Harnessing neurodiversity to enhance strategic decision making in your firm - Robert Millard
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Harnessing neurodiversity to
enhance strategic decision
making in your firm
Robert Millard
Cambridge Strategy Group Limited
St John’s Innovation Centre camstrategy.com
Cowley Road, Cambridge, CB2 9NA
United Kingdom
1
The Good Doctor just a few. Some of these do better jobs
than others in properly depicting the
I enjoyed watching the ABC TV series conditions, their underlying issues and
‘The Good Doctor’. Starring Freddy the implications for people who live and
Highmore as the likeable Dr Shaun work with them.
Murphy, an autistic surgical resident
at a California hospital, the series has It is probably fair to say that some
been massively popular. I thought it to of these have created perceptions of
be an interesting, engaging example of neurodiversity that are unhelpful in
neurodiversity in a highly professional inspiring firms to better accommodate
workplace. neuro-atypical individuals who work in
them, and even less helpful in guiding
As both a keen scholar and a practitioner firms on how such individuals might be
of business strategy, I have a deep interest proactively and thoughtfully engaged
in strategic decision-making processes. in harnessing their unique capabilities
In particular, I like to explore how firm to create competitive advantage for the
leaders and leadership teams make firm.
sense of volatile, uncertain, complex
and ambiguous (‘VUCA’) situations
and reach the best decisions, to deliver Autistic savants are extraordinary
the best outcomes for their firms. So, human beings
it was very easy for me to imagine
the benefits of having somebody on a True savants can demonstrate
firm’s leadership team who, although spectacular skills. In a series of lectures
perhaps lacking in some social skills, can delivered in 1887, the English physician Dr
visualise the most difficult challenges J. Langdon Down described a boy who
and opportunities and to conceptualise could recite extensive passages from
innovative solutions that are far beyond Gibbons’ six volume work: ‘The History
the capabilities of colleagues. Who of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
would not want such a person on their Empire’. He also described a different
team? boy who could effortlessly multiply any
three figures by another three figures
I was surprised though to be taken but who, even after seeing Dr Down
to task by my daughter Shannon, a almost daily for two and a half years,
neuroscientist, who told me that in her was persistently unable to remember Dr
opinion the series misrepresents autism Down’s name (Down 1887).
and might even harm the cause of
neurodiversity. Typically, savant skills occur in five
general areas: music, art, calendar
Dr Murphy is not only autistic but calculating, mathematics or mechanical/
also a savant who is blessed with visual-spatial skills. Less frequently, they
a photographic memory. Savant can include polyglotism (the ability to
syndrome is exceedingly rare. A mere speak many languages), unusual sensory
handful of true savants (perhaps a few discrimination, athletics or outstanding
hundred) are alive on earth today. It does knowledge in specific fields. They can
occur more frequently amongst people also be acquired following cerebral
with autism, but still only at a rate of damage through stroke, illnesses such
one percent or less of that population. as meningitis, or trauma (Treffert 2014).
So, the story in ‘The Good Doctor’ is
about an especially rare human being Strategic decision-making is
with extraordinary savant talents, who
is autistic, rather than about a ‘typical’
complex
autistic person.
Can neuro-atypical team members
help improve the quality of decisions
The autistic savant is a familiar trope
in teams responsible for the complex
also for filmmakers, examples being
problem-solving in VUCA situations
‘Rain Man’ (1988), ‘Little Man Tate’
such as in addressing strategy business
(1991), ‘Mercury Rising’ (1998) and ‘A
transformation and innovation?
Brilliant Young Mind’ (2015) – to name
2
neurodiversity, given the challenges that
The complexity involved in top neuro-atypical people can encounter
management team decisions has been at work and generally. These, include
long recognised and drivers of success social difficulties, heightened anxiety,
and failure in such teams are a perennial problems with self-advocacy, and a
research topic. These include cognitive sense of being stigmatized (Gillespie-
processes including, for instance, Lynch et al. 2017, cited in Ortiz 2020).
cognitive diversity, task conflict and
competence-based trust (Olsen et al Diversity alone is not sufficient unless
2007). mechanisms are put in place to make it
‘safe’ and to constructively harness its
Intuitively, one would expect that effects. How the team’s activities and
diversity in decision-making teams processes are designed are crucial to
should improve the quality of their creating that safety.
decisions. It generates a wider range of
perspectives and alternative solutions The Olsen et al. research into the effects
than in more uniform groups. Correlations of cognitive diversity studied ‘task
between top management team conflict’ as a key variable, following
diversity and performance in strategic previous research (Amason 1996) which
change in multicultural contexts have showed such conflict to be “inevitable”
also been well established (for instance in strategic decision making. This is
Díaz-Fernández et al. 2018). In fact, because diverse executives will typically
harnessing multinational, multicultural view environments differently and thus
diversity can be surprisingly powerful. voice different perspectives. Olsen et
As an example, unrelated teams of al. argue that benefits of diversity tend
diverse, multinational professionals not even to emerge unless task conflict
were able to beat Netflix’s algorithms is allowed to surface and that this is
in predicting user movie ratings based “extremely important” especially in
on ratings applied previously to other highly complex decisions being made
movies by those users (Page 2019). in environments that are constantly
changing.
Research findings about the benefits
of diversity in teams engaged with Competence-based trust (or, conversely,
complex problem-solving and decision for clarity, lack of mistrust based on
making have not been uniformly positive, perceptions of diminished competence)
though. interact with diversity to modify levels
of task conflict. This allows such conflict
For instance, research into the impact of to exist without becoming acrimonious
gender diversity on board performance or degenerating into interpersonal,
in boards of 25 banks in the United Arab ‘relationship conflict.’ Well-intentioned
Emirates (Iren and Tee 2017) and those but misguided leadership action aimed
of 186 publicly listed companies in The at defusing conflict and maintaining
Netherlands and Denmark (Marinova harmony can reduce the benefits of
et al. 2016) concluded that it made no diversity and, ultimately, harm the
difference.
This ambiguity might be a result, at least
partially, of lack of holistic consideration “Research findings about
of the multiple dimensions of team
diversity in existing scholarly literature the benefits of diversity in
(Díaz-Fernández et al. 2018).
teams engaged with complex
Another reason might be critical mass.
The boards of the companies studied
problem-solving and decision
by Marinova et al. had an average of making have not been
only 5.4 percent female directors, for
instance, and some of them had only uniformly positive ....”.
one female director. Critical mass might
be especially important in the case of
3
OCCUPATIONAL
DIVERSITY
MODIFIED BY 1. Cognitive diversity was NOT shown
GENDER
to lead to relationship conflict
EXTERNAL SOCIO-CULTURAL
DIVERSITY ENVIRONMENT (E.G. SOCIETAL ATTITUDES, 2. Relationship conflict was NOT
ORGANISATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS)
shown to mediate the relationship
SOCIO-ECONOMIC between cognitive diversity and
DIVERSITY INDIVIDUAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES
decision outcome
RACE / ETHNIC
DIVERSITY
MODIFIED BY
CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING
DIVERSITY COMPETENCE-
BASED TRUST
PHYSICAL
DIVERSITY
AGE / GENERATIONAL
DIVERSITY BETTER
COGNITIVE TASK
COMMITMENT SOLUTIONS /
DIVERSITY CONFLICT
NEUROCOGNITIVE STRATEGY
DIVERSITY
1 2
STATUS / SENIORITY
DIVERSITY
ROLE
DIVERSITY RELATIONSHIP DECISION
CONFLICT QUALITY
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
DIVERSITY
RELIGIOUS Source: Olsen, B.J., Parayitam, S. and Bao, Y. (2007). Strategic Decision Making: The Effects of CogniHve
DIVERSITY Diversity, Conflict, and Trust on Decision Outcomes. Journal of Management, Vol. 33 No. 2, pp. 196-222
Figure 1: The impact of cognitive diversity on solution-finding and strategizing, building
on the work of Olsen et al. 2007 (the model for which is illustrated in the grey box).
quality of team decisions. This logic is For instance, a particular characteristic
shown in Figure 1. might be attributable to a combination of
being neuro-atypical and of a particular
The challenges of diversity gender, socio-economic background,
management sexual orientation, ethnicity and culture.
Interacting complexly and dynamically
At its core, diversity means any dimension with each other, their effects are
that can be used to differentiate groups modified also by external factors and
and people from one another. Simply each individual’s learning experiences to
put, it is what makes each of us different create each unique human being.
to each other. The boundaries between
categories are furthermore porous. Likewise, the factors that make a
Figure 1 shows twelve interconnected particular situation safe for one
dimensions of diversity that are relevant demographic might make it safe also
to strategizing or, more particularly, for another – or it might not be enough.
the factors that lead to good strategy The point is, if the positive effects of
such as creativity and innovation, diversity are to be harnessed, then the
sense-making (especially of complex needs of all the diversity characteristics
situations), empathy, discipline, analysis, present in the participating individuals
handling ambiguity and collaboration. need to be considered and addressed
in the processes that are put in place to
It is often impossible to reliably allocate address the task in hand – for instance,
a particular characteristic that an Image credit:
individual has to a single form of diversity. Tim Mossholder, Unsplash5
complex problem-solving, innovation particular ‘disorder’ never gained much
and strategizing. traction and was rapidly consigned first
to the realms of pseudoscience and
The Neurodiversity View then to intellectual oblivion. It remains,
though, a dire warning about how much
According to a critique published in the harm pseudoscientific approaches can
Journal of Applied Philosophy (Nelson do in this field.
2021), the ‘Neurodiversity View’ (NV)
makes claims that are both conceptual At its origin in the 1990s, the NV focused
and political in nature. Conceptual NV initially on high-functioning autism
claims hold that some neurocognitive (HFA). This is, autism where the patient
atypicalities currently classified as exhibits no intellectual disability, but
disorders should instead be understood might exhibit deficits in communication,
simply as forms of diversity. emotion recognition and expression,
and social interaction. The fictional Dr
Political NV claims hold that Murphy would be an example of HFA.
neurodiversity ought to be respected in
ways similar to how human differences The scope of the NV has since expanded
such as ethnicity, age and gender are. to encompass the broader autism
To illustrate, the National Symposium on spectrum and other neurocognitive
Neurodiversity at Syracuse University differences including attention deficit
defines neurodiversity as: “a concept hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar
where neurological differences are to be disorder, schizophrenia, developmental
recognized and respected as any other dyspraxia, dyslexia, epilepsy,
human variation.” psychopathy, sociopathy, Tourette’s
syndrome, oppositional defiant disorder,
A broad and varied range of labels and dyscalculia, and paracusia – among
descriptors have emerged through the others. Stigmas, discrimination and
NV, including, besides ‘neurodiverse’ exclusion frequently associated with
itself, also ‘neurodivergent’, ‘neuro- those who are neuro-atypical have also
atypical’, ‘differently abled’, and ‘on the begun to attract attention in disability
spectrum.’ Avoiding stereotypes and research.
being respectful to sensibilities and
preferences can be a real challenge While acknowledging its powerful
when applying labels though, especially challenge to the status quo and fully
in working with neuro-atypical people defending its political aims of respect,
(Ortiz, 2020). inclusion and accommodation, Nelson’s
critique concludes that the NV falls
NV arguments include that seeking short of convincing that autism is
to cure neuro-atypicalities would be not a disorder. Few would argue that
on a par with seeking to ‘cure’ people some of the other conditions that now
who are gay, or black, or left-handed attract attention are not disorders, too.
(Ortega 2009). These arguments point In progressive firms, equally few would
to behaviours that were previously, but argue against the NV political claim
are no longer, classified as disorders. that so long as they are able to do their
For instance, homosexuality was only work, given all support that might be
decriminalised in the UK in 1967 and it necessary, neuro-atypical people should
continued to be considered a mental be accepted and celebrated in the
disorder by the American Psychiatric workplace in the same way as any other
Association until 1973. minorities. That, quite simply, is the right
thing to do.
As an even more bizarre example,
consider the disorder ‘drapetomania’. Neurodiversity as a source
At roughly the same time that Dr Down of sustained competitive
was delivering his lectures on savant advantage?
syndrome, drapetomania was considered
briefly in slave-owning America to be a But can the harnessing of unique
mental disorder that caused enslaved capabilities of neuro-atypical people
Africans to flee captivity. Thankfully, this yield deeper benefits for firms that6
are able to effectively harness those
capabilities? People have long • Are competencies that neurodiversity
speculated that some disorders might unlocks, and the neuro-atypical
impart certain cognitive benefits, such people who hold the capabilities
as better insight, inventiveness and involved, rare in the market?
creativity (Schuldberg, 2001, White &
Shah 2006). Can these even help create • Are rivals able to easily imitate, e.g.
the strategic ‘Holy Grail’ of sustainable by simply hiring similar people, can
competitive advantage for a firm? they achieve the same ends by other
means?
One of the most compelling models of
competitive advantage, the ‘Resource • Is the firm so organised or can it
based View’ (RBV), holds that sustained be (including structures, systems,
competitive advantage is derived from processes and culture) to effectively
so-called ‘VRIO’ resources that a firm harness the talents of neuro-atypical
possesses. That is, resources that are people?
Valuable, Rare and Inimitable, and that
the firm is 0rganised so as to be able to Dyslexia – the case of David Boies
exploit their benefits (Barney 1991). This
is illustrated in figure 2. Dyslexia is a good example of a neuro-
atypicality that can be very productively
From this one might derive the following harnessed. On the one hand, it is a
questions, when asessing options for particular torture for those so afflicted
integrating neurodiversity (and other who select professions (like law) that
forms of diversity that enhance cognitive require a great deal of reading. On the
diversity into the firm’s strategic other, the brains of people who are
decision-making and other processes) : dyslexic frequently compensate by
developing other rare and extremely
• Can harnessing neurodiversity useful skills.
deliver benefits that are objectively
valuable, for instance better
problem-solving, strategy, solutions
for revenue generation and/or for
enhancing efficiency and reducing “Some disorders might impart
costs?
certain cognitive benefits,
such as better insight,
IS IT IS IT IS THE FIRM
inventiveness and creativity”.
IS IT RARE? ORGANISED
VALUABLE? INIMITABLE?
TO EXPLOIT ?
V R I O
NO COMPETITIVE DISADVANTAGE
YES NO COMPETITIVE PARITY
YES YES NO TEMPORARY COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
YES YES YES NO UNUSED COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
YES YES YES YES SUSTAINED COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Figure 2: The resources upon which a firm relies for sustainable competitive
advantage must be valuable, rare, and inimitable, and the firm must be
organised in such a way as to be able to take advantage of them (Barney 1991).7
Best-selling author Malcolm Gladwell’s achievement, employment performance,
excellent 2013 book ‘David and Goliath – and social relationships, clinical research
Underdogs, misfits and the art of battling indicates positive consequences such
giants’ contains a number of case studies as enhanced creativity and ideating.
that are relevant to neurodiversity in law Indeed, ADHD might be difficult to
firms. One of the most directly relevant diagnose at least partly because people
concerns David Boies, chairman of with ADHD share characteristics such as
the prominent New York City law firm high energy and creativity, with gifted,
Boies, Schiller & Flexner. Boies’s brain non-ADHD individuals (Leroux & Levitt-
compensated for his inability to read Perlman, 2000).
efficiently by developing extraordinarily
amplified listening skills and memory: Relevant to strategizing and innovation,
ADHD can have opposite impacts on
“But he was devastating in two aspects of creativity: convergent
the cross-examination of thinking and divergent thinking (White
witnesses, because there was & Shah 2006). Before progressing,
no nuance, no subtle evasion, though, it is important to remind that
no peculiar and telling choice of no two people are the same, that
words that he would miss – and characteristics vary broadly between
no stray comment or revealing them, and that coping mechanisms
admission from testimony an that people develop also differ widely.
hour or a day or a week before A statement commencing, for instance:
that he would not have heard, “ADHD people are ….” is very likely to be
registered, and remembered.” wrong in its application to a particular
(Gladwell 2013, p110). person.
Arguably one of the most accomplished Convergent thinking means the ability
trial lawyers in the world, Boies might to form associations between disparate
have failed dismally as a corporate concepts. Given their challenges in
lawyer. I know several very senior focusing for long enough to make all the
and accomplished lawyers, who have correct connections to reveal the best
distinguished themselves greatly in solution, individuals with ADHD might
their careers, who are badly dyslexic. be less successful as a group at this
As it happens, dyslexia is frequently form of thinking. Such challenges can be
associated with brilliance in other explained by lower levels of ‘executive
areas, too. Roughly a third of successful function’ (EF), most commonly
entrepreneurs might be dyslexic, Sir described as a combination of response
Richard Branson being a very well- inhibition, updating and monitoring of
known example. working memory, and mental set shifting
(Daucourt et al 2018). ‘Inhibition’ in the
context of decision-making,
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) EF means the ability to obstruct
inappropriate automatic or dominant
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder responses. Leaping, one might say,
(ADHD) is another condition that can to premature conclusions. ‘Updating
yield unanticipated benefits in the Working Memory’ means screening
workplace if it is recognised, welcomed incoming information based on its
and properly harnessed. A relatively immediate significance, constantly
common childhood developmental eliminating irrelevant information
disorder, ADHD is characterized and replacing it with more relevant
by inattentiveness, impulsivity, and information. It also represents our
hyperactivity. These characteristics cognitive capacity for simultaneous
can persist into adulthood, although processing of multiple tasks. ‘Mental
symptoms usually diminish and set shifting’ involves back and forth
individuals tend to develop coping movement between tasks and higher
mechanisms. and lower levels of mental processing.
It enables us to adapt dynamically to
While significant ADHD can have changing task demands and contexts.
negative consequences for academic8
One might easily imagine how important properly when working with or in a
convergent thinking is to detailed and group to solve the complex problems
complex business planning, or mapping that strategizing usually involves, it is
out implementation of a complex new necessary to separate the creative and
process as in digital transformation, or decision-making stages of the process.
in assessing the legal implications of a
massively complex transaction. During the former stage, the divergent
thinkers typically lead, and convergent
Divergent thinking, on the other hand, thinkers have to work hard not to kill
means the ability to rapidly generate creativity by swinging into critical-
multiple ideas or solutions to a problem analytical assessment of each idea as
– including perhaps viable (or even it emerges. During the latter, the focus
exceptional) solutions that might have is on assessing the ideas that have
been ‘screened out’ by individuals emerged and deciding which are worthy
whose bias is in favour of convergent of implementation and investment.
thinking. Individuals with ADHD typically
outperform the general population in Neurodiversity in the broader
divergent thinking. context of firm-wide strategizing
However, they can also exhibit poor Business strategy is a relatively new
verbal fluency, especially when the concept in business science. It dates
task involved is complex or pressured, only from the 1960s. Back then, strategy
which means that their ideas might not usually took the form of a secret plan.
emerge if the process in which they are Henry Minzberg’s book ‘The Rise and
participating is not carefully facilitated. Fall of Strategic Planning’, published in
1994, showed why this fails. Even today,
The relevance of this is obvious to many strategy failures can be blamed on
brainstorms, design-thinking sprints and mistakes that Mintzberg identified. Yet
other idea-generating processes now firms continue to make them.
common in many firms. In leadership
teams too, the one with the highest- Today, we know that a radically different
potential idea might remain silent in approach delivers better results. Best
the cut-and-thrust of debate typical of practice means strategy developed
many high-performance meetings. through processes that are as open,
inclusive and transparent as possible.
Somewhat surprisingly given These need to draw wide-ranging
their supposed challenges with and diverse stakeholder groups into
convergent thinking and a tendency identifying and assessing opportunities
to be distracted, another ‘superpower’ and challenges, and then into finding
frequently observed in adult ADHD’s is the best options to address these.
that of hyperfocus. That is, a state of
heightened, focused attention which, at After being so deeply involved in
an extreme, can even resemble ’hypnotic developing the strategy, people can
spells’ (Brown 2006). easily apply it to their own roles in the
firm. Implementation is much more
A recently-developed ‘Adult Hyperfocus effective. People are well equipped
Questionnaire’ assessment tool (Hupfeld to suggest action to fine-tune as this
et al. 2018) shows that hyperfocus becomes necessary. Which, in a ‘VUCA’
is indeed more prevalent amongst world, is usually sooner rather than later.
individuals with ADHD than amongst
‘neurotypical’ adults. Furthermore, it Not only does this mean that cognitive
found that greater severity of ADHD diversity is useful for purposes of
symptoms was associated with higher inclusion, employee engagement and
ability to hyperfocus. as an aid to implementation generally,
but the same arguments apply as
One might easily imagine how powerful were advanced earlier for applying
the combination would be of individuals neurodiversity thoughtfully as a means to
with a bias towards convergent thinking enhance the quality of teams specifically
mixed with those with a bias towards tasked with strategy, innovation and
divergent thinking. To harness this complex problem-solving.9
Digital tools that have emerged over With the addition of competence-
the past twenty years are becoming based trust, cognitive diversity benefits
far more common, and less expensive, complex decision-making processes
and more effective. IBM ‘Jams’ is the such as is involved in strategizing,
original archetype of such tools, and innovation and complex problem solving.
one still in use today. Many of the It enhances understanding, commitment
practical arguments that have been and the quality of decisions that are
traditionally applied to a firm NOT made. Team members must be able
being open, inclusive and transparent to disagree, perhaps robustly, without
in its strategizing have lost validity damaging inter-personal relationship
and, in most cases, been completely conflicts emerging.
discredited.
Competence-based trust is crucial for
This approach negates three serious this to be achieved. Given its complex
shortcomings of previous approaches, preconditions, developing this amongst
namely failure to create strategy that team members must be proactively
aligns with realities across the firm and addressed before the team will be able
externally of which the firm leadership is to function properly. Leaders also need
not fully aware, partners and employees to watch for issues that emerge that can
failing to engage with and ‘buy into’ the harm that competence-based trust.
strategy, and for people to know what
they need to do, each in their own roles, Some neuro-atypical attributes and skills
to contribute best to achieving the firm’s are highly relevant to tasks involved in
strategic objectives. strategizing, especially those that require
creativity, hyperfocus and reaching
Conclusions novel solutions to VUCA situations.
Neurodiversity is however not the only
The need for neurodiversity as part of a form of diversity that delivers cognitive
firm’s commitment to equality is clear. It diversity. Firm leaders should therefore
is simply the right thing to do. Deeper view cognitive diversity holistically
rationales also exist, though. Properly when incorporating it into teams and
harnessed, it can help create sustainable designing the processes through which
competitive advantage for the firm. those teams do their work.
Figure 3: Business strategy has evolved a great deal since it was first conceived in the
1960s. Best-practice today involves processes that are as open, inclusive and transparent
as possible (after Whittington 2019).10
(2000). The gifted child with attention
Neurodiversity aligns also with the deficit disorder: An identification and
most up-to-date, progressive thinking intervention challenge. Roeper Review,
about strategy - namely that the best Vol. 22, pp. 171-176.
strategizing processes are deeply
Marinova, J., Plantenga, J. and Remery,
inclusive, open and transparent. It
C. (2016). Gender diversity and firm
follows that strategizing processes need
performance: evidence from Dutch and
to be not only accessible to as broad and
Danish boardrooms. The International
cognitively diverse a range of the firm’s
Journal of Human Resource
stakeholders as possible, but proactively
Management. Vol. 27, No. 15, pp. 1777-
welcoming of them and designed to
1790.
actively encourage their participation.
Mintzberg, H. (1994). The rise and fall
References of strategic planning. London: Prentice
Hall.
Amason, A. (1996). Distinguishing the
Olsen, B.J., Parayitam, S. and Bao, Y.
effects of functional and dysfunctional
(2007). Strategic Decision Making: The
conflict on strategic decision
Effects of Cognitive Diversity, Conflict,
making: Resolving a paradox for top
and Trust on Decision Outcomes.
management teams. Academy of
Journal of Management, Vol. 33 No. 2,
Management Journal, Vol 39, pp 123-
pp. 196-222.
148.
Ortiz L.A. (2020). Reframing
Barney, J.B. (1991) Firm resources and
Neurodiversity as Competitive
sustained competitive advantage.
Advantage: Opportunities, Challenges,
Journal of Management, 17(1), 99–120.
and Resources for Business and
Díaz-Fernández, M.C., González- Professional Communication
Rodríguez M.R., and Simonetti, B. Educators. Business and Professional
(2018). The moderating role of top Communication Quarterly, Vol. 83(3),
management team diversity in strategic pp. 261–284.
change in a multicultural context.
Nelson, R.H. (2021). A Critique of the
European Management Review, Vol. 16,
Neurodiversity View. Journal of Applied
pp. 957–973.
Philosophy, Vol. 38, No. 2. Pp. 335-347.
Down, J.L. (1887). Lettsomanian
Page, S. (2019). The Diversity
lectures on some of the mental
Bonus: How Great Teams Pay Off in
afflications of childhood and youth.
the Knowledge Economy. 2nd ed.
Delivered before the Medical Society
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
of London, January 1887. The British
Medical Journal. February 5, 1887, pp. Schuldberg, D. (2001). Six subclinical
256-259. spectrum traits in normal creativity.
Creativity Research Journal, Vol. 13, pp.
Gillespie-Lynch, K., Khan, S., Obeid, R.,
5-16.
Daou, N., Reardon, S., Goldknopf, E. J.,
and Massa, A. (2018). Evaluating and Treffert, D.A. (2014). Savant Syndrome:
reducing stigma towards neurodiverse Realities, Myths and Misconceptions.
college students [Paper presentation]. Journal of Autism Development
American Educational Research Disorder, Vol. 44, pp. 564–571.
Association Annual Meeting, April 2018. White, H.A. and Shah, P. (2006).
New York. Uninhibited imaginations: Creativity
Gladwell, M. (2013). David and Goliath: in adults with Attention-Deficit/
Underdogs, misfits and the art of Hyperactivity Disorder. Personality and
battling giants. New York: Little, Brown. Individual Differences. Vol. 40, Issue 6,
pp. 1121-1131.
Iren, P. and Tee, K. (2017). Boardroom
diversity and innovation in the UAE Whittington, R. (2019). Opening
banks. International Journal of strategy. Professional Strategists and
Innovation Management. Vol. 22, No. 3, Practice Change, 1960 to Today. Oxford:
pp. 1-25. Oxford University Press.
Leroux, J.A. and Levitt-Perlman, M.Information contained in this document is for general information purposes only and should not be construed as professional advice. Neither Cambridge Strategy Group Limited nor the author/s take responsibility for or will be held liable for actions taken as a result of this paper. In particular, we make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability or suitability of the information provided in the paper, for any purpose. Circumstances vary widely between cases with regard to the topics covered in the content and you should make your own assessment of the best manner in which to address these matters, given your own circumstances, should you wish to do so, Any reliance whatsoever that you place on the information provided in this paper is strictly at your own risk. The views and opinions of authors expressed on this website do not necessarily reflect or state those of Cambridge Strategy Group Limited. Cambridge Strategy Group is an English company, Company Registration Number number number 07938412 and based at the address provided below. © 2021 Cambridge Strategy Group Limited and the author/s. Image credit, front and back cover: Ryoji Iwata, Unsplash. Cambridge Strategy Group Limited St John’s Innovation Centre Cowley Road, Cambridge, CB2 9NA United Kingdom
You can also read
