? The Golden Standards of Forensic Science
however, political concern surrounding magic mushrooms grew as they became
popular recreationally amongst the general public (Belouin & Henningfield, 2018).
This concern eventually sparked the classification of psilocybin as a Schedule I
drug during the 1971 United Nations Psychotropic Convention (Nichols, 2004;
Sellers, 2017). This marked the end of not only the personal possession and use of
psilocybin, but also its presence in human experiments (Tylš et al., 2014). The
treatment potential of psilocybin was therefore never concretely outlined. A
Schedule I drug is one with high abuse potential or one without medical use.
Despite the classification, magic mushrooms have been shown to have medicinal
benefits, are non-toxic, and are not addictive (Griffiths et al., 2011). Recently, the
medicinal benefits of psilocybin have regained traction and interest in the scientific
community because of its potential in treating mental illness (Daniel & Haberman,
2017), pointing toward their use as a possible ‘gold standard’ in mental health
treatment.
Figure 11.1: Image of Psilocybin Mushrooms
Current Gold Standard in the Treatment of Mental Illness
Current mental illness treatments, with antidepressant medications like selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), aim to provide relief from the symptoms of
the disorder. Remission from a mental disorder is considered to be a near absence
190Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?
of these symptoms (Frank, 1991). A high risk of relapse, which is the return of the
disorder’s symptoms, remains upon remission. If remission persists for six months,
then the patient is deemed to be recovered. Nonetheless, individuals who have
recovered from depression by using antidepressants have a significantly elevated
risk of experiencing a new depressive episode (DeRubeis et al., 2008). Contrary to
their name, SSRI antidepressants are used to treat more than major depression
(Arroll et al., 2009; Blier & De Montigny, 1994). SSRIs are also prescribed for
anxiety (Bystritsky et al., 2013), anxiety disorders such as panic disorder,
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and
social phobias (Zohar & Westenberg, 2000), as well as obsessive-compulsive
spectrum disorders (OCSDs)(Hollander, 1998), anorexia (Marvanova & Gramith,
2018), borderline personality disorder (Rinne et al, 2002), binge eating disorder,
bulimia (Capasso et al., 2009), and substance abuse (Knudsen et al., 2007), to name
a few. This solely biomedical approach to treatment is often criticized, as it only
addresses the symptoms of the illness instead of the potential cognitive and
psychological causes or components.
The aforementioned drug therapies do not come without their sets of side
effects. SSRIs are notorious for decreased libido, weight gain, insomnia, nausea,
and dizziness, which can interfere severely with one’s day-to-day life (Cascade et
al., 2009). Experiences of amotivation, detachment and emotional blunting are not
uncommon with these drugs and have been described as a “chemical lobotomy”
(Healy et al., 2006). Some of the most worrisome side effects of mental health
medications can include bouts of self-harm, worsened depression and suicidal
tendencies (Healy et al., 2006). The use of these medications could therefore have
lethal implications, effectively decreasing the public health standard and
threatening community wellbeing. Recent research has also demonstrated that
antidepressants may induce aggression and violence in a subset of individuals.
These findings imply that the justice system may face violent cases caused by
psychotropic drugs. As such, public safety and the legal system may both be
unnecessarily threatened or overwhelmed by the effects of the high antidepressant
prevalence in the community (Healy et al., 2006).
Additional treatments exist to alleviate the symptoms or processes behind
psychiatric disorders. The most notable would be cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT) (DeRubeis et al., 2008). CBT is a tailored form of weekly or bi-weekly talk
therapy with the goal of treating mental illness and/or emotional, social, behavioral,
or cognitive problems (Dickerson & Lehman, 2006; Weissman et al., 2000). CBT
191Are We There Yet? The Golden Standards of Forensic Science
is based around the theory that false beliefs and maladaptive information processing
cause some psychiatric disorders. This model implies that rectifying these
maladaptive thoughts will lessen the risk of symptoms recurring (DeRubeis et al.,
2008). Psychiatric professionals believe that this type of talk therapy protects
patients against relapse and illness recurrence, as it addresses the psychological
cause of the disorder and teaches individuals with mental health issues coping
mechanisms that are applicable for their ailments (Hollon et al., 2002).
Compared to medication treatment alone, a combination treatment with
both CBT and antidepressant therapy has been associated with greater mental
health improvement rates (Pampallona et al., 2004) for the treatments of OCD,
major depression, and panic disorder (Cuijpers et al., 2014). Clinical psychology
seems to encourage an SSRI-CBT combination treatment method for a variety of
disorders because together they address the biological, cognitive and psychological
aspects of mental illness. Notably, however, most Canadians being treated with a
mood disorder are only taking medication (47.6%), while only 27.3% have received
both medication and therapy (O’Donnell et al., 2017). In practice, talk therapy
needs are largely unmet, which results in inadequate healthcare for many. A major
reason for the lack of counselling is financial hardship and low access to relevant
health care (O’Donnell et al., 2017). In Canada, it is the provincial governments’
responsibilities to supply the public with proper access to healthcare (Bentivegna,
1998, p.107). Lack of adequate healthcare generates costs in a variety of sectors
such as the social, criminal justice, business, health, education, law enforcement,
and emergency sectors (Druss et al., 2008; Kessler et al., 1999, 2008; Merikangas
et al., 2007). The main costs are derived from criminal justice costs, loss of
earnings, medical costs, and accidents (Kazdin & Blase, 2011). CBT is expensive
and frequent visits are necessary for results. Moreover, SSRIs are not always
effective and have a long side-effect profile (Cipriani et al., 2018). Given these
realities, a combination approach to treatment may not be feasible for everyone.
Outlining Psilocybin Treatment
Psilocybin triggers perceptual changes, such as synesthesia, hallucinations and
illusions. It also alters one’s sense of time, attention and self-perception, and creates
feelings of depersonalization and derealization (Geyer & Vollenweider, 2008).
These effects may better the current treatment processes in clinical psychology
because they offer unparalleled experiences, outlooks, perceptions and benefits that
192Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?
may aid or serve as a new cutting-edge therapeutic tool. Psilocybin treatment can
either involve taking a full dose of psilocybin (with or without a therapy session)
or involve microdosing psilocybin.
Full-dose Psychedelic Psychotherapy and Full-dose Psychedelic Treatment
Full doses of psilocybin facilitate psychological insight and dissolve psychological
defences, which may increase one’s emotional responsiveness and catalyze their
reception to talk therapy treatment (Winkelman, 2014). This implies that an eclectic
approach to treatment, with a mix of talk therapy and psilocybin, may prove to be
extremely effective in the treatment of some mental illnesses. A combination
treatment should follow a drug-free therapy session, used to establish a foundation
and a sense of comfort between the patient and clinician. In full-dose psychedelic
psychotherapy, the dose of psilocybin remains low enough for the patient and
psychiatrist to discuss thoughts, feelings and experiences, but remains high enough
to perceive the hallucinogenic effects. Full doses promote the patient’s connections
with their traumatic memories, which is necessary for working through trauma. The
drug may also alleviate the fear associated with a stressor or traumatic event
(Winkelman, 2014), and decrease anxiety reactions, effectively reducing the body’s
stress response. A reduction in conditioned fear responses, anxiety-inducing
feelings and avoidance allows patients to trust their feelings and dissolve their
emotional blockages (Mithoefer, 2007). Researchers also suggest that
hallucinogens have the power to lead an individual in identifying problems and
their possible solutions, guided by the processes of the individual’s unconscious
mind (Grof, 2009). Psychedelic therapy is also known to create a deep sense of
unity, meaningfulness, and interconnectedness, ultimately giving patients a sense
of self-control and the opportunity to apply these insights to positive life
transformations (Winkelman, 2014). The key difference between the eclectic
approaches of combination SSRI and combination psilocybin treatments is that the
full-dose psilocybin treatments require fewer sessions (Carhart-Harris et al., 2017),
and have no long-term symptoms (Studerus et al., 2010), therefore posing less of a
strain on the patients and the healthcare system.
Although full-dose psychedelic psychotherapy is a feasible and beneficial
option, full-dose psychedelic treatment without therapy is also effective. This
treatment consists of the mere experience of the hallucinogenic effects. The
psychedelic experience has lasting positive effects on mental health, mood,
193Are We There Yet? The Golden Standards of Forensic Science
connection, sociability and attitude, all of which are discussed in the “Mental and
Social Benefits of Magic Mushrooms” section below. The guidance of clinicians,
however, which is a feature of the therapy treatment, may be crucial in minimizing
the drawbacks of this treatment, namely flashbacks, bad trips, recklessness and
psychosis. This will also be discussed in a following section of this chapter (see the
“Drawbacks of Magic Mushrooms” section below).
Microdosing
Microdosing involves the scheduled ingestion of a sub-perceptual dose of
psilocybin (5-10% of a full psychedelic dose) (Kuypers et al., 2019). Psilocybin
microdoses are either taken every day, or on an on-off schedule to prevent the
buildup of a tolerance to the drug. A drug tolerance is a reduced reaction to the drug
after its repeated use. If magic mushrooms are used more than once a week, the
benefits and hallucinogenic effects plummet, as the brain becomes temporarily
desensitized to the drug (Nicholas et al., 2006).
On paper, it appears that microdoses of psilocybin could provide similar
therapeutic results to full doses, while eliminating the drawbacks of high doses and
the clinical oversight required for full-dose treatments (Anderson et al., 2019). On
the other hand, microdosing does not bring forth the problem-solving capabilities
and insights that are present in full doses of psilocybin, as small doses do not
dissolve psychological defences and increase emotional responsiveness. Research
has yet to conclusively outline the efficacy of microdosing for the treatment of
psychiatric disorders. Recent small-scale studies, however, have demonstrated the
positive effects of microdosing psilocybin on cognitive processes (Kuypers, 2020),
mental health (Lea et al., 2020), mood, anxiety, extraversion, focus, and the
occasional reduction in trauma sensitivity and substance dependence (Anderson et
al., 2019). Another study reports that microdosing seems to alleviate the symptoms
of anxiety disorders and attention hyperdeficit disorder (ADHD), more so than
conventional treatment, but the therapeutic effects for general anxiety and
depression remain lower than those from full psilocybin doses (Hutten et al., 2019).
For some individuals, however, microdosing increased anxiety and hindered mood
(Anderson et al., 2019; Kuypers, 2020). Surprisingly, Szigeti et al. (2021) found
that well-being, life satisfaction, mindfulness, and paranoia improved greatly for
both the microdose and the placebo groups that they studied, with no significant
differences between the two. These results validate the psychological benefits of
194Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?
microdosing, while also suggesting that this enhancement is not rooted in the
pharmacological action of the microdoses, but by the placebo effect. Although
these are mostly positive results, the conclusions must not be treated as concrete
because of the uncertainty, conflicting results, small sample sizes and low number
of experiments. Further research must be conducted in order to build a foundation
upon which to base treatment plans.
The medical legalization of psilocybin brings up legal challenges in terms
of criminality and community safety. The association between mental illness and
violent crimes should not be ignored by the legal and justice systems (Marzuk,
1996). Regardless of treatment type, effective treatment of mental illness prevents
poverty, crime (Marzuk, 1996), homelessness, involuntary psychiatric hospital
admissions, and police contact (Detrick & Stiepock, 1992), and should thus be of
utmost importance to the legal system.
Mental and Social Benefits of Magic Mushrooms
Research has shown that psilocybin is effective at treating treatment-resistant
depression (Carhart-Harris et al., 2018; Goldberg et al., 2020; Johnson & Griffiths,
2017), and that the quality of the psychedelic experience is related to its treatment
efficacy (Roseman et al., 2018). Functional magnetic resonance images (fMRIs)
have uncovered positive post-treatment changes in the brain, even after a single
full-dose treatment session, that correlate with the decrease in depressive symptoms
(Carhart-Harris et al., 2017). Psilocybin has been shown to be a similarly effective
treatment for PTSD (Mithoefer, 2007), OCD (Moreno et al., 2006), alcohol
dependence (Bogenschutz et al., 2015), smoking cessation (Johnson et al., 2016)
and anxiety (Goldberg et al., 2020; Mithoefer et al., 2016; de Veen et al., 2016).
The breadth of the treatment efficacy makes psilocybin an effective treatment for
individuals with comorbid psychiatric disorders. It should be noted that genetic
factors, however, may moderate individual responses to psilocybin, and therefore
this mental health treatment may not be effective for everyone (Barrett et al., 2017).
Full-dose psilocybin treatments require a low number of sessions, but the
resulting effects last longer than other treatment options, including the non-
frontline treatments, such as ketamine infusions, electroconvulsive therapy, or
transcranial magnetic stimulation (Thomas et al., 2017). Additionally, in the long
term, psilocybin use did not indicate any association with an increased need for
195Are We There Yet? The Golden Standards of Forensic Science
mental health treatment (Johansen & Krebs, 2015), further supporting the social,
economic and health benefits of this drug therapy.
Research has found that magic mushrooms can treat feelings of distress
related to terminal cancer, such as overwhelming feelings of fear, despair and
existential anxiety (Grob et al., 2011, 2012). The spirituality effects of this drug
reach beyond conventional psychotherapy and promote the processing of such
feelings, thereby having powerful therapeutic effects and enhancing emotional
wellbeing (Winkelman, 2014). Griffiths et al. (2006; 2008) found that many
patients reported that their magic mushroom experience was one of their most
meaningful life experiences. Such satisfaction might improve treatment outcomes
and efficacy because patient buy-in to therapy and treatment is crucial for positive
results (Griffiths et al., 2006; 2008). Psilocybin has been shown to reach beyond
mental illness, as it is an effective treatment of cluster headaches. There is a moral
imperative to supply this treatment to those that need it, because these headaches
are virtually untreatable with current biomedicine and the afflicted are in dire need
of relief, as illustrated by this afflictions nickname: suicide headaches (Sewell et
al., 2006).
A major benefit to psilocybin treatment is that no association between its
lifetime use and increased suicidal thoughts, plans, or attempts appear to exist
(Johansen & Krebs, 2015). Research has demonstrated that suicidal thoughts and
degree of planning are lower in psilocybin users compared to non-users and those
who use it with other psychedelics (Hendricks et al., 2015), which highlights the
safety of this treatment for those with suicidal tendencies (Hendricks et al., 2015).
Lifetime use of psilocybin may serve as a protective factor, intervention method
and prophylactic in regard to suicidality and distress (Gable, 2004; Hendricks et
al., 2015). Therefore, unlike current SSRI treatments, this treatment does not have
lethal implications, which may raise the public health standard, promote
community wellbeing, decrease hospital workload and prevent premature
mortality.
Psilocybin mushrooms also trigger improvements in general well-being. At
both two and fourteen months post-treatment, patients not only reported much
higher ratings of mood, harmony, positivity, peace, intense happiness and joy, but
also increased feelings of unity, transcendence of space and time, mysticism,
sacredness, boundlessness, and ineffability (Griffiths et al., 2006, 2008). Patients
have also testified that, after psilocybin treatment, they felt an increased sense of
connectedness and acceptance (Watts et al., 2017), as well as lasting enhancements
196Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?
of their attitudes towards themselves and their lives. These changes may make
individuals more aware of and open to their support network, which is essential to
a healthy social life and dealing with mental illness, conflict and stress. Altruistic
social behaviors were also reported by third-party observers from the patients’
lives. These reports of vast and lasting positive effects point to potential for social
and societal benefit of through the therapeutic use of this drug (Griffiths et al.,
2006). Together, these outcomes promote prosocial behavior, wellbeing and
connection, which ultimately improve quality of life, prevent premature mortality
(Umberson & Montez, 2010), decrease health care costs (Holt-Lunstad et al.,
2017), and serve as a protective factor against violence (Stoddard et al., 2010).
Upon evaluation, psilocybin use does not indicate increased tendency
towards drug abuse, prolonged psychosis, persisting perception disorders, or other
long-term negative side effects. In experiments, adverse reactions to the drug were
rare, quickly resolved, and were only linked to high doses (Studerus et al., 2010).
As such, adverse reactions can be easily be mediated with proper medical oversight,
dosage and planning. It is important to mention that psilocybin has one of the most
positive safety profiles of all psychedelics and psychoactive drugs, as it has a very
low dependence potential and has a lethal dose one thousand times larger than its
effective dose (see Figure 11.2) (Gable, 2004, 2006; Griffiths et al., 2011). This
signifies that the likelihood of becoming addicted to or overdosing on psilocybin is
very low.
Figure 11.2: Plot of dependence potential and active dose:lethal dose ratio of
psychoactive drugs (Gable, 2006)
197Are We There Yet? The Golden Standards of Forensic Science
The general public may see psilocybin as a ‘gateway drug’ that will promote
further drug use or ritualistic abuse, because mushroom-naïve individuals often
view this drug as dangerous (Roberts et al., 2020). Some may, incorrectly, believe
that the benefits of microdosing psilocybin could be used to excuse the abuse of
drugs or alcohol for their perceived benefits, effectively promoting criminality and
harmful behavior. Research, however, has shown that microdosers construct
boundaries between themselves and recreational drug users by emphasizing their
embrace of middle-class values like happiness, self-control and ambition. This
parallel with conventional citizens helps microdosers normalize their drug use,
while facilitating their persistence through their treatment (Webb et al., 2019). This
persistence may be key to effective treatment. These boundaries also serve as a way
to decrease the dissonance that stems from the stigma that patients may hold
towards drug use, while keeping undesirable groups and behaviours, such as drug
use, away. This drug does not, therefore, occasion the abuse of other drugs
(Studerus et al., 2010), which, again, is of social, medical and legal benefit.
Psilocybin may play a role in preventing violence. Men who use magic
mushrooms are less likely to perpetrate domestic violence because they have better
emotion regulation compared to psychedelic-naïve males. Use of psilocybin
enhances interpersonal functioning, ultimately preventing conflict and aggression
(Thiessen et al., 2018). Further evidence suggests that hallucinogens decrease
criminality by reducing the likelihood of criminal recidivism (Hendricks et al.,
2014). Together, these conclusions highlight the fact that psilocybin prevents
violence and increases community safety, implying that it may serve the justice
system as well by shrinking the incidence of violent crime and criminality.
The medical legalization of psilocybin would spawn additional benefit to
the community and legal system by bringing this therapy out from ‘the
underground’ with clinically grown mushrooms, proper treatment methodology,
tailored dosing, and clinical oversight. This would increase the safety and treatment
effectiveness for those who are currently illegally self-medicating with psilocybin
because dosing precision, consistency, and safety is rare in illegal mushroom
consumption (Beug & Bigwood, 1982). Medical legalization would further reduce
the caseload in the justice system by eliminating some drug possession charges,
thus allowing the courts and police to focus on investigations that threaten public
safety to a greater degree.
198Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?
Drawbacks of Magic Mushrooms
Magic mushrooms may seem to live up to their name based on their benefits, but
they are not without their own set of drawbacks and legal implications.
Disadvantages lie within the tolerance, criminality, recklessness, bad trip and
flashback potentials of this drug. First and foremost, it should be noted that a
tolerance against psilocybin builds up, but also disappears, very quickly (Nicholas
et al., 2006). Drug tolerance to psilocybin weakens after a several days, so spacing
doses a few days apart would avoid this phenomenon. Although drug tolerances
can be conquered by increasing the dose, it is recommended to wait a few days
between doses instead in order to allow the brain and psyche to return to baseline
(Nicholas et al., 2006).
Another drawback to the current state of magic mushrooms is that they
remain largely illegal, and a strong social stigma exists against the use of this drug
(Anderson et al., 2019). The illegal nature and the difficulty of obtaining this
treatment are the most frequently reported barriers to treatment, which, once again,
leaves individuals without effective treatment or without the social and personal
benefits of the treatments (Cameron et al., 2020).
Notably, psilocybin also produces psychosis-like symptoms akin to those
in the first episodes of schizophrenia (Vollenweider et al., 1998). Additionally,
using this drug might exacerbate mental illness in those predisposed to episodes of
psychosis (Johnson et al., 2018). Although some researchers believe that magic
mushrooms do not cause prolonged psychosis (Studerus et al., 2010), a full dose of
psilocybin may lead to dangerous thoughts and behaviors that stem from delusions.
This outlines the less noticeable negative social ramifications of psilocybin,
especially in those with psychotic psychiatric conditions. Consequently, magic
mushrooms should be avoided by those who are predisposed to episodes of
psychosis. The risk of psychosis should be evaluated by physicians on a case-by-
case basis. These dangerous behaviors could be mediated with a risk management
plan and proper oversight.
The general public often fears hallucinogens because of what is known as a
“bad trip.” A bad trip is an unpleasant experience stimulated by psychoactive drugs.
Bad trips may be of small magnitude, with a bout of mild anxiety, or they may be
substantial, with feelings of terror, alienation, or identity loss. The implications of
these potential states show that anxiety management should be essential during
psilocybin administration. Bad trips, for example, have been shown to be more
199Are We There Yet? The Golden Standards of Forensic Science
likely with high psilocybin doses (Bienemann et al., 2020; Carbonaro et al., 2016).
A further study has found that bad trips can occasionally have positive value in
peoples’ lives if approached from a different perspective (Gashia et al., 2021). This
implies that bad trips can be somewhat undone or prevented by oversight by a
psychiatrist after or during the trip.
Unsupervised and unprepared psilocybin users may partake in reckless
behaviors, such as driving under the influence, mixing drugs, or exploring the
ledges of buildings, which is a threat to both the individual and the community
surrounding them. This behavior could also be prevented with proper education
and a “babysitter” to watch over individuals partaking in a psilocybin session. It
remains to be said that proper care and methodology cannot be enforced if the
treatment is taken at home without medical supervision. This, however, may not be
any different than the expectation of care that lies with current medication
standards. Notably, psilocybin can be detected in the blood (Moeller & Kraemer,
2002), and in urine samples (Grieshaber et al., 2001), which may help authorities
find and penalize those who are reckless under its influence.
Although very rarely seen in a clinical setting, Hallucinogen Persisting
Perception Disorder (HPPD) is a diagnosable disorder that may follow
hallucinogen use. HPPD is the re-experiencing of hallucinogen hallucinations (also
known as flashbacks) that later cause distress or functional impairment (Espiard et
al., 2005; Halpern et al., 2016). Long-term health issues after the use of magic
mushrooms, like these flashbacks or seizures, are caused by mixing magic
mushrooms with other substances (Amsterdam et al., 2011). This disorder is so rare
that researchers have even suggested that psilocybin does not cause persisting
perception disorder (Studerus et al., 2010). Nonetheless, this disorder can and
should be prevented by taking pure psilocybin treatments.
Medical legalization would leave most of the preventative burden of these
drawbacks to the physicians in charge of the psilocybin treatment. The potential for
flashbacks, bad trips and recklessness could be minimized by controlling the
dosage of psilocybin and creating a safe and comfortable environment for those
taking the medication. Psychosis could be managed by accounting for the patient’s
medical history and genetic predisposition.
Much like in the 1960s, magic mushrooms are gaining public interest for
recreational, personal and medical reasons. Thanks to modern technology, the
general public has access to information about the appearance and morphology of
magic mushrooms (Marciniak et al., 2010). This access may allow inexperienced
200Is There Magic in These Mushrooms?
individuals to seek psilocybin mushrooms in the wild to satisfy their recreational,
personal or medical problems. Unfortunately, this mushroom picking often has
fatal outcomes (Marciniak et al., 2010). Notably, however, this fatal consequence
will happen regardless of legalization, as public interest in the drug will exist
regardless of its legal status. Medical or recreational legalization of psilocybin
would increase safe public access to the mushrooms and may function as a
protective factor against wild mushroom picking. Education about the dangers of
eating wild mushrooms should also be commonplace in order to further prevent
unnecessary deaths.
Conclusion
Although they are not magical, magic mushrooms bring novel benefits to the table
of mental illness treatment in a clinical setting. Even in a single dose session, they
cause long term benefits for treatment-resistant depression (Carhart-Harris et al.,
2018; Goldberg et al., 2020; Johnson & Griffiths, 2017), PTSD (Mithoefer, 2007),
OCD (Moreno et al., 2006), alcohol dependence (Bogenschutz et al., 2015),
smoking cessation (Johnson et al., 2016) and anxiety (Goldberg et al., 2020;
Mithoefer et al., 2016; de Veen et al., 2016). Psilocybin also improves mood and
attitude, while promoting prosocial behavior, wellbeing and connection, which
ultimately improves quality of life, prevents premature mortality (Umberson &
Karas Montez, 2010), prevents suicidal tendencies (Gable, 2004; Hendricks et al.,
2015), decreases health care costs (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2017), and serves as a
protective factor against violence (Stoddard et al., 2010). The medical legalization
of psilocybin would benefit the community and legal system by bringing this
therapy into the light with clinically grown mushrooms, and proper treatment
methodology, dosing and oversight. This would increase the safety and treatment
effectiveness for those who are currently illegally self-medicating with psilocybin.
The medical legalization would also decrease wild mushroom picking and some of
the drug-related caseload in the legal system. Therefore, the justice system and
police force would be able to focus on investigations that threaten public safety to
a greater degree. Although psilocybin is beneficial for a wide range of
circumstances and sectors, it remains a psychoactive drug that must only be used
with proper precautions, education, care and respect. Doses should not be too large
and must not be mixed with other substances, in order to decrease the likelihood of
flashbacks or bad trips. With physician oversight, bad trips can be prevented or
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