Eff ective Food Plots for White-Tailed Deer in Alabama
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Effective Food Plots for
White-Tailed Deer in Alabama
Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries
64 North Union Street
Montgomery, Alabama 36130
1-800-262-3151
www.outdooralabama.com
By Chris Cook and Bill Gray
Wildlife Biologists
Photo by Tess R. Jolly
Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries
Effective Food Plots for
White-tailed Deer in Alabama
by
Chris Cook and Bill Gray
Wildlife Biologists
Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries
M. Barnett Lawley M. N. ‘Corky” Pugh
Commissioner Director
Fred R. Harders Gary H. Moody
Assistant Director Chief, Wildlife Section
September 2005
Support for development of this publication was provided by the Wildlife Restoration
Program and the Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries with funds provided
by your purchase of hunting licenses and equipment.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Location and Size .......................................................................................................................... 1
Cool-Season Considerations ................................................................................................................. 3
Warm-Season Considerations .............................................................................................................. 4
Preparing to Plant ........................................................................................................................ 4
Soil Testing ............................................................................................................................................. 4
Interpreting Soil Test Results ............................................................................................................................... 5
Lime and Fertilizer ................................................................................................................................ 7
Tillage Considerations .......................................................................................................................... 8
Warm-Season Considerations ................................................................................................................................ 9
Subsoiler .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Chisel Plow ................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Moldboard Plow/Bottom Plow ................................................................................................................................ 9
What to Plant ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Cool-Season Choices ............................................................................................................................................. 11
Warm-Season Choices ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Inoculation of Legume Seed ............................................................................................................... 14
Applying the Seed ................................................................................................................................. 16
Covering the Seed ................................................................................................................................. 17
Exclosures ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Food Plot Maintenance .............................................................................................................. 18
Weed/Grass Control .............................................................................................................................. 18
Follow-up Fertilizer and Lime ........................................................................................................... 20
Cool-Season Food Plots ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Warm-Season Food Plots ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Fallowing ............................................................................................................................................... 20
Hunting and Food Plots ............................................................................................................ 21
Three-Acre Warm-Season Food Plot with Reversible Fencing ........................................ 22
Mineral Supplements ................................................................................................................. 23
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 24
References .................................................................................................................................... 25
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: Estimating the Size of Food Plots ..................................................................... 2
FIGURE 2: Estimating the Size of Odd-Shaped Food Plots ............................................. 2
FIGURE 3: Example of Report from Soil Testing Lab ....................................................... 6
FIGURE 4: Percentage of Soil Nutrients Not Available to Plants in Acidic Soils ...... 7
FIGURE 5: Production of Selected Cool-Season Crops ................................................... 10
FIGURE 6: Crude Protein Content of Selected Cool-Season Crops ............................. 11
FIGURE 7: Inoculation Groups and Codes for Legumes Commonly Planted for
Deer Forage .......................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 8: Helpful Hints for Successful Food Plots ........................................................ 16
FIGURE 9: Comparison of Six-Year Costs of a Three-Acre Reversible Fence
Lablab Food Plot vs. Supplemental Feeding of Whole Soybeans ............ 23
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: Suggested Cool-Season Seed Combinations for Deer ................................. 12
TABLE 2: Suggested Warm-Season Seed Combinations for Deer .............................. 13
The Department of Conservation and Natural Resources does not discriminate on the basis
of race, color, religion, age, gender, national origin, or disability in its hiring or employment
practices nor in admission to, access to, or operation of its programs, services, or activities.
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: Contact Information for Some Soil Testing Labs .................................. 28
APPENDIX 2: Cool-Season Planting Guide ....................................................................... 29
APPENDIX 3: Warm-Season Planting Guide ..................................................................... 38
APPENDIX 4: Useful Weights and Measures ..................................................................... 44
APPENDIX 5: Approximate Pounds Per Bushel and Seeds Per Pound of Some
Commonly Planted Deer Forages .............................................................. 45
APPENDIX 6: Additional Sources of Information on Food Plots and
White-tailed Deer Management ................................................................. 46
APPENDIX 7: Contact Information for Division of Wildlife and Freshwater
Fisheries, Wildlife Section Offices ............................................................ 47
Cover photo by Tes Randle Jolly.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of time, advice, resources, pho-
tos, and support by the following individuals and entities: Agriliance-AFC, Clayton,
Alabama; Dr. Don Ball, Auburn University; Bobby Cole, Mossy Oak-BioLogic; Kent
Kammermeyer, Georgia Department of Natural Resources; Kevin McKinstry, Westervelt
Wildlife Services; Muleshoe Plantation, LLC; Brian Murphy, Quality Deer Management
Association; Oregon State University Forage Information System; Potash & Phosphate
Institute and the Foundation for Agronomic Research, Norcross, Georgia; Brian Shep-
herd, Tecomate Wildlife Systems, LTD.; Jerry Stephenson, GROSouth, INC., Dothan,
Alabama; Lindsay Thomas, Quality Deer Management Association; and Dr. Grant Woods,
Woods and Associates, Inc./Mossy Oak-BioLogic.
The authors also thank the Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries
for its support, encouragement, and patience in the development of this publication as a
food plot management guide for landowners, deer hunters, and deer enthusiasts.
Introduction
Of all the management practices available for improving white-tailed deer habitat, none is more
popular in Alabama than planting agricultural crops in food plots. Millions of dollars are spent on
growing agricultural crops for deer each year. Historically, most food plots were planted with small
grains in the late-summer or early-fall. These food plots were planted primarily to attract deer to the
gun or bow during hunting season. Food plots now are an integral part of many intensive deer
habitat management programs. Today, more and more deer hunters and deer managers plant food
plots for reasons other than hunting only. Cool-season food plots are planted with highly nutritious
crops to help deer through nutritionally stressful periods. Warm-season crops are planted to provide
high-protein, high-quality food during the antler growing and fawn producing periods of spring and
summer. Warm-season crops also are planted to help deer through the nutritionally stressful late-
summer/early-fall period.
Food plots planted for deer also benefit many other species of wildlife. In addition to the obvious
increase in food production, food plots increase habitat diversity in forested landscapes by creating
openings and edge in areas where they normally would not exist. The openings and edges created by
the food plots allow plants that normally cannot survive in a forested landscape to flourish. Soil
disturbance, fertilization, and liming associated with preparing and planting food plots for deer also
enhance the quality and types of native plants that grow along the food plot edges. Many of the
native plants that grow along the edge of food plots provide feeding, nesting, and brood-rearing
habitat for wild turkeys, bobwhite quail, and many other game and non-game species of wildlife.
Regardless of the intended purpose of food plots, planning and preparing for planting food plots for
deer ahead of time provide the most benefit for your investment.
Location and Size
The first thing to decide before planting is where chances of reaching established harvest goals.
to plant. On many properties, the options are lim- Disperse plantings evenly over the property if
ited. Small log-loading decks, turn-arounds on dead the number and location of food plots are not limit-
end roads, or utility ing. Planted food
company rights-of- plots should be lo-
way may be the only cated away from
options. In cases public roads and
where space is lim- property lines. This
ited, it is best to lessens the chances
plant all possible ar- of poaching in these
eas in the fall. In areas. It also re-
these situations, duces the number of
planting numerous confrontations with
small food plots neighbors who like
probably will not to hunt on the prop-
provide much food erty line. Irregu-
for the deer, but larly shaped food
these small areas plots are preferred
may increase the where practical.
Planting agricultural crops for deer can be an important component
number of deer of an overall deer management program. These crops also enhance These irregularly
sightings and the the habitat of many other game and non-game wildlife species. shaped food plots
1
FIGURE 1: Estimating the Size of On the other hand, summers can be very dry in
Food Plots Alabama. Food plots planted during the spring and
summer should be located on sites that retain some
length
soil moisture, even during the dry times. Upland
r
sites should be avoided during this time because they
width
generally are the driest areas during the summer.
area of a circle = area of a rectangle or square = Other factors that determine the number and
radius squared (r2) x 3.1416 length x width
size of food plots are the purpose of the plantings
and the time of year the food plots are planted. Food
plots planted solely to attract deer during hunting
height
height
season do not have to be numerous or big. Under
the right situation, a one-half acre food plot placed
base
base
area of other triangles = in the right location and planted with the right crop
area of a right triangle =
1/2 (base x height)
1/2 (base x height at right angle works well. If the purpose of the plantings is to pro-
to base)
vide a supplemental food source for the deer, then
larger, more numerous food plots usually are bet-
have more edge than a square or circular food plot ter. To get the most nutritional benefit out of food
of the same size and should get more use since deer plots, a minimum of two percent of the total acre-
tend to feed close to the edge of most open areas. age of a property should be planted with high-qual-
A typical winter in Alabama is very wet. For ity cool and warm-season crops. For example, a
this reason, food plots planted with cool-season crops 2,000-acre tract should have at least 40 acres of
should be located in well-drained areas. Very few planted food plots evenly distributed over the prop-
crops commonly planted in the fall for deer can sur- erty. Even one percent or less of an area planted in
vive prolonged periods of flooding. Flooding also high-quality crops improves deer diets and enhances
makes these food plots useless for hunting. Upland reproduction, body growth, antler development, and
sites usually are great locations for fall and winter harvest.
plantings. It is important to determine a reasonable esti-
mate of each food plot’s total acreage. This
FIGURE 2: Estimating the Size of Odd-Shaped is important when determining seeding
Food Plots and fertilization rates. Under estimating
or over estimating food plot size results
Line 5
in too much or too little seed and fertil-
320 ft.
izer being put on the ground. This wastes
Line 6 money that could be used for other habi-
365 ft.
tat management practices or results in
Line 1 Line 2
Line 7 poor crop establishment and production.
130 ft. 140 ft.
155 ft. Acreage can be estimated by measuring
Line 3 the food plots by using pacing, a tape mea-
200 ft.
Line 4 sure, or a laser rangefinder. A square or
190 ft. rectangular food plot is the easiest to mea-
average width = (sum of lines 1-4) divided by 4 sure, but round and triangular shaped
average length = (sum of lines 5-7) divided by 3
estimated acreage = (average width x average length) divided by 43,560 food plots also can be estimated. Formu-
average width (130 ft. + 140 ft. + 200 ft. + 190 ft.) / 4 = 165 ft.
las for calculating acreage of several com-
average length (320 ft. + 365 ft. + 155 ft.) / 3 = 280 ft. mon shapes are shown in FIGURE 1.
estimated acreage (165 ft. x 280 ft.) / 43,560 = 1.06 acres
Remember, one acre is equal to 43,560
square feet. This is an area approximately
2
209’ X 209’ or 300’ X 145’.
Unfortunately, estimating food plot size is not
always this simple. Most food plots are odd shaped
and require a little more work to determine their
size. Measure the food plot’s width at several dif-
ferent points parallel across the food plot and then
calculate an average width in feet. Take more
measurements on larger food plots. Do the same
thing to determine an average length. Multiply
the average width by the average length and di-
vide by 43,560 to determine the total acreage. In
FIGURE 2 (page 2), the average width of the food
plot is 165 feet and the average length is 280 feet,
so the estimated acreage is 1.06 acres. Many GPS
units have features that calculate acreage. This
makes measuring any shape easy.
Cool-Season Considerations Evenly distributing well-prepared and managed food plots
Most cool-season food plots are planted to at- throughout a property ensures all deer have equal access
to high-quaility food.
tract deer to the gun or bow. Food plots and the
areas surrounding the food plots provide the pri-
mary and often only huntable locations on some and are highly attractive to deer during this time.
properties. This especially is true on properties with If feeding and not attracting deer for hunters is
extremely thick cover and very little visibility. Even the primary objective of cool-season crops plant as
on properties with more options for hunting stand many acres as possible. Attracting deer to a spe-
locations, increased deer activity in and around food cific food plot is not as important as having an ad-
plots can increase the number of deer sightings and equate supply of high-quality food during the nu-
improve hunter success. This is true even for rela- tritionally stressful late-winter/early-spring period.
tively small food plots (i.e., one-half acre or less). Most areas have very little naturally occurring foods
Small food plots can attract deer on a consistent ba- remaining by mid-winter. Also, deer have lost much
sis, particularly later in the season as other food of their fat reserves developed in the fall at this time.
sources become scarce. This is particularly true for bucks during the post-
Some consideration must be given to the num- rut period. High-quality food plots planted with
ber of hunting food plots planted in the fall. If hunt- highly palatable and digestible crops can be impor-
ing near or in food plots is the primary hunting strat- tant in helping deer stay in good condition and even
egy and the number of food plots available to plant survive until the flush of new growth of naturally
is not limited, plant fewer hunting food plots. Lim- occurring foods arrives at spring green-up.
iting the number of hunting food plots increases the As a rule, most food plots planted during the
chances of attracting deer to a specific food plot. cool-season should be one to three acres. Crops typi-
Plant these food plots with crops that actively grow cally planted during the cooler months can handle
and attract deer during the hunting season. Crops a substantial amount of grazing pressure. A two-
such as small grains (e.g., wheat, oats, rye, and triti- acre food plot planted with the right combination of
cale), winter peas, and the various Brassica species crops can produce a great deal of forage for eight or
(e.g., rape, turnips, kale) are excellent choices for more months during the fall, winter, and early-
hunting food plots. These crops reach their peak spring months.
production during mid-winter (November-January)
3
Warm-Season Considerations money are limiting, decide which food plots produce
Before considering a warm-season planting pro- best and plant these with highly productive, highly
gram, deer managers should realize such an en- nutritious crops. The benefits may not be as sub-
deavor requires considerable acreage. The one-half stantial as when time and money are not limiting,
to one-acre food plots common with most cool-sea- but even a few food plots of adequate size are better
son plantings do not provide the necessary acreage than none at all.
to ensure a successful warm-season crop. Although
deer densities vary from one location to the next, it
is rare that warm-season food plots of less than three Preparing to Plant
acres yield desired results on any property. Because
most warm-season plantings are highly preferred Soil Testing
by deer, larger food plots are required to ensure that Once the locations of the food plots are estab-
a significant portion of the crop persists to matu- lished, soil samples should be taken from each area
rity. Smaller food plots eaten down in a matter of to be planted and sent to a soil testing lab for analy-
days, or even weeks, provide no real benefit in terms sis. A soil test determines how much lime and fer-
of nutritional enhancement. The whole idea of tilizer is needed to grow a specific crop to its maxi-
warm-season food plots is to provide access to high- mum potential. Soil tests should be conducted at
quality forage on a sustained basis. If these acre- least every two years. Tremendous amounts of nu-
age requirements cannot be met (i.e., food plots >3 trients are removed from the soil each year by the
acres), engaging in a warm-season planting program growing plants and by leaching due to rain.
often is a waste of time and money. Taking a soil sample is an easy task. The only
In areas of higher deer densities, use of a re- materials needed are a shovel or soil probe, a clean
versible or “plot saver” type fence may be required bucket, and boxes or bags to ship the samples. Boxes
to establish warm-season crops in food plots less than often are available at no cost from the county exten-
three acres. Companion plants, such as corn, grain sion office or at many feed and seed stores. Take
sorghum, or sunflowers, provide some relief from the sample using the shovel or soil probe. The
early grazing pressure and serve as growing plat-
forms for many forage plants, such as lablab and
cowpeas. In nearly all of these situations, reducing
the deer population to a level compatible with the
habitat is a much wiser management practice than
planting warm-season food plots.
At least one three-acre or larger warm-season
food plot per 160 acres is necessary to provide maxi-
mum nutritional benefit to all deer on a property.
Food plots should be evenly distributed across the
property on a food plot per 160-acre grid (quarter
section). If possible, warm-season food plots should
be used exclusively for warm-season plantings and
not double cropped with cool-season plantings.
As with anything, the final determining factors
on the size and number of food plots to plant are
available time and money. If time and money are
not limiting, plant as many acres as practical with Take subsamples from the top six inches of soil using a
soil probe or shovel. Take subsamples from all portions
the most productive plants available. If time and of the food plot. CHRIS COOK
4
tilizer recommendations are accurate. Soil types and
fertility can vary from one end of a large food plot to
the other. Taking only one sample from this food
plot can give inaccurate test results. Subsamples
from larger food plots should be mixed together in a
clean bucket and one sample from the entire food
plot should then be taken from these mixed
subsamples. On food plots three acres or larger, two
or three samples may be needed to get an accurate
report from the soil testing lab.
Place approximately 1-1/2 to 2 cups of the soil
in a container (e.g., cardboard box, paper bag) suit-
able for shipping to the soil testing lab. Label the
sample with the name of the food plot and the crop
to be planted. If more than one food plot is tested
and their locations or names are not written on the
samples, it will be impossible to match test results
with the source food plot. Different crops have dif-
ferent pH and nutrient requirements. Make sure
the crops to be planted are indicated on the con-
tainer so the lab can make the correct recommen-
dations.
Most soil testing labs charge a small fee (FIGURE 3: Example of Report from Soil Testing Lab
REPORT ON SOIL TESTS
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
SOIL TESTING LABORATORY
NAME JOE HUNTER COUNTY MONTGOMERY
ADDRESS 123 MAIN STREET DATE 7/1/05
CITY MONTGOMERY, AL 36130
SOIL TEST RESULTS RECOMMENDATIONS
SENDER’S CROP SOIL* Phosphorous Potassium Magnesium Calcium LIME- N P 2 O5 K 2O
LAB SAMPLE TO BE GROUP pH** P*** K*** Mg*** Ca*** STONE
No. DESIGNATION GROWN
Pounds Per Acre Tons/Acre Pounds Per Acre
2002 PANTHER WHEAT/OATS 1 5.7 VH 121 L 33 H 72 350 1.0 100 0 70
FIELD
SEE COMMENTS 4
and 224
2003 PANTHER CLOVER 1 5.7 VH 121 L 33 H 72 350 1.0 0 0 130
FIELD
SEE COMMENTS 4,
224, and 7
COMMENT NO. 4: On grass legume mixtures, apply 60 pounds of N in early spring unless no additional forage
growth is needed or the legume occupies one-half or more of the ground cover.
COMMENT NO. 224: Soil acidity (low pH) can be corrected with either dolomitic lime or calcitic lime.
COMMENT NO. 7: For reseeding clover, or clover seed harvest, apply 1 to 1.5 pounds B (boron) per acre.
FINAL COMMENT: As a precautionary measure, consider applying 10 lb. sulfur per acre per year.
Mixed fertilizers often contain enough sulfur to apply this amount.
* 1. Sandy soils (CEC9.0 cmolckg-1)
2. Loams and Light clays (CEC=4.6-9.0 cmolckg-1) 4. Clays of the Blackbelt (CEC>9.0 cmolckg-1)
** 7.4 or higher - Alkaline 6.6-7.3 - Neutral 6.5 or lower - Acid 5.5 or lower - Strongly Acid
*** Extractable nutrients in pounds per acre
bag of fertilizer. A 50 lb. bag of 13-13-13 fertilizer mend an application of 0 lbs. of N, 0 lbs. of P, and
contains 6.5 lbs. of N, 6.5 lbs. of P, and 6.5 lbs. of K. 130 lbs. of K. An application of 220 lbs. of muriate
On the other hand, soil test results give recommen- of potash (K) per acre is all that is needed to meet
dations as pounds per acre. In FIGURE 3 (above), the fertilizer needs of clover on this food plot. The
the soil test report for the Panther Field sample rec- pH for this food plot is 5.4. The soil-testing lab rec-
ommends an application of 100 lbs. of N, 0 lbs. of P, ommends applying one ton of dolomitic or calcitic
and 70 lbs. of K per acre if only wheat and oats are lime per acre to correct the soil pH.
planted (Lab Number 2002). An application of 300 In addition to recommendation for N, P, K, and
lbs. of ammonium nitrate (34-0-0 fertilizer) and 120 limestone, recommendations for secondary nutri-
lbs. of muriate of potash (0-0-60 fertilizer) per acre ents, such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
will yield 102 lbs. of N and 72 lbs. of K per acre. sulfur (S), and micronutrients, such as boron (B),
This fertilizer application will meet the recom- manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu), also
mended rates for N, P, and K. If only clover is may be given on soil test results. These recommen-
planted (Lab Number 2003), the test results recom- dations usually appear as comments attached to the
6soil test results. Recommendations for these nutri- on a farm tractor may be necessary on harder to
ents most often are expressed in pounds per acre. access food plots, but this method can be very labor
In FIGURE 3 (page 6), the soil testing lab recom- intensive. The limestone can be applied to either
mends adding 10 lbs. of sulfur per acre as a precau- plowed or unplowed food plots, but plowing it in af-
tionary measure. Sulfur can increase yields and ter application enables it to work faster.
nitrogen use efficiency in some crops. Most com- Other sources of lime, such as hydrated lime or
plete fertilizers, such as 13-13-13, contain enough pelletized lime, are available for correcting soil pH.
sulfur to cover this recommendation. High analysis Many of these products are more convenient than
fertilizers, such as 34-0-0 and 0-0-60, usually do not limestone since they can be applied with smaller
have this much sulfur as a component, so adding equipment in areas inaccessible to a spreader truck
sulfur is a good idea. In FIGURE 3 (page 6), the or tractor and spreader buggy. The recommenda-
soil testing lab also recommends adding 1.0 to 1.5 tions for lime on soil test results are given for lime-
lbs. of boron (B) per acre if reseeding clovers, such stone, which has a calcium carbonate equivalent
as crimson clover and arrowleaf clover, are planted. (CCE) of 100. Pelletized lime has a CCE of 100 and
Adding boron improves seed production in these can be applied at the same rate as limestone. Some
crops, which reduces future planting costs. Alfalfa of the other forms of lime have a CCE much higher
requires slightly more boron (3.0 lbs. per acre) for than 100 and do not require as much product to raise
adequate seed production. Farmers’ co-ops and most the soil pH. For example, quick lime or burnt lime
seed and fertilizer dealers can provide further as- has a CCE of at least 140 and hydrated lime or
sistance with interpretation of soil test results. builder’s lime has a CCE of at least 110. Divide 100
by the CCE of the product being used and multiply
Lime and Fertilizer
To get the most production from a crop, FIGURE 4: Percentage of Soil Nutrients Not
it is very important to follow the lime and Available to Plants in Acidic Soils
fertilizer recommendations exactly. Skimp-
Soil Acidity Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium
ing on lime and fertilizer results in wasted
Not Available Not Available Not Available
money and crops that do not produce to their
potential. Of the two, the most benefit is Extremely
gained from adding the recommended Acid 70% 77% 67%
4.5 pH
amount of lime to raise the soil pH to the rec-
ommended level. Having the soil pH in the Very Strong
optimum 6.5 to 7.0 range enables plants to Acid 47% 66% 48%
utilize a much larger percentage of the avail- 5.0 pH
able soil nutrients than when the soil pH is
Strongly
more acidic (see FIGURE 4) or basic. Acid 23% 52% 23%
Apply lime well in advance of planting. 5.5 pH
Apply the lime three to six months ahead of
Medium
time to give the lime adequate time to affect
Acid 11% 48% 0%
the soil’s chemistry and increase the soil pH. 6.0 pH
Since lime is typically applied in the form of
limestone, several thousand pounds per acre Neutral
7.0 pH 0% 0% 0%
often are required to correct soil pH. It is
best to have the product applied with a
spreader truck or with a spreader buggy Figure 4 shows the high percentage of soil nutrients tied up by
pulled behind a tractor. Distributing lime- low pH soils. Low soil pH prevents plants from utilizing soil
nutrients as they should.
stone with a normal seed/fertilizer spreader
7Tillage Considerations
Preparing a firm, smooth seed bed is essential
for a good food plot. A good seed bed improves seed
to soil contact, improves seed germination, and leads
to better crop establishment. This all results in bet-
ter forage production.
Seed bed preparation starts with the removal
of existing vegetation. Mowing or bush-hogging
existing vegetation just prior to plowing is the most
common way to accomplish this. The biggest prob-
lem with mowing just prior to planting is the layer
of freshly-cut green vegetation makes it difficult to
get adequate soil disturbance with the type of farm
implements used by most hunting clubs and small
landowners. A very heavy disc harrow can cut and
bury the vegetation sufficiently, but most food plots
The easiest and quickest way to apply lime is with a for deer are prepared using relatively light equip-
large-capacity buggy or spreader truck. These are
available at most agricultural supply stores and farmers’ ment. Mowing vegetation two weeks ahead of
cooperatives. CHRIS COOK discing or tilling allows enough time for much of the
mowed vegetation to decay and break down. This
it by the limestone recommendation of the soil test
report to determine the amount of these products
needed to equal the recommended amount of lime-
stone. For example, if a soil test recommends 2 tons
(4,000 lbs.) of limestone per acre, only 3,200 lbs. of a
product with a CCE of 125 is needed [(100/125) x
4,000 lbs./acre = 3,200 lbs./acre]. Consult with some-
one knowledgeable in this field, such as a county
extension specialist or someone at an agriculture
supply center, before using these products.
Apply fertilizer at the time of planting. Fertil-
izer is easily applied with a spin-type seed/fertilizer
spreader or a spreader buggy. Using the smaller
spin-type spreader allows better control of fertilizer
distribution than the buggy and generally works best
on average-sized food plots.
Plow, disc, or till the fertilizer into the soil before
applying the seed for best results. Some components Applying a broad-spectrum herbicide, such as
of fertilizer, for example phosphorous, are not mobile glyphosate, well ahead of planting makes plowing and
preparing a proper seed bed easier. CHRIS COOK
in the soil. They need to be distributed in the root
region of the soil (the top four to six inches) to im- makes discing or tilling easier than discing or till-
prove utilization by the plants. Allowing the fertil- ing immediately after mowing.
izer to remain on the soil surface leaves most of these Another method to make discing or tilling easier,
immobile components out of reach of the plant roots. even with smaller and lighter farm implements, is
Plowing, discing, or tilling too deep also puts much of to spray the existing vegetation with glyphosate her-
the fertilizer out of the plant’s reach. bicide (e.g., Roundup®, Glypro®, Gly-Flo®) at la-
8beled rates one month or more before mowing, till-
ing, or planting. Glyphosate kills the growing
grasses and broadleaf plants. Only dry brittle plant
material remains at planting time. In many in-
stances, mowing is not necessary prior to tilling, but
closely mowing the dead vegetation makes tilling
the soil with a disc harrow more effective. Closely
mowing the dead vegetation also prepares food plots
for planting with a no-till planter. Plowing, discing,
or tilling the top four to six inches of soil is adequate
for most cool-season food plots, since most cool-sea-
son crops (e.g., small grains, clovers) are shallow-
rooted.
Warm-Season Considerations
Unlike most cool-season crops, many high-
quality warm-season forages are deep-rooted A moldboard or bottom plow deeply buries unwanted
plants. Deep roots enable these plants to hold up weed seed and prevents them from germinating. This
helps reduce future weed problems. CHRIS COOK
better under droughty conditions. The presence
of a hardpan prevents these plants from estab- like a subsoiler, but it does fracture the soil well
lishing deep root systems. A hardpan forms over enough, breaks up clods, and opens up the soil.
time under the stresses of compaction. Compac- It is a good all around deep tillage implement.
tion can be the result of frequent use of heavy One drawback of the chisel plow is it can actually
farm or logging equipment, or even cattle tram- enhance weed growth. It is recommended that
pling the ground over a period of time, such as in any new ground to be chisel plowed be sprayed
a pasture. In these situations, a disc harrow alone with glyphosate herbicide (e.g., Roundup®,
is not a sufficient way to till the soil. Deep till- Glypro®, Gly-Flo®) at labeled rates prior to plow-
age often is necessary to break up a hardpan and ing.
provide optimum growing conditions for these
Moldboard Plow/Bottom Plow
warm-season forages. There are several options/
implements available for this task. A moldboard or bottom plow does not frac-
ture any hardpan that may be present. However,
Subsoiler it serves to bury weed seeds deep enough to pre-
This implement shatters any hardpan and vent them from germinating and is one of the best
rips from 14-20 inches deep. One drawback of a methods for cleaning up “dirty” food plots. Soil
subsoiler is it requires a fairly large tractor (i.e., moisture must be right to properly use a mold-
40-50 hp per shank). Depending on the amount board or bottom plow. If the soil is too wet, this
of tractor traffic on a food plot, this operation operation produces a food plot of wet clods and if
should be performed every other year. the soil is too dry, this operation produces a food
plot of dry clods. Proper soil moisture is more
Chisel Plow critical in heavy loams or clays—sandier soils tend
A chisel plow breaks up some hardpan and to be more forgiving. At least 25 horsepower (hp)
penetrates 12-15 inches deep. It requires less hp per plow is necessary for proper operation. Soil
than a subsoiler. Generally, 20-30 hp per shank test after using a moldboard or bottom plow, as
is sufficient to operate this implement. On aver- low-pH soils may be brought to the surface dur-
age, this implement does not fracture hardpans ing this operation.
9What to Plant It is best to plant a combination of seeds in food
Just as the decision of size and number of food plots. This applies to both warm-season and cool-
plots depends on the purpose of the plantings, the season crops. Planting a combination helps mini-
decision of what species to plant also depends on mize the chances of total crop failure due to drought,
the purpose and timing of the plantings. Cool and poor seed, pests, diseases, or any of a number of other
warm-season plantings both must be attractive and problems. Ideally, the various plants in the combi-
easily digestible, contain adequate levels of protein nation mature at different times and extend the pro-
and energy, and produce enough tonnage of palat- ductivity of the food plots. The production levels of
able vegetation/seeds to warrant the expense of several commonly planted cool-season crops are
planting. In addition, each period (cool and warm- shown in FIGURE 5 (below). The crude protein
season) has specific considerations deer managers levels for the same crops are shown in FIGURE 6
should address before, during, and after planting. (page 11). By combining specific plants, food plots
The wide array of available seed species and va- planted in the fall can remain productive and nutri-
rieties often makes it difficult to decide the best thing tious well into the following summer. Using combi-
to plant for white-tailed deer. New crop varieties nations also reduces grazing pressure on certain
appear on the market each year, making the deci- crops until they become established.
sion even more difficult. Many of these new crops There are many commercially available warm
show promise as deer forages. They are highly nu- and cool-season seed combinations currently on the
tritious and highly palatable and many grow on a market. Many of these combinations are very ex-
wide variety of sites. Unfortunately, many of these pensive and most deer managers are skeptical of
new crops are expensive, which is a major draw- the advertised claims of production and deer utili-
back for most hunting clubs and landowners. Still zation. Through trial and error, most deer manag-
others do not produce as advertised. Luckily, sev- ers find it cheaper to purchase different seeds indi-
eral crops used by wildlife managers over the years vidually and blend the combinations themselves.
are consistent producers of high-quality forage. Al- However, some prepackaged mixtures contain hard
ways choose the seed varieties best suited for the to find, but effective, forage species not readily avail-
food plot sites, soils, and climate. able to most deer managers. Again, trial and error
FIGURE 5: Production of Selected Cool-Season Crops
1,800
1,600
1,400
PRODUCTION
1,200
(lbs/ac)
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug.
DATE
Red Clover Crimson Clover Arrowleaf Clover Wheat Oats
10FIGURE 6: Crude Protein Content of Selected Cool-Season Crops
35
30
% CRUDE PROTEIN
25
20
15
10
5
0
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug.
DATE
Red Clover Crimson Clover Arrowleaf Clover Wheat Oats
often is required to determine which commercially spring, are highly nutritious and palatable to deer,
available combinations deliver as promised. The and extend the productivity of cool-season food plots
best rule of thumb on purchasing and planting pre- well beyond spring green-up. Other species of clo-
packaged seed combinations for the first time is test vers, such as red and arrowleaf, reach maturity even
the seed in small plantings and do not rely solely on later in the year—further extending the productiv-
advertised claims. ity of most cool-season food plots.
Cool-Season Crop Choices
Crop choices for cool-season food plots are de-
termined by the purpose of the planting. Hunting
food plots should be planted with crops that are pal-
atable and productive during hunting season. The
various small grains, including wheat, oats, rye, and
triticale, are the most common choices. Other
choices include winter peas (e.g., Austrian winter
peas) and the many plants in the Brassica family
(e.g., rape, kale, turnips). These crops are quickly
established, highly productive, and attractive to deer
throughout hunting season.
Cool-season food plots planted primarily to feed
deer during the nutritionally stressful winter and
early-spring period should include later maturing
crops, in addition to small grains. The various spe-
cies of clovers make excellent additions to cool-sea- Plant a combination of crops (e.g., small grains, clovers,
son food plot seed combinations. Many clover spe- and brassicas) in cool-season food plots to increase
seasonal food plot productivity, nutrient levels, and deer
cies (e.g., berseem, crimson, subterranean) reach
utilization of the food plots. CHRIS COOK
peak productivity during late-winter and early-
11TABLE 1: Suggested Cool-Season Seed Combinations for Deer
Meat and Taters Combo Creek Bottom 6.5 Combo
Wheat 50 lbs. Wheat 40 lbs.
Oats 35 lbs. Alfalfa 15 lbs.
Crimson Clover 15 lbs. White (Ladino) Clover 5 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $45.00 Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $84.00
Standard Alabama Deer Combo Super Clover Combo
Wheat 45 lbs. Wheat 40 lbs.
Oats 30 lbs. Crimson Clover 15 lbs.
Crimson Clover 15 lbs. Red Clover 10 lbs.
Arrowleaf or Red Clover 10 lbs. White (Ladino) Clover 5 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $67.00 Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $78.00
Hot and Cold Comboa Cadillac Combo
Wheat 40 lbs. Wheat 30 lbs.
Oats 20 lbs. Oats 20 lbs.
Austrian Winter Pea 15 lbs. Austrian Winter Peas 15 lbs.
Crimson Clover 10 lbs. Crimson Clover 10 lbs.
Red Clover 8 lbs. Red Clover 8 lbs.
Rape 5 lbs. White (Ladino) Clover 5 lbs.
Chicory 2 lbs. Chicory 2 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $85.00 Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $93.00
Hunting Season Supreme Combo Perennial Clover and Chicory Combo
Wheat 60 lbs. Wheat 40 lbs.
Austrian Winter Pea 25 lbs. Red Clover 10 lbs.
Crimson Clover 15 lbs. White (Ladino) Clover 5 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $50.00 Chicory 2 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $72.00
a
Exclude chicory if planting as an annual food plot.
Seeding rates are for one acre.
Seed costs estimated using 2005 prices.
One of the best combinations for an all-purpose, during most of the year and persists indefinitely if
annual cool-season food plot in Alabama includes properly planted and maintained. Chicory also can
wheat (45 pounds per acre), oats (30 pounds per be added to this perennial mix at a rate of 2 pounds
acre), crimson clover (15 pounds per acre), and ar- per acre. Like ladino clover, chicory persists for sev-
rowleaf clover (10 pounds per acre). This seed com- eral years if properly managed. Annual labor, equip-
bination works in a wide variety of soil types. If ment, and seed costs drop significantly if food plots
planted in late September or early October, this mix- remain productive for two or more years without
ture remains productive and palatable from Novem- replanting.
ber through June. Red clover (10 pounds per acre) Planting dates and seeding rates for other
can be substituted for arrowleaf clover on more fer- commonly planted cool-season forages are found
tile sites. Using red clover extends the productivity in APPENDIX 2 (pages 29-37).
of a fall food plot well into late-summer (August or
September) in years with adequate rainfall. These Warm-Season Crop Choices
and other cool-season combinations are listed in Ideal warm-season forages are preferred by
TABLE 1 (above). deer, drought tolerant, suited to a wide variety of
A popular perennial clover mix planted in the soils, and able to withstand considerable grazing
fall includes white (ladino) clover (5 pounds per acre), pressure once established. Also, protein levels
red clover (10 pounds per acre), and wheat (40 should remain at approximately 17 percent or
pounds per acre). This combination provides high- greater throughout the life of the planting. Because
quality forage all the way though the summer weeds often are a significant problem during the
months. Ladino clover is a nutritious food source warm-season, legumes generally are the best choice
12TABLE 2: Suggested Warm-Season Seed Combinations for Deer
Safe and Simple Combo Muleshoe Standard Comboa
Cowpeas 40 lbs. Lablab 10 lbs.
Grain Sorghum 8 lbs. Corn 5 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $48.00 Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $38.00
Indian Blanket Combo Dove and Deer Combo
Alyce Clover 10 lbs. Soybeans 40 lbs.
Aeschynomene 10 lbs. Peredovik Sunflowers 10 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $120.00 Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $36.00
Pro-Carb Combo All In One Combo
Cowpeas 40 lbs. Cowpeas 40 lbs.
Lablab 10 lbs. Alyce Clover 10 lbs.
Peredovik Sunflowers 5 lbs. Hairy Indigo 10 lbs.
Grain Sorghum 5 lbs. Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $128.00
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $76.00
No Hassle Combo
Dustbuster Combo Cowpeas 40 lbs.
Cowpeas 40 lbs. Buckwheat 15 lbs.
Aeschynomene 10 lbs. Grain Sorghum 5 lbs.
Grain Sorghum 8 lbs. Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $56.00
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $118.00
` Kitchen Sink Combo
Heavy Hitter Combo Soybeans 25 lbs.
Soybeans 25 lbs. Cowpeas 15 lbs.
Lablab 10 lbs. Lablab 10 lbs.
Grain Sorghum 8 lbs. Peredovik Sunflowers 5 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $54.00 Grain Sorghum 5 lbs.
Estimated Seed Cost Per Acre $69.00
a
Seeding rate is for row planter (plate type). If broadcasting seed, increase seeding rate to 20 lbs. of lablab
and 10 lbs. of corn.
Seeding rates are for one acre.
Seed costs estimated using 2005 prices.
since they are not only high in protein, but lend ghum. Alyce clover is quite drought tolerant, but
themselves to the application of selective herbicides does not do well on extremely moist or wet sites.
often necessary to control weed competition. Aeschynomene is somewhat shade tolerant and can
If improvements to body weights and antler de- be planted with success in thinned pine stands.
velopment are a primary goal of a warm-season Buckwheat is another warm-season choice that
planting program, use of legumes nearly always is may work well for some deer managers. Buckwheat
recommended. This is especially true if a single spe- can be established with minimal preparation and
cies is planted. Lablab, soybeans, and cowpeas are grows quickly to out compete undesirable weeds and
perhaps the best choices for use across Alabama. grasses in the absence of heavy grazing pressure
Alyce clover, Aeschynomene (American joint- during the first few weeks of growth. It is short-
vetch), and hairy indigo are other high-quality, lived, which limits the time it is available to deer.
warm-season legumes often planted for deer, but Buckwheat generally is best suited as a companion
they are somewhat less preferred and more expen- plant with other forages, such as alyce clover.
sive than the three previously mentioned plants. Forages that provide energy and fat can be an
However, deer preference can be site specific and important part of a warm-season planting program.
some managers may experience heavy use with the Corn and grain sorghum are perhaps the best
latter species. These plants work best when planted choices for use across Alabama. Corn is highly pre-
in combination with other high-quality legumes or ferred by deer and can help build fat reserves for
high-carbohydrate forages, such as corn or grain sor- the winter months, but its protein level is below the
13son combination plantings is corn and lablab. This
combination can provide nutritious forage from
spring until first frost, with energy rich corn avail-
able into late-winter. Planted together, lablab
produces nitrogen that in turn benefits the com-
panion corn plants. Seeding rates for this combi-
nation also are low (5 pounds of corn and 10
pounds of lablab per acre). This makes it a truly
economical forage planting. Other simple combi-
nations include a mixture of grain sorghum (8
pounds per acre) and cowpeas (40 pounds per
acre), or sunflowers (10 pounds per acre) and soy-
beans (40 pounds per acre). These and other sug-
gested warm-season combinations are listed in
TABLE 2 (page 13). A complete planting guide for
most warm-season crops is found in APPENDIX 3
The combination of corn and lablab is an excellent choice (pages 38-43).
for warm-season food plots. CHRIS COOK
16-18 percent level needed for deer to achieve opti- Inoculation of Legume Seed
mum antler, skeletal, and muscular development. Legumes, such as clover, soybeans, and lablab,
Another drawback of corn is the expense and diffi- are able to obtain large amounts of nitrogen from
culty in growing a good crop. Grain sorghum is simi- the air. They are able to do this because of the sym-
lar to corn in nutritional quality and grows over a biotic (mutually beneficial) relationship these plants
wider variety of soils. Grain sorghum is more have with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the genera
drought tolerant than corn and requires less main- Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium. The bacteria live
tenance to produce a good crop. in the roots of the legumes and obtain nitrogen from
Sunflowers also can provide many benefits simi- the soil. The nitrogen is “fixed” in a form usable by
lar to corn and grain sorghum. Deer of-
ten utilize the young plants and seed
heads of sunflowers, which reduces seed
production. Sunflowers also can provide
an excellent attractant to doves when
planted in larger food plots and should
definitely be a part of the planting pro-
gram if dove hunting is a consideration.
Planting a combination of high-pro-
tein and high-carbohydrate forages dur-
ing the spring and summer provides deer
a more nutritionally complete choice of
foods. The taller, erect nature of corn,
grain sorghum, and sunflowers allows
vining plants, such as lablab, cowpeas,
and some varieties of soybeans, to climb Legumes, such as arrowleaf clover, cannot properly fix nitrogen
among their stalks and can help reduce without adequate seed inoculation. Inadequate seed inoculation
stunts both plant growth and quality.
early overgrazing. POTASH AND PHOSPHATE INSTITUTE
One of the most effective warm-sea-
14FIGURE 7: Inoculation Groups and Codes for Legumes to use. The inoculant is a living
Commonly Planted for Deer Forage organism and should be handled
as such. Some of the bacteria will
Alfalfa Group Clover Group
(Rhizobium meliloti) (Rhizobium trifolii) persist in the soil for several
Alfalfa - Code A Alsike Clover - Code B years after the initial planting, so
White Sweetclover - Code A Arrowleaf Clover - Code O
Yellow Sweetclover - Code A Ball Clover - Code B it may not be absolutely neces-
Berseem Clover - Code R sary to inoculate legume seed ev-
Crimson Clover - Code R
Ladino Clover - Code B ery year if the same crop is
Red Clover - Code B planted in the same food plots
Subterranean Clover - Code WR
White Clover - Code B year after year. On the other
Cowpea Group Pea and Vetch Group
hand, applying inoculant each
(Bradyrhizobium japonicum spp.) (Rhizobium leguminosarum) time legumes are planted is in-
Aeschynomene - Code EL Austrian Winter Pea - Code C
Alyce Clover - Code EL Bigflower Vetch - Code C expensive and helps ensure a
Cowpeas - Code EL Caleypea - Code C healthy, productive stand of high-
Lablab - Code EL Common Vetch - Code C
Lespedeza - Code EL Field Pea - Code C quality deer forage.
Partridge Pea - Code EL Flat Pea - Code C The seed should be moist-
Peanut - Code EL Hairy Vetch - Code C
ened with a sticking agent prior
Other* to applying the inoculant. Com-
Birdsfoot Trefoil (Rhizobium loti) - Code K
Soybean (Rhizobium japonicum) - Code S mercial products are available,
but a small amount of sugar wa-
* The same inoculum can be used for all species listed within an
inoculation group except for legumes listed under Other and those ter (i.e., four parts water, one part
which require species-specific strains. sugar) can be used. Do not use
colas. The acidity of these soft
One type of inoculant does not work for all legumes. The chart above lists
the inoculant groups and codes for most legumes commonly planted for drinks can kill the bacteria. Ap-
deer forage. ply just enough to lightly moisten
the seed. Stir the seed to make
the legumes and stored in nodules that form on the
plant’s roots. Legumes can fix 100 to 300 pounds of
nitrogen per acre, per year. This process not only
produces enough nitrogen for the legumes, but com-
panion plants, such as wheat, corn, or grain sor-
ghum, also can use some of the excess nitrogen pro-
duced by the legumes.
Large numbers of these bacteria must be present
in the soil for the nitrogen fixing process to occur
efficiently. This requires inoculating the seeds with
live bacteria. Many of the smaller legume seeds,
such as white clover, ladino clover, alfalfa, and red
clover, come pre-inoculated, but most legume seeds
must be inoculated at planting time. Inoculants are
species-specific (see FIGURE 7), so it is important
to read the package and make sure the correct in-
oculant is used. In addition, make sure the expira-
Inoculate legume seed in a separate container and allow
tion date on the package of inoculant has not passed.
the seed to dry before planting. This prevents clumping
The inoculant should be kept out of direct sunlight and improves seed distribution during planting.
at a temperature between 40 and 70 degrees prior KEVIN McKINSTRY
15sure all of the seed are moistened. Apply the inocu- fence, etc.) on a plowed food plot prior to applying
lant according to directions on the package. Stir seed to create a smooth, firm seedbed. This is a
the seed once again to make sure all seed have some very important step in the planting process. This
inoculant attached. The seed should be spread and is an especially true if small seed, such as clover,
allowed to dry before planting. Spreading the seed rape, or alfalfa, are to be broadcasted. This step is
on a bed sheet, piece of plastic, or newspaper works not necessary if a grain drill or row planter is used
well. Remember, direct light and heat can kill the to plant the seed. No-till drills are another option
bacteria so place the seed in the shade to dry. Al- and work well in some situations, especially when
lowing the seed time to dry before planting is im- retaining soil moisture is critical. Remember seed-
portant because it prevents damp seed from clump- ing rates vary depending on the method used to
ing together, which results in an uneven distribu- plant. Broadcast seeding typically requires a larger
tion of seed. amount of seed than drilling or row planting. These
differences are noted in APPENDIX 2 (pages 29-37)
Applying the Seed and APPENDIX 3 (pages 38-43).
Seed should be applied to a firm, well-prepared Regardless of the planting method, it is impor-
seedbed to help ensure the seed have good soil con- tant to distribute the seed uniformly across the food
tact and are covered to a uniform depth. Use a culti- plot. To do this, apply large (e.g, wheat, oats, win-
packer or drag (log, heavy pipe, section of chain link ter peas) and small (e.g., clover, alfalfa, rape, chicory)
FIGURE 8: Helpful Hints for Successful Food Plots
- After mowing a food plot, be sure to clean weed seeds and other clippings from the mower deck. A small broom
makes removal of plant debris a relatively quick procedure. This practice helps reduce the spread of weeds and
other undesirable vegetation from one food plot to the next.
- If access to water is a problem when spraying herbicides, a 12-volt bilge pump and a 55-gallon drum or large
garbage can can provide water in remote areas. Mount the bilge pump to a section of PVC pipe, connect a
sufficient length of flexible bilge hose, and submerge in the water storage tank. A power source (12-volt battery)
is all that is necessary to refill your spray tank.
- Be sure to keep extra top-link, lift-arm, and snap-pins on hand. These items often are lost or damaged while
planting—having spares will save valuable time.
- Before planting, make sure tractors and implements are properly serviced and in good working condition. Be
sure to grease all lubrication points and be sure bearings are in good condition.
- Keep a chainsaw on hand, along with a section of strong chain or rope. Fallen trees and large limbs can be
cleared in a matter of minutes with this equipment.
- It is a good idea to have a cellular phone or some other method of communication on hand—they can be lifesavers
in cases of medical emergency.
- A basic set of tools is a must and should include a hammer, screwdrivers, adjustable wrench, pliers, and a pipe
wrench. Many repairs can be handled in the field with these tools—a pipe wrench can make tightening disc
axles an easy chore.
- Eye and ear protection are always good ideas. A long day of operating a tractor can take a toll on one’s hearing
and unseen limbs can cause a serious eye injury. A dust mask will reduce respiratory irritation caused by dust,
pollen, and other plant residues.
- Keep bungee cords on hand—they have a variety of uses, including securing tool boxes, water jugs, and empty
seed and fertilizer bags to trailers, ATVs, and tractor implements.
- Above all, be safe and take your time. Most accidents and equipment failures are the result of “getting in a
hurry” to finish the job. An extra hour or even an extra day is well worth preventing injuries or costly repairs.
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