Evaluation of Air Quality in the Holy Makkah during Hajj Season 1425 H
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Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 5(1): 115-121, 2009
© 2009, INSnet Publication
Evaluation of Air Quality in the Holy Makkah during Hajj Season 1425 H
Al-Jeelani, H. A.
Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environmental and Arid Land
Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudia Arabia
Abstract: Air quality assessment of the emission from Hajj daily activities of pilgrims accompanied by
the increase demands of transportation means in the Holy City of Makkah, Saudi Arabia, was studied.
Concentration levels of different pollutants including nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), sulfur dioxide (SO 2), carbon
monoxide (CO), ozone (O 3), methane (CH 4) and total hydrocarbons (HC) as well as some meteorological
parameters (temperature, wind speed and wind direction) during the period of Hajj from 14 th to 25 th
January 2005; as well as after-Hajj period of 2004 and 2005 seasons were measured and analyzed. The
results indicated that early activities of people in their way to work and high traffic density have affected
pollutants concentrations at the starting hours of the day. CO, NO, NO2 were variable over the day hours,
while sulphur dioxide concentrations were relatively constant. Ozone concentration showed the well known
trend according to the changes of the rate of the photochemical reactions. The results can be used set air
quality management programs for the Holy areas and other urban districts.
Key words:
INTRODUCTION during incomplete combustion. It is produced both by
natural processes (for example, from volcanoes) and by
God created mankind with intellectual superiority human activities (for example, the incomplete
over all other creatures and assigned the Human-being combustion of carbon-containing fuels, especially from
as the caretaker of Earth after placing on Earth all the motor vehicles). Industrial processes may also produce
natural resources to needed to secure the continuation CO [2 ].
of life. The mankind has affected the surrounding Health effects associated with air pollution from
natural resources and ecosystems and in turn has been transport include respiratory diseases, asthma, chronic
affected by them. Preservation of environment is shared obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease
by all, without any limitation or restriction. However, and cancer of the lung. W hen inhaled, air pollutants
the Islamic perspective relative to environment and affect the lungs and respiratory tract but can also be
natural resources is established on the basis of damage taken up and transported by the blood stream
prevention, protection and conservation, so that the life throughout the body. The effects of air pollution
becomes a continuous state of sustainable development. depend on levels of exposure. People suffering from
In our current era, environmental issues, including respiratory conditions such as asthma; both the very
its management and protection, are attracting the young and old; and people living in poverty are
attention of the whole world. Harmful emissions into particularly at risk [3 ].
the air represent an environmental pressure that reflects 2The multiple sources of air pollution and the
negatively on man's health and productivity; thus heavy load of pollutants are but a normal consequence
leading to a real loss in the national economy [1 ]. of accelerated economic growth Saudi Arabia witnessed
Vehicles are the major source of air pollution. Almost over the past three decades. Higher rates of air
two thirds of carbon monoxide and 50% of pollution are becoming strongly correlated with
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides that pollute the air economic progress. Therefore, the Kingdom of Saudi
are attributed to fuel combustion, also industrial zones Arabia has paid special attention to monitoring and
and widespread small industries within the populous reducing such emissions through concerted efforts
mass. CO is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. under taken at both national and international levels
It is a trace constituent of the atmosphere, with alike.
background levels normally ranging between 0.01 and Energy is essential to economic and social
0.2 mg/m3 . CO is formed from burning fuels, especially development and improved quality of life in all
Corresponding Author: Al-Jeelani, H. A., Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environmental
and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudia Arabia,
115J. Appl. Sci. Res., 5(1): 115-121, 2009
countries. The total energy consumption (2004E) was (to the west, south and east). Elevations of Makkah AI
6.1 quadrillion Btu (1.4% of world total energy Mukarramah are a group of mountains and black rocky
consumption). The total energy consumption statistic masses which are granitic basement rocks. Mountains
includes petroleum, dry natural gas, coal, net hydro, are traversed by a group of valleys, such as Ibrahim
nuclear, geothermal, solar, wind, wood and waste valley. The Kabah's location is in this valley.
electric power. The renewable energy consumption Thousands of Saudis are employed year-round to
statistic is based on International Energy Agency (IEA) oversee the Hajj and staff the hotels and shops that
data and includes hydropower, solar, wind, tide, cater to pilgrims; these workers in turn have increased
geothermal, solid biomass and animal products, the demand for housing and services. The city is now
biomass gas and liquids, industrial and municipal ringed by freeways, and contains shopping malls and
wastes. Sectoral shares of energy consumption and skyscrapers. Transportation facilities related to the Hajj
carbon emissions are also based on IEA data [4 ] . In or Umrah are the main services available. The main
addition, the total Per Capita Energy Consumption transportation options available for travel within and
(2004E) is 236.5 million Btu (vs. U.S. value of 342.7 around the city are either personal vehicles or private
million Btu). Therefore, Saudia Arabia energy-related taxis.
CO 2 emissions (2003E) was 365.1 million metric tons
(1.3% of world CO 2 emissions) and per-capita, energy- Climate: Unlike other Saudi Arabian cities, M ecca
related CO 2 emissions (2003E) recorded 14.2 metric retains its warm temperature in winter, which can range
tons (vs. U.S. value of 20.2 metric tons of CO 2[4 ]. from 17 °C (63 °F) at midnight to 25 °C (77 °F) in
In an urban environment, traffic emission is one of the afternoon. Summer temperatures are considered
the most important sources of air pollution. very hot and break the 40 °C (104 °F) mark in the
Developments in air quality regulations and advances afternoon dropping to 30 °C (86 °F) in the evening.
in vehicle emission reduction technology are in many Rain usually falls in Makkah in small amounts in
places offset by the increase of number of December and January. Rain is very rare with an
automobiles [5 ]. average of 10-33 mm; and humidity ratio is 45-53%.
Millions pilgrims arrive in the Holly City of
Makkah every year to perform Al-Hajj. Increasing of W inds: W inds are north-eastern most of the year time.
pilgrims numbers is accompanied by the increase of W eather in the Holly City is dry in summer and
their daily activities as well as the increase the winter, hot in summer and cold in winter. Some
demands of transportation means. Consequently, unusual events often happen during the year, such as
considerable quantities of either gaseous or solid dust storms in summer, coming from the Arabian
pollutants are emitted to the atmosphere. The emitted Peninsula's deserts or from North Africa.
pollutants could cause many harmful environmental
impacts to the Holly City and nearby places. Air sampling: Based on population density, capacity
The aim of the present work is to: 1) analyse and of different activities and wind direction the monitoring
discuss the effect of emissions from Hajj activities on site was selected to the north-western downwind
the air quality of the Holy City Makkah during and direction of the Masjid al-Haram area, the Holy City of
after the Hajj season of 1425H; 2) measure and Makkah during Hajj seasons 1424 and 1425.
evaluate the effect of of meteorological parameters on
pollutants concentration (NO X , SO 2, CO, O 3, CH 4, and Air quality monitoring mobile station was used to
total hydrocarbons); 3) compare the obtained data with conduct the measurements of pollutants including: nitric
international standards to set the appropriate regulations Oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxides (NO 2), nitrogen oxides
for air quality management. (NO x ), ozone (O 3 ), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
dioxide (SO 2 ), total hydrocarbons (HC), methane (CH 4 ).
The study area: The Holy City of Makkah (Latitude Table 1 includes type of equipments used in monitoring
19 25° 21 North Meridian 46 49° 39 ) is at an the measured pollutants, wind direction, wind speed
elevation of 277 m (910 ft) above sea level, and and temperature. HC and CH 4 data was not recorded
approximately 50 mi (80 km) inland from the Red Sea. during year 2005 for some circumstances. This station
The city is situated between mountains, which have also recorded some meteorological parameters namely
defined the contemporary expansion of the city with a temperature (T), wind speed (W S) and wind direction
population of 1,700,000 (2008) as shown in the Figure (W D). Average hourly measurements were recorded for
1. The area around the mosque comprises the old city. the peroid from 18 th to 29 th February 2004 for Hajj
The land consists of rugged, rocky (predominantly season 1424, and from 14 th January to 16 th February
granite) terrain, with mountain ranges on three sides 2005 for Hajj season 1425.
116J. Appl. Sci. Res., 5(1): 115-121, 2009
Fig 1: Map showing the site of investigated area (the Holly City).
Table (1) equipm ents used in m onitoring the m easured pollutants W ind speed, wind direction and temperature: The
Pollutant M easuring equipm ents
highest wind speed was noticed during the days from
Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) SO 2 M onitor (AF21M )
17th – 20th January with a maximum mean daily speed
N itrogen oxides (N O x) N O & N O 2 M onitor (Chem ilum nescence
Reaction) of 17 mph during 18th January. The highest hourly
O zone (O 3 ) U V-Photom etry O zone Analyzer (O 3 41M ) mean wind speed was recorded for 0400 – 0800 hours
Carbon m onoxide (CO ) CO Analyzer (M L 8310) with almost similar speed (around 8 mph) over other
M ethane (CH 4 ) M ethan & H ydrocarbon Analyzer (H C51M ) hours of the day. Data of the wind direction during
totalhydrocarbons (H C)
Hajj period of 1425 showed that the dominant wind
most of the time was from Northe and North W est
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS directions. El-Taneem power station is located in the
same direction; consequently, emissions of this power
The daily and diurnal hourly mean concentrations of plant could affect air quality of the Holy City.
the measured pollutants during the season 1425 period Temperature records data showed that mean daily
(14th – 25th January 2005) of the current study are temperature ranged from 22 to 28 O C, while the
presented by Figures 2 & 3 show that each pollutant maximum hourly concentration during the afternoon
has its specified diurnal trend during the studied period. time.
It can be noticed, generally, that there was an increase CO concentrations: The highest daily concentration
in level concentrations of examined pollutants during was recorded on 21 st January, and previous days of that
early morning hours (0700-1000) which can be day were higher in CO concentration than the
attributed to high activity of people in their way to following days (last Tashreek days).
work and high traffic density.
117J. Appl. Sci. Res., 5(1): 115-121, 2009
Fig. 1:Daily mean concentration of measured pollutants (ppm) and daily average of wind speed (mph) and
temperature (O C) over Hajj period (14 – 25 January 2005).
Fig. 2: The diurnal hourly concentration of measured pollutants (ppm) and hourly average of wind speed (mph)
and temperature (O C) over Hajj period (14 – 25 January 2005).
Average wind speed during last Tashreek days was the study during Hajj time (11.3 ppm) was much higher
lowest compared with other days. The 24-h average than the corresponding concentration recorded Muna
concentration of CO ranged from 3.6 ppm on 23 rd area during Hajj season 2004 (2.45 ppm) [6 ] .
January up to 25 ppm on 21 st January 2005 (the 1 st Comparing all the recorded 1-h measurements with
Tashreek day). the standards values presented in Table 3, showed that
The mean hourly carbon monoxide concentrations almost the recorded results of the current study were
over the Hajj period ranged from 8.2 ppm at the 1300 below the 1-h average standards.
hours to 14.8 ppm at the 2300 hours. Mean
concentration recorded during morning hours between NOx concentrations: It is apparent from the figures
0800-1000 hours was around 13 ppm. The periods of that daily mean concentrations of NO, NO 2 and NO X
higher concentrations were accompanied by low wind were higher during 18 th – 20 th January than other days
speed. The average concentration of CO in the current with a maximum concentration on 18 th January of
118J. Appl. Sci. Res., 5(1): 115-121, 2009
0.164, 0.14, and 0.3 ppm for NO, NO 2 and NO X ; trend of ozone as the highest concentration was
respectively. These days were characterized by high recorded between 1200–1600 hours with maximum
wind speed and lower temperature than other days. hourly concentration of 0.012 at 1200 hours.
It has been noticed that the results of hourly NO 2 Ozone (O 3 ) concentration trend shows the change
concentrations were fluctuating. The hourly NO 2 of the rate of the photochemical reactions. Ozone (O 3 )
concentrations ranged from 0.054 ppm at the 1600 concentration was low before sunrise. It then started to
hours to 0.088 ppm at the 2300 hours. The results increase after sunrise because of the photochemical
showed also that the hourly NO concentrations ranged reaction reaching its maximum in the mid-day. Then it
from 0.043 ppm at the 1700 hours to 0.12 ppm at the decreased toward sunset.
0300 hours. Average NO X concentration over Hajj In contrast to previous pollutants, the average
time of the current study ( 0.15 ppm) was double that concentration of O 3 for Hajj period of the current study
concentration recorded in Muna area during Hajj (0.0035 ppm) was much lower than that recorded
season 2004 (0.078 pm) [6 ]. during Hajj season 2004 in Muna area (0.018 pm) [6 ].
Comparing the results of 1-h averages NO 2 with Comparing the 1- and 24-h results with the
the available standards presented in Table 3 showed available standards presented in Table 3 showed that
that all the 1-h results of the current study were below they were well below the standards.
the standards. Comparing the results of 24-h averages
with the available standards showed also that the Table 2 M ean concentration of pollutants (ppm ) and average w ind
speed (m ph) and tem perature (O C) for the period after the end of
results of the current study were below the available
H ajj season during years 2004 and 2005.
standards except for 18th and 19 th January. On the other Param eter Year 2004 19 Y ear 2005 26
hand, 1-h average results of NO X were higher than Feb – 29 Feb Jan – 16 Feb
W HO guidelines (Table 3), but lower than the SO 2 (ppm ) 0.019 0.016
Canadian corresponding value. Similarly, 24-hours N O 2 (ppm ) 0.029 0.05
N O (ppm ) 0.072 0.069
results of NO X were higher than the available N O X (ppm ) 0.099 0.121
guideline. O 3 (ppm ) 0.014 0.01
The Overall concentration of NO 2 for study period CO (ppm ) 5.24 4.34
was lower than the annual guidelines. In contrast, CH 4 (ppm ) 3.23 -
H C (ppm ) 4.39 -
overall NO X was lower than annual standards. Annual W ind speed (m ph) 3.64 3.54
guidelines value was set by W HO to protect the public Tem perature (O C) 26.0 26.6
from the health effects of gaseous NO 2. W HO
suggested using a lower annual guideline if NO 2 is Air quality guideline of 100µg/m3 (0.05ppm)
monitored as a marker for complex combustion- provides adequate protection of public health, though
generated pollution mixtures [7 ]. some health effects may occur below this level.
Exposure to this level of ozone is associated with an
SO 2 concentrations: A similar trend for SO 2 to that estimated 1–2% increase in daily mortality (based on
observed for NO X . The 24-h average results ranged findings of daily time-series studies). It is indicated that
from 0.001 on 22 n d January to 0.055 ppm on 18 th there is considerable individual variation in response to
January with an average of 0.016 ppm. It has been ozone, which provided a good case for reducing the
noticed that all the recorded hourly SO 2 concentration W HO guideline for ozone from 20 ìg/m 3 to 100 ìg/m 3
results were fluctuating in a narrow range. The results as daily maximum 8-hour mean [8 ].
showed that the maximum hourly SO 2 concentration
was 0.018 ppm. Over all average concentration of SO 2
of the current study was similar to that recorded for After–Hajj pollutants concentrations in year 2005
Muna Valley during Hajj season 2004 (0.015 ppm) [6 ]. compared to year 2004 in M akka area: Pollutants
Table 3 showed that all the results of the current study concentrations of after-Hajj period in Makkah area of
for 1- and 24-h are below the standards almost all year 2005 compared to the proceeding year 2004
time. However, W HO standard was violated only on presented in Table 2 showed variable trends among the
18th January. Annual guideline has not been exceeded studied pollutants. W hile there was an increase in the
over the study period. concentrations mainly for NO 2 and NO X in year 2005
compared to year 2004 results, other pollutant were
O 3 concentrations: It is evident from the figures that decreased in after-Hajj period of year 2005 compared
the 24-h average results ranged for 0.001 ppm on 18 th , to corresponding results of year 2004. This variation
19th and 20th January to 0.012 ppm on 25 th January could be attributed the metrological conditions, despite
with an average value of 0.004 ppm. The diurnal the little variation between the two successive years,
hourly ozone concentrations showed the well known and other Hajj circumstances.
119J. Appl. Sci. Res., 5(1): 115-121, 2009
Table 3: International Air quality standards (ppm )
Standards CO NO 2 O3 SO 2
N AAQSs (U SEPA) § 1-h average 35 0.12
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N AAQSs (U SEPA) 24-h average 0.14
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N AAQSs (U SEPA) Annual average 0.053 0.03
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N AAQSs (Canada)§ § D esirable 1-h average 13.1 0.051 0.172
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N AAQSs (Canada) D esirable 24-h average 0.015 0.057
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N AAQSs (Canada) Acceptable 1-h average 30.6 0.213 0.082 0.334
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N AAQSs (Canada) Acceptable 24-h average 0.106 0.115
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W H O [7 , 8] 1-h average 26 0.106 0.05 ¶ 0.130
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W H O 24-h average 0.05
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W H O Annual average 0.02 0.019
¶
8-hour m ean
§
Source: EPA; http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.htm l
§§
Sources: Environm ent Canada; http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/gov-efforts_e.dhtm l
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/uaqt/obj_e.htm l
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