Evidence Matters EVICTIONS - HUD User
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SUMMER 2 0 2 1
Evidence Matters
Transforming Knowledge Into Housing and Community Development Policy
EVICTIONS
IN THIS ISSUE
03 Affordable Housing, Eviction,
and Health
13 Prevalence and Impact of Evictions
19 Eviction Prevention Initiatives
Message From PD&R Leadership
It is a pleasure to introduce the 28th edition of Evidence Matters, a periodical that
began 10 years ago in HUD’s Office of Policy Development and Research (PD&R) with
the goal of furthering HUD’s commitment to evidence-based policymaking. Throughout
the years, Evidence Matters has synthesized the best available research on timely
policy areas relevant to HUD stakeholders while highlighting practical solutions in the
field. As I skim through previous editions of Evidence Matters, the overarching theme
that emerges is that housing policy is people policy. Each edition summarizes the
field’s learnings and innovations to ensure that our collective work helps build a more
equitable future: one in which the places people live serve as platforms for reaching
residents’ full potential.
This edition of Evidence Matters is no different, as we summarize what we know (and
don’t know) about the extent of evictions in the marketplace; their short- and long-term impacts on families; and how
state and local governments, supported by new federal resources, are partnering with community-based organizations to
promote housing stability. Eviction was common in the United States long before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Mounting evidence suggests that eviction has an immediate and devastating impact on households and may have long-
lasting economic and health ramifications. Researchers have linked eviction to homelessness, poor housing conditions,
job insecurity, school instability, depression, and even increased mortality rates. We know that evictions disproportionately
affect low-income renters, who already are at risk of housing insecurity. We also know that people of color, women, and
families with children are more likely to be evicted, an alarming finding that may signal the need for more rigorous training
and enforcement of national fair housing laws.
As communities nationwide confront housing instability with new federal funding, we’re also learning about effective
interventions. The field is finding that holistic eviction diversion and prevention programs that offer mediation to resolve
disputes, legal services to tenants, and emergency rental assistance to resolve arrears can produce positive outcomes
for tenants and housing providers alike. More research is needed, however, to determine the best ways to structure these
interventions, how the federal government can support state and local actors in creating them, and their long-term
impacts on tenants and housing providers.
As the country navigates the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Biden-Harris administration has elevated housing
security in its plan to achieve a just and equitable recovery. Paired with new income supports, the American Rescue Plan
made historic investments in the housing and homelessness safety net, leveraging additional appropriations from the
Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act and Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021. Together, these initia-
tives have allocated more than $76 billion in incremental housing funding; of that, more than $46 billion was dedicated
S
to emergency
ample text.rental assistance administered by the U.S. Department of the Treasury. Through interagency efforts, the
Biden-Harris administration has found new ways to elevate best practices to prevent evictions and support communities
inSample
deploying these investments. As we work through implementation, PD&R is finding new ways to expand our collective
1
footnote
understanding of the extent and impacts of evictions and housing instability as well as best practices for eviction diversion
and prevention programs. Meanwhile, HUD Secretary Marcia L. Fudge is working to increase the supply of affordable
housing and expand access to housing assistance for low-income households. These actions address the largest root
cause of eviction — our nation’s enduring affordability crisis. This edition of Evidence Matters is one small but important
contribution to those long-term policy and research efforts.
— Ben Winter, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Policy Development
2
Editor’s Note
This issue of Evidence Matters examines the nation’s eviction crisis. In this issue, you will learn about the prevalence
of eviction in the United States and its impact, the racial disparity in eviction cases, the challenges involved in measuring
eviction, and the eviction prevention measures that policymakers have implemented to keep people stably housed.
The lead article, “Affordable Housing, Eviction, and Health,” discusses the causes and consequences of eviction, the
effects of racial disparities in eviction rates, and eviction’s impact on tenants’ physical and mental health, highlighting
the countereviction measures taken during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The Research Spotlight article, “Prevalence and Impact of Evictions,” examines the prevalence of formal, informal,
and illegal evictions in the United States and the metrics used to calculate evictions. The article discusses the need for
a national database but notes the challenges associated with such an endeavor, including limitations in data availability
and comparability.
The In Practice article, “Eviction Prevention Initiatives,” highlights several state and city eviction prevention programs
and initiatives across the nation. The article details how these programs work, the extent of the services provided, and
the efficacy of these programs in providing housing stability both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.
We hope that the articles in this issue of Evidence Matters will provide readers with a comprehensive overview of the
eviction crisis in the United States. We welcome feedback at www.huduser.gov/forums.
— Sean Martin, Editor
Affordable Housing, Eviction, HIGHLIGHTS
f e at u r e
and Health n Eviction is a commonplace and
highly disruptive experience for low-
income renters, with an estimated
T he United States remains Research links eviction with increased 3.7 million subjected to eviction
embroiled in a longstanding rates of mortality, substance abuse, filings in the most recent year for
affordable housing crisis, leaving suicide, and low birth weight, among which data are available.
low-income renters particularly other physical and mental health n African-American and Latinx renters
vulnerable to high housing cost impacts. Since the beginning of the (especially women), families with
burdens and housing instability. pandemic, federal, state, and local gov- children, and renters in certain
As a result, low-income renters often ernments have intervened to curb the geographies are at greater risk for
eviction.
are threatened with or experience spread of the coronavirus by helping
eviction — an involuntary move people remain housed. These interven- n Evictions are associated with numer-
from housing initiated by a landlord.1 tions, along with other longer-term ous negative physical and mental
The COVID-19 pandemic and its policies, will be needed to address eviction health outcomes, and eviction
accompanying economic disruptions and its often devastating consequences. prevention is critical for mitigating
both the spread of COVID-19 and
have intensified the threat of housing
its associated mortality.
instability and insecurity nationally, Eviction: A Commonplace
but the effects of these crises have been Experience for Low-Income
uneven, with negative outcomes borne Renter Households
disproportionately by people and Nationally, an estimated 2 million renters tracking data exist, so these figures
communities of color. Even under are subject to legal eviction filings each underestimate both eviction filings and
normal circumstances, eviction has year, with 900,000 or more of those re- completed evictions.2 Based on data
negative and widespread economic, sulting in a completed eviction; that is, from 2016, the most recent year avail-
social, and health impacts on families; removal from the home. Researchers at able, landlords filed an estimated 3.7
during a public health emergency, the Eviction Lab at Princeton University million evictions, with about 8 out of
these impacts are particularly acute. point out that significant gaps in eviction every 100 renter households receiving
3
Photo courtesy of Flickr user Fibonacci Blue (CC BY 2.0)
An estimated 900,000 or more U.S. renters are formally evicted from their homes each year.
eviction notices.3 Hepburn and Rutan housing can happen at many points Renters often are evicted over relatively
place the scale of evictions in context that may not be recorded.8 Existing in- small amounts of money — in many
by comparing them with the 2.8 million formation on rates of informal evictions cases, less than a full month’s rent.11
foreclosure starts at the height of the indicates that they vary by locality. The As discussed below, however, the dis-
Great Recession.4 As staggering as these Milwaukee study found that informal parities in evictions suggest that factors
figures are, many more renters may evictions occurred twice as often as besides the ability to pay rent affect
be forced to exit their housing without formal evictions, whereas evidence eviction rates.12
a formal filing or between the time of from a different study on moves in
a filing and a judgment. Wake Forest New York City between 2016 and 2018 The COVID-19 pandemic and related
University law professor Emily Benfer showed the opposite — roughly one mitigation responses drastically altered
points out that more than 30 percent informal eviction for every two for- the context for evictions. On one hand,
of tenants move after the first sign of an mal evictions.9 (See “Prevalence and widespread impacts such as health
impending eviction — usually notice Impact of Evictions,” p.13, for more emergencies and associated expenses,
from a landlord — without ever going information about current efforts job loss, and income reductions have
to court.5 to track evictions and the associated put many more households at risk of
challenges.) eviction than there were before the
These national findings build on those pandemic. On the other hand, evic-
by Desmond, who found that more Nonpayment of rent is the primary tion moratoria and other interventions
than one in eight Milwaukee renters reason for eviction, which itself can significantly reduced the prevalence
experienced a forced move between arise from various causes, including of evictions during the pandemic. In
2009 and 2011.6 Another study found rising rents combined with stagnant May 2021, an estimated 16.8 percent
that one in seven children born in large income growth and persistent poverty, of renter households felt that eviction
U.S. cities between 1998 and 2000 expe- job or income loss, or a sudden eco- would be “very likely” within the next 2
rienced at least one eviction between nomic shock such as a health emergency months, and another 28.6 percent felt
birth and age 15.7 or a car breakdown. Other reasons that eviction would be “somewhat like-
include lease violations, which can be ly” within the next 2 months.13 These
Informal evictions are even more dif- technical in nature; property damage; figures represent an improvement from
ficult to quantify. A study of Washington, and disruptions, such as police calls. December 2020, when an estimated 17
D.C., found that only 5.5 percent of Landlords, for their own reasons, may percent and 35 percent of respondents
eviction filings resulted in completed force tenants to move, either informally believed that they were “very likely”
evictions; however, a forced exit from or through a legal “no-fault” eviction.10 and “somewhat likely,” respectively, to
4
be evicted in the next 2 months. When renters, they constitute 33 percent of than those in White households.19
pandemic-related emergency measures renters who are evicted.16 African-American and Latinx renters
such as eviction moratoria expire, many were also more likely to be targeted
cities are likely to face a backlog of fil- Female African-American and Latinx with serial eviction filings — repeated
ings along with a wave of new filings.14 renters were more likely than males in filings against the same individuals at
the same groups to have evictions filed the same address.20
Eviction Disparities against them.17 Factors contributing
Although eviction is relatively common to the increased rate of eviction for These studies built on the findings of
among low-income renters because of African-American and Latinx women local investigations. The Milwaukee Area
increasing rental costs and stagnant in- include low wages, the need for larger Renters Study found higher rates of
comes, studies examining both national and more expensive units to accommo- eviction for African-American, Latinx,
and local data have found that African- date children, landlords attempting to and lower-income renters and renters
American and Latinx renters (especially evade increased scrutiny related to lead with children. Neighborhood crime
women), families with children, and poisoning of children, police calls re- and eviction rates, the number of
renters in certain geographies are at lated to domestic violence, and gender children in a household, and “network
greater risk for eviction than are other dynamics and abuses of power between disadvantage” — defined by Desmond
renters and neighborhoods with similar male landlords and female tenants, and Gershenson as “the proportion of
income characteristics. including sexual harassment and one’s strong ties to people who are un-
assault.18 In a review of data from large employed, addicted to drugs, in abusive
A study examining court records of cities, Lundberg and Donnelly found relationships, or who have experienced
eviction cases against 4.1 million indi- that, between 1998 and 2000, children major, poverty-inducing events (e.g.,
viduals in 39 states between 2012 and born into poorer households were incarceration, teenage pregnancy) to
2016 found that a disproportionate more likely to experience evictions increase his or her propensity for evic-
share of eviction filings and judgments than those born into higher-income tion” — are factors associated with an
were against African-American renters.15 households, and children in African- increased likelihood of eviction.21 In
Overall, although African-Americans American and Hispanic households Milwaukee County, female renters in
make up only 20 percent of all U.S. were more likely to experience evictions predominantly African-American and
The groundbreaking Milwaukee Area Renters Study found higher rates of eviction among African-American, Latinx, and lower-income renters and renters with children.
5
Latinx neighborhoods were dispropor- In some local contexts, other factors, such as poor school performance, loss of
tionately evicted.22 such as property turnover and investor social ties, increased rates of adolescent
purchases of multifamily rental hous- violence, and health risks.31 In addition,
A number of studies of eviction filings ing in gentrifying neighborhoods, have a forced move to a more disadvantaged
in local contexts, usually at the city been associated with increases in evic- neighborhood or substandard housing
level, find stark geographic disparities tion rates, as two studies of eviction in often results in subsequent voluntary
and concentrations of evictions, with a Atlanta found.27 moves in search of better conditions.32
small number of neighborhoods and The record of an eviction filing, how-
even specific buildings and landlords Devastating and ever, can make securing housing more
accounting for a disproportionate Durable Impacts difficult and costly for these households
share of evictions. These geographic Evictions are extremely disruptive ex- well into the future.33
disparities reflect the intersection of periences that have numerous negative
demographic disparities and residential economic, social, and health impacts Health Impacts. Beyond these eco-
segregation, but they also reveal how a for affected families and communities. nomic and social impacts, research
small number of large-scale landlords Garboden and Rosen argue that even shows that evictions are associated
strategically deploy eviction as a tool for an informal threat of eviction is an with numerous negative physical
rent collection and tenant control.23 A expression of the landlord’s power over and mental health outcomes.34 “The
study of eviction filings in Washington, the tenant that can negatively affect evidence of the link between eviction
D.C., from 2014 to 2018, for example, not only renters’ financial and housing and health is starting to snowball with
found wide spatial disparities across decisions but also “their sense of home research teasing out the mechanisms
the city’s eight wards in filings, which and community.”28 and directions [of that link],” says
were concentrated in neighborhoods Johns Hopkins professor Dr. Craig
east of the Anacostia River with major- Social and Economic Impacts. Forced Pollack.35
ity African-American populations, and moves are often stressful, rushed, and
executed evictions, with more than 60 undertaken with scant resources for A major life event and social stressor,
percent occurring in the two wards east associated expenses such as moving eviction has been associated with an
of the river. In 2018, just 20 landlords and storage services, application fees, increase in all-cause mortality,36 higher
owning 21 percent of the city’s rental and security deposits. During the evic- mortality rates in several substance
units accounted for nearly half of its tion process, families might lose their use categories,37 and a likelihood of
eviction filings.24 Similarly, in Richmond, possessions, their job, and their social committing suicide that is four times
Virginia, researchers found that a networks and schools (with potentially higher than that of people who have
neighborhood’s racial composition is negative implications for academic not experienced eviction, controlling
associated with higher eviction rates after achievement).29 Under these circum- for demographic, socioeconomic, and
controlling for income, property values, stances, and with an eviction on record, mental health factors.38 Research shows
and other factors, with higher rates of evicted households often struggle to that eviction during pregnancy is associ-
eviction in neighborhoods with a higher secure new housing. In a study based ated with reduced infant weight and
share of African-American residents.25 on data from New York City, Collinson gestational age at birth.39
and Reed found that an eviction in-
Tracking a decade of evictions in 17 creased the likelihood that a household These health impacts persist over time,
cities, Rutan and Desmond found that would apply for a homeless shelter by 14 with some studies showing effects as
these spatial concentrations of evic- percentage points compared with nonev- long as 2 years after an eviction. A study
tions tend to be durable over time. An icted peers and resulted in an increase based in New York City found that
examination of the 100 land parcels of 5 percentage points in the number in the 2 years following an eviction,
or properties with the highest eviction of days spent in a shelter during the 2 people were more likely to visit the
rates in 3 of the cities, for example, years after an eviction filing.30 emergency room or require hospital-
showed that these parcels accounted ization for a mental health condition
for more than 1 in 6 evictions in When evicted households do secure than were their nonevicted peers.40 A
Cleveland, Ohio, and more than 2 in 5 new housing, writes Desmond, “they study of low-income urban mothers
evictions in Fayetteville, North Caro- often must accept conditions far worse using a national U.S. sample found that
lina, and Tucson, Arizona. Among the than those of their previous dwelling,” those who had experienced eviction
implications of these findings is that because many landlords will reject had higher rates of material hardship
interventions targeted at the neigh- them, forcing them to accept units at and depression than those who had
borhoods, buildings, and landlords the bottom of the market. Such moves not been evicted, and these effects
responsible for significant numbers of within disadvantaged neighborhoods persisted for as long as 2 years after the
evictions can have a profound impact.26 are associated with negative outcomes forced move.41
6
Photo by Carly Rosin, courtesy of KC Tenants
KC Tenants leaders blocking the doors to the Eastern Jackson County Courthouse on January 5, 2021, in Independence, Missouri.
Through its link to homelessness, Eviction Intersections With to comply with pandemic mitigation
eviction may lead to numerous risks, the COVID-19 Pandemic strategies like wearing a mask, cleaning
including syringe sharing (due to The COVID-19 pandemic and mitiga- your PPE [personal protective equip-
reduced access to sterile syringes and tion responses resulted in widespread ment], social distancing, and sheltering
increased contact with the police, job and income loss, which were dis- in place.”51 Epidemiological modeling
which can lead to the loss of injecting proportionately experienced by renters under counterfactual scenarios com-
equipment and a greater likelihood of of color. Losses of low-income jobs, paring results with a strict moratorium
sharing),42 chlamydia and gonorrhea totaling more than 5.1 million, were against results without a moratorium
contraction,43 HIV disease progression especially high in food services, health suggests that evictions increase COVID-19
(possibly because eviction increases care, entertainment, and other service infection rates significantly.52 Given
stress and disrupts one’s ability to industries.48 As a result, many house- these patterns, eviction prevention has
safely store medication and access care holds have missed rent payments or become a critical pandemic control
providers and pharmacies),44 and an might miss subsequent payments and strategy, important for mitigating both
increased likelihood that both male therefore are at a heightened risk of the spread of COVID-19 and its associ-
and female users of injected drugs will eviction. U.S. Census Bureau Pulse Data ated mortality.53
experience violence.45 from May 24 to June 7, 2021, found
that 10 percent of renters reported Just as African-American and Latinx
The link between eviction and health having “no confidence” in their ability populations disproportionately experi-
runs both ways: eviction leads to nega- to pay the following month’s rent.49 In ence eviction, members of those groups
tive health conditions and higher risks, addition to the health impacts of evic- are also more likely than White peers
but negative health conditions and tion discussed above, forced moves out to receive a positive COVID-19 test,
their associated costs can themselves of housing have negative health impli- become hospitalized due to COVID-19,
lead to eviction and, in turn, worsen cations specific to pandemics.50 and die from COVID-19.54 The popula-
health conditions.46 A study of Medic- tions that disproportionately experience
aid expansion in California found that Eviction is a particular threat to health eviction are also more likely to have
increasing the number of Medicaid during a pandemic because, as Benfer comorbidities that are associated with
enrollees was associated with reductions explains, “we know that eviction results COVID-19 infection and mortality.55
in the number of evictions, suggesting in doubling up, in couch surfing, in According to Eviction Crisis Monitor,
that access to affordable health care residing in overcrowded environments, a joint effort of Right to Counsel NYC,
can interrupt the connection between in being forced to use public facilities, the Association for Neighborhood &
poor health and housing instability.47 and, at the same time, not being able Housing Development, JustFix.nyc, and
7
the Housing Data Coalition, landlords times higher mortality.” The researchers nonpayment (which also created
have sued 32,576 households in New conclude that, nationally, expiring a loophole for landlords), removing
York City for $265,460,130 since the eviction moratoria are associated with a or weakening these protections. Ben-
pandemic began, and 222,135 renters total of 433,700 excess COVID-19 cases fer notes that in North Carolina, for
in the state have active cases in court and 10,700 excess deaths.58 Another example, 71,000 families and individu-
and will face eviction when applicable study estimates that, had eviction mora- als received eviction filings, and judges
moratoria expire. Analysis indicates toria been implemented nationwide denied only 3 percent of these cases
that “Landlords are filing evictions from March 2020 through November despite federal and state moratoria.60
3.6 times faster in zip codes with the 2020, COVID-19 infection rates would
highest rates of death from COVID-19.” have been reduced by 14.2 percent At the end of March 2020, Congress
In these hardest-hit ZIP codes, 68.2 and COVID-19 deaths would have been passed the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and
percent of the population are people of reduced by 40.7 percent.59 Economic Security (CARES) Act, which
color, whereas only 29.2 percent of the included federal policies to protect
population in the ZIP codes least affect- Addressing the Crisis renters. The CARES Act prohibited
ed by COVID-19 are people of color.56 Through Policy evictions for nonpayment of rent from
Nationally, Hepburn et al. found that At the onset of the pandemic, state and all federally backed or assisted rental
from March 15 through December 31, local lawmakers were the first to step properties, covering an estimated 12.3 to
2020, eviction filings disproportionately in to prevent evictions, with 43 states, 5 20 million renter households through
affected African-American and female territories, and the District of Columbia July 24, 2020. Also protected from
renters.57 enacting eviction moratoria of varying eviction (potentially beyond July 24,
terms. By mid-May 2020, 31 states had 2020) were renters living in proper-
Research suggests that eviction pre- halted at least one part of the eviction ties granted forbearance on federally
vention is important for pandemic process; however, the hold was often backed multifamily and single-family
mitigation. By studying COVID-19 applied only to the latter stages, which mortgages.61 Ambrose, An, and Lopez’s
incidence and mortality in 43 states meant that eviction filings continued, analysis found that, in the absence of
and the District of Columbia with vary- appearing on tenants’ legal records eviction moratoria, protections based
ing expiration dates for their eviction and negatively affecting their credit on government-sponsored enterprise
moratoria, Leifheit et al. found that scores. State and local moratoria varied financing of rental housing would
“COVID-19 incidence was significantly in the stage of the eviction process have reduced eviction filings by approxi-
increased in states that lifted their they forestalled, the stakeholder being mately 20 percent.62
moratoriums starting 10 weeks after controlled, the type of tenant or evic-
lifting, with 1.6 times the incidence… tion covered, and the duration. Many After the CARES Act protections and
[and] 16 or more weeks after lifting state moratoria expired or were limited many state and local moratoria expired,
their moratoriums, states had, on aver- by restricting eligibility or permit- the Centers for Disease Control and
age, 2.1 times higher incidence and 5.4 ting eviction for reasons other than C ON TIN U ED ON PA GE 10
Photo courtesy of Enterprise Community Partners, Inc.
The FASTEN (Funds and Services for Tenants Experiencing Need) program in New York is a philanthropic effort to prevent eviction through rental and rental arrears
assistance, landlord and tenant mediation, and legal assistance.
8
A Picture of Philanthropy During the Pandemic
Philanthropies and foundations have long played an important role in the United States, filling gaps in public resources,
aiding nonprofits on the front lines of service delivery, and serving as advocates and conveners. The emergence of the
COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 prompted a rush of philanthropic giving, with funds flowing primarily to human services
and healthcare organizations coping with the immediate fallout from the crisis. The pandemic also influenced how and to
whom funds were directed. During the first half of 2020, approximately 3 percent of philanthropic dollars were given without
restriction; by the end of 2020, 39 percent of these funds were unrestricted. Many philanthropies reported removing existing
grant restrictions or extending grant timelines, helping nonprofits deploy resources in line with the needs of the emergency.
In addition, the coronavirus and demonstrations against racial injustice reinforced the need to address racial inequities.
Philanthropic giving to communities with majority Black, indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC) populations or organizations
serving BIPOC communities increased from 5 percent of dollars in the first half of 2020 to 13 percent in 2020 overall.1
Addressing the Eviction Crisis
Foundations have several key strengths, including independence and flexibility, which allowed them to quickly adjust
their giving as the scope of the coronavirus pandemic and the subsequent social needs it unleashed became clearer.
Although housing has not typically been a major philanthropic focus, housing and eviction prevention soon emerged as
a central concern of many philanthropies as pandemic-related job loss and health exigencies put eviction crisis into stark
relief. In New York, for example, a group of foundations and financial institutions awarded $7.2 million in grants to a coali-
tion of nonprofits and community-based organizations to start Project Parachute. Through Project Parachute, property
owners, nonprofits, and city agencies coordinate eviction prevention resources and services. Project Parachute’s Funds
and Services for Tenants Experiencing Need (FASTEN) program offers direct financial assistance for rental arrears and
payments, landlord-tenant mediation, legal assistance, and related services such as utility payments, food relief, financial
counseling, and job search assistance. The partners recognize that the need for FASTEN’s services will persist even after
the immediate concerns related to the pandemic pass.2
The Pittsburgh Foundation supports a similarly holistic approach to prevent evictions in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania.
In 2017, the foundation launched its Eviction Prevention Initiative to better understand the prevalence, processes, and
impacts of eviction in the county. The foundation gathered this information through discussions with tenants, landlords,
and other stakeholders and by collecting and analyzing data on eviction filings. The findings were presented in an April
2021 report along with recommendations for a coordinated slate of interventions and services to prevent evictions, such
as creating eviction diversion and housing stabilization programs, increasing the supply of affordable housing, reducing
court fees, sealing records in cases that do not result in a completed eviction, and educating tenants and landlords.3 In
addition to this research, the foundation helped develop the county’s first housing court and funded a help desk to share
information with tenants about legal assistance programs. The foundation also funds organizations that offer workshops
for landlords and judges and landlord-tenant mediation services.4
Other philanthropic efforts target specific stages or issues related to eviction. In one such effort, the Wells Fargo Founda-
tion funded grants for 15 local legal assistance organizations to help rectify the stark imbalance in legal representation
available to landlords and tenants. Research shows that tenants who have legal representation have a much higher
chance of avoiding eviction. The cost of representation, however, is a significant barrier both to individual tenants and to
the cities and nonprofits who wish to use legal assistance as an intervention to prevent evictions.5
As the pandemic subsides in the United States, philanthropies will adjust to a new normal. New perspectives adopted
during the past year will influence institutional thinking on the potential roles of foundations in a postpandemic world, how
foundations should award grants, and which areas of the community need the most attention.
Grace Sato et al. 2021. “Philanthropy and COVID-19: Measuring One Year of Giving,” Center for Disaster Philanthropy and Candid;
1
Emily Finchum-Mason, Kelly Husted, and David Suárez. 2020. “Philanthropic Foundation Responses to COVID-19,” Nonprofit and
Voluntary Sector Quarterly 49:6.
Services for the Underserved. 2020. “Project Parachute Receives $7.2 Million in New Grants,” 13 November press release.
2
The Pittsburgh Foundation. 2021. “Pittsburgh Foundation releases ‘Eviction in Allegheny County: a mixed-methods study.”’
3
Ryan Rydzewski. 2020. “Foundation for Intervention: Groundwork laid to mediate looming eviction crisis,” The Pittsburgh Foundation.
4
Wells Fargo Foundation. 2020. “Wells Fargo Funds Legal Assistance for Renters at Risk of Eviction,” 24 September press release.
5
9
CO NTI N U E D F R O M PA GE 8
Prevention (CDC) began a federal in cities that supplemented the CDC evictions that have been paused at
moratorium that became effective moratorium with their own protections. various stages by moratoria.70 Research
September 4, 2020, and, after successive In cities without additional protec- findings by Hepburn et al. showing
renewals, was extended through July tions, filings were at 50.1 percent of that eviction filing rates increased
31, 2021. The rationale for the order the historical average. At the extremes, in the second half of 2020 and were
was that the moratorium would facilitate filings were 30.1 percent of the histori- higher than historic averages when
self-isolation, social distancing, and cal average in Richmond, Virginia, and eviction protections expired — for
adherence to stay-at-home orders and 90.1 percent of the historical average example, between the end of the CARES
reduce residency in congregate set- in Tampa, Florida.68 These findings Act moratorium in August 2020 and
tings such as homeless shelters. The indicate that the moratoria, coupled with the start of the CDC moratorium on
CDC moratorium also had significant income supports and rental assistance, September 4, 2020 — lend credence to
limitations: it required tenants to initi- offered renters significant protections, this concern.71
ate their protection through a written albeit with substantial gaps. The GAO
declaration and meet a number of con- analysis concluded that improved The December 2020 COVID-19 relief
ditions for eligibility, such as making outreach to increase tenant awareness legislation and the March 2021 Ameri-
“best efforts” to obtain government of the moratorium would make it more can Rescue Plan (ARP) have provided
assistance and proving that they are likely effective and beneficial.69 $46 billion in federal funding for
to experience homelessness if evicted.63 emergency rental and utility assistance
In addition, Hepburn says, “there was Although the CDC moratorium was as well as various forms of income sup-
a lot of variation in how the order was extended several times, many analysts ports.72 ARP also provides $5 billion
interpreted, [so] some renters were fear that following its expiration, for emergency housing vouchers and
better protected than others.”64 tenants will experience an “eviction another $5 billion for the HOME Invest-
cliff” — precipitous movement on ment Partnerships Program for housing
Although there was no comprehensive a monthslong backlog of pending and services for those are experiencing
national evictions database or track-
ing of tenant declarations under the
CDC moratorium, several studies based
on available data indicate that state,
local, and national moratoria have
curbed eviction filings and evictions.65
In a study of 63 jurisdictions, the U.S.
Government Accountability Office
(GAO) found that under federal, state,
and local eviction moratoria, the rate
of eviction filings was 74 percent lower
in the last week of July 2020 than in the
same week in 2019, but it gradually in-
creased under the CDC moratorium.66
Another study by Hepburn et al. that
examined available eviction filings data
found that 65 percent fewer cases were
filed between March 15 and December
31, 2020, than during the same period
in a typical year. Based on this rate, the
researchers estimate a reduction of
1.55 million eviction filings nationwide
Photo courtesy of Friends in Deed
in 2020.67 Looking specifically at the
period when the CDC moratorium was
in effect, from September 4, 2020, to
February 27, 2021, Hepburn and Louis
tracked 163,716 eviction filings, a 44
percent reduction compared with the
same period in a typical year. The rate
of reduction varied considerably from
city to city; reductions were greatest Timely rental assistance can help households avoid eviction and its many impacts.
10or are at risk of homelessness.73 This in- housing vouchers and other housing 3
Matthew Desmond. 2020. “On the Brink of Homeless-
ness: How the Affordable Housing Crisis and the
fusion of funds promises relief to many assistance programs, and strengthen Gentrification of America Is Leaving Families Vulner-
in need. Although this aid is substantial, renter protections.79 able,” statement before the United States House of
Representatives Committee on Financial Services, 3.
it might not be enough to eliminate all 4
Peter Hepburn and Devin Q. Rutan. 2021. “America
the rental debt accrued during a year Outside of policy interventions, ten- Can’t Just Build Its Way Out of an Eviction Crisis,”
and a half of the pandemic, and many ants’ associations, nonprofits, and other Slate 6 May.
5
Miriam Axel-Lute and Brandon Duong. 2021. “Fixing
households remain in a precarious nongovernmental organizations are
the Harms of Our Eviction System: An Interview with
situation for making their upcoming also addressing the threat of eviction. Emily Benfer,” Shelterforce 4 March.
rent payments unless their income Tenants in many cities nationwide, 6
Matthew Desmond. 2016. Evicted: Poverty and Profit in
the American City. New York: Crown, 5.
has stabilized through employment including Kansas City, Milwaukee, and 7
I an Lundberg and Louis Donnelly. 2019. “A Research
or government assistance. In some Brooklyn, are organizing and protesting Note on the Prevalence of Housing Eviction Among
cases, localities are rationing assistance to halt evictions and call for rental Children Born in U.S. Cities,” Demography 56:1, 391-404.
through per-household caps to ensure assistance. In some cases, tenants have
8
Brian J. McCabe and Eva Rosen. 2020. “Eviction in
Washington, DC: Racial and Geographic Disparities in
that more households can receive aid successfully delayed eviction proceed- Housing Instability,” Georgetown University McCourt
or to prioritize those with the greatest ings.80 The national Autonomous School of Public Policy, 5.
9
Matthew Desmond and Tracey Shollenberger. 2015.
need.74 Collyer notes that the income Tenants Union Network, which was “Forced Displacement from Rental Housing: Preva-
supports from ARP, such as the child founded in 2018 and formalized in lence and Neighborhood Consequences,” Demography
52, 1751; Sophie Collyer and Lily Bushman-Copp.
tax credits, could also help households 2020, has supported city-level unions
2019. “Spotlight on Forced Moves and Eviction
make their rent payments.75 that have grown rapidly during the in New York City,” Columbia Population Research
pandemic.81 Public policy has also Center, 9.
10
Himmelstein and Desmond.
These recent responses and other been catalyzed and supplemented by 11
Emily Badger. 2019. “Many Renters Who Face Evic-
policy interventions could go beyond philanthropies. The pandemic has tion Owe Less Than $600,” The New York Times, 12
the immediate need to address the spurred philanthropies to pivot from December.
COVID-19 pandemic and become part their traditional roles and processes
12
Benjamin F. Teresa. n.d. “The Geography of Eviction
in Richmond: Beyond Poverty,” RVA Eviction Lab.
of a broader effort to combat the long- toward providing emergency assistance 13
U.S. Census Bureau. 2021. “Week 31 Household
standing eviction crisis. Hepburn notes for public health needs, including Pulse Survey: May 26–June 7: Table 3b. Likelihood of
Having to Leave this House in Next Two Months Due
that because the eviction crisis derives support for housing (see “A Picture of to Eviction, by Select Characteristics,” Accessed 28
largely from the affordable housing cri- Philanthropy During the Pandemic,” p. 9). June 2021.
sis, increasing the supply of affordable 14
Peter Hepburn. 2021. “The End of the C.D.C. Evic-
housing remains an important inter- Conclusion tion Moratorium Means Trouble,” The New York Times,
2 June; Mary K. Cunningham, Ananya Hariharan, and
vention.76 Collyer adds that ensuring Housing stability — specifically, the Olivia Fiol. 2021. “The Looming Eviction Cliff: Find-
ings from the Urban Institute Coronavirus Tracking
that tenants have a stable and sufficient prevention of evictions — remains an Survey,” The Urban Institute, 1.
income is essential.77 Ultimately, be- essential component of COVID-19 miti- 15
eter Hepburn, Renee Louis, and Matthew Desmond.
P
cause eviction is a symptom of a broken gation. Keeping people safely housed 2020. “Racial and Gender Disparities among Evicted
Americans,” Sociological Science 7.
system of housing provision, it cannot reduces the spread of the virus while 16
Himmelstein and Desmond.
be eliminated without addressing its mass vaccination efforts continue. Al- 17
Hepburn et al.
root causes. Intermediate interventions though the pandemic has brought new 18
Matthew Desmond. 2014. “Poor Black Women Are
that can help curb the rate of evictions urgency to eviction prevention efforts, Evicted at Alarming Rates, Setting Off a Chain of
Hardship,” MacArthur Foundation Policy Research
include eliminating the state provision evictions were widespread before the Brief, 2; See Teresa Wiltz. 2020. “Female Renters Take
for no-fault evictions (in which land- pandemic and have long been linked on Predatory Landlords,” Pew Charitable Trusts, 12
March.
lords can evict without cause), extending to adverse physical and mental health 19
Lundberg and Donnelly, 56.
fair housing legislation to include source outcomes. Effective responses to keep 20
Hepburn et al.
of income protections, sealing records people housed and mitigate the long- 21
Matthew Desmond and Carl Gershenson. 2016. “Who
to ensure that evictions do not make term economic, social, and health gets evicted? Assessing individual, neighborhood, and
network factors,” Social Science Research.
securing quality housing difficult, effects of eviction are critical to HUD’s 22
Matthew Desmond. 2012. “Eviction and the Reproduc-
guaranteeing a right to counsel in evic- mission to serve the most vulnerable tion of Urban Poverty,” American Journal of Sociology 118:1.
tion court proceedings, establishing members of society and, given the 23
an Immergluck, Jeff Ernsthausen, Stephanie Earl,
D
and Allison Powell. 2020. “Evictions, large owners,
local eviction diversion programs, and disproportionate impact of eviction on and serial filings: findings from Atlanta,” Housing Studies
funding emergency rental assistance people and communities of color, an es- 35:5, 903–24.
programs that can make the difference sential part of the Biden administration’s 24
McCabe and Rosen.
between paying the rent and eviction commitment to advance racial equity.
25
T
eresa.
26
Devin Q. Rutan and Matthew Desmond. 2021.
for families.78 Effective long-term inter- “The Concentrated Geography of Eviction,” Annals,
ventions include policies that increase 1
Emily Peiffer. 2018. “Why We Need to Stop Evictions AAPSS 693.
Before They Happen,” Housing Matters, 25 July.
the availability of diverse affordable 27
Elora Lee Raymond, Ben Miller, Michaela McKin-
2
he Eviction Lab. 2018. “National Estimates: Eviction
T ney, and Jonathan Braun. 2021. “Gentrifying Atlanta:
housing options, expand access to in America,” Accessed 13 May 2021. Investor Purchases of Rental Housing, Evictions, and
11the Displacement of Black Residents,” Housing Policy Surita Parashar, Julio Montaner, Evan Wood, and Zimmerman, and Craig Evan Pollack. 2020. “Expiring
Debate; Immergluck et al. M.J. Milloy. 2017. “Residential Eviction and Risk of Eviction Moratoriums and COVID-19 Incidence and
28
hilip M.E. Garboden and Eva Rosen. 2019. “Serial
P Detectable Plasma HIV-1 RNA Viral Load Among HIV- Mortality,” American Journal of Epidemiology.
Filing: How Landlords Use the Threat of Eviction,” Positive People Who Use Drugs,” AIDS and Behavior 59
ay Jowers, Christopher Timmins, Nrupen Bhavsar,
K
City & Community 18:2. 21:3, 678–87. Qihui Hu, and Julia Marshall. 2021. “Housing Precar-
29
eiffer; Matthew Desmond and Carl Gershenson.
P
45
ary Clare Kennedy, Ryan McNeil, M.J. Milloy, Huiru
M ity and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Impacts of Utility
2016. “Housing and Employment Insecurity among Dong, Thomas Kerr, and Kanna Hayashi. 2017. Disconnection and Eviction Moratoria on Infections
the Working Poor,” Social Problems; Diana H. Gruman, “Residential eviction and exposure to violence among and Deaths across US Counties.”
Tracy W. Harachi, Robert D. Abbott, Richard Cata- people who inject drugs in Vancouver, Canada,” The 60
Emily Benfer. 2021. “How Policymakers (and Courts)
lano, and Charles B. Fleming. 2008. “Longitudinal International Journal on Drug Policy 41. Sabotaged Eviction Moratoria,” The Appeal, 2 April;
Effects of Student Mobility on Three Dimensions of 46
Pollack et al. Interview with Emily Benfer.
Elementary School Engagement,”Child Development 79:6. 47
eidi L. Allen, Erica Eliason, Naomi Zewde, and Tal
H 61
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U
30
obert Collinson and Davin Reed. 2018. “The Effects
R Gross. 2019. “Can Medicaid Expansion Prevent Hous- “COVID-19 Housing Protections: Moratoriums Have
of Evictions on Low-Income Households,” 3. ing Evictions?” Health Affairs 38:9. Helped Limit Evictions, but Further Outreach Is
31
Desmond 2012, 89, 118. 48
Urban Institute. “Where Low-Income Jobs Are Being Needed,” 6.
32
atthew Desmond, Carl Gershenson, and Barbara
M Lost to COVID-19,” Accessed 4 June 2021. 62
Brent W. Ambrose, Xudong An and Luis A. Lopez
Kiviat. 2015. “Forced Relocation and Residential Insta-
49
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U 2021. “Eviction Risk of Rental Housing: Does It Matter
bility among Urban Renters,” Social Service Review, 256. Pulse Survey: May 26–June 7: Table 2b. Confidence in How Your Landlord Finances the Property?” Federal
Ability to Make Next Month’s Payment for Renter- Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, 6.
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Occupied Housing Units, by Select Characteristics,” 63
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12Prevalence and Impact of Evictions HIGHLIGHTS
research spotlight
n Policymakers need reliable data to
develop effective interventions to
I n 2016, the most recent year in
which national estimates are avail-
able, 3.7 million households received
health, and increased rates of mental
health disorders such as depression and
suicide.4 The associations between
promote housing stability, but current
eviction data are often incomplete,
incorrect, or difficult to compare
eviction filings, representing 8 out of eviction and child health have been across geographic areas.
every 100 renter households.1 The well documented, including adverse n Developing a national eviction data-
COVID-19 pandemic has brought issues birth outcomes, increased rates of food base will improve researchers’ ability
of longstanding financial precarity and insecurity among young children, and to track and understand eviction trends
a national shortage of affordable hous- poor physical and mental health in and help policymakers design more
ing into stark relief, with an estimated adolescents and young adults.5 Evic- effective policies to prevent eviction.
one in seven renters overall behind on tion proceedings can become part of a n Because many evictions occur
rent as of April 2021, including one tenant’s housing record, even in cases outside of the court system, local and
in five renters living with children.2 in which the tenant wins, so households national surveys that capture informa-
The result is a staggering number of experiencing eviction experience tion directly from renters about their
households at risk of eviction, a tidal greater difficulty finding future housing.6 experiences of illegal and informal
wave held only partially at bay by public These consequences create a vicious forced moves will be needed to com-
health eviction moratoriums. Moreover, circle that results in more housing insta- plement a tracking system oriented
the toll of evictions is unevenly distrib- bility and economic challenges. toward formal evictions.
uted, with female-headed households,
households with children, low-income Despite the growing policy and research to collect data on evictions across the
renters, and renters of color being interest in eviction, researchers still United States and describes the op-
disproportionately affected.3 have an incomplete understanding of portunities and challenges associated
its prevalence and effects. Accurate with different approaches, including
Eviction can have serious social and measures of eviction prevalence at the collating court records and using survey
health consequences, including inter- local, state, and national levels are often measures. We conclude by summarizing
rupted employment, worsened physical lacking. This article summarizes efforts current efforts to create a national eviction
Female-headed households and households with children are at elevated risk of eviction.
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