Digital Mediatization and the Sharpening of Malaysian Political Contests
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Digital Mediatization and the
Sharpening of Malaysian Political
Contests
By Pauline Pooi Yin Leong
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
• The introduction of the Multimedia Super Corridor in 1996 was
due to the Malaysian government’s initiative to tap into the ICT
sector. While this move spearheaded Malaysia into the knowledge
economy, digital media enabled the opposition and civil society to
compete and break the government’s monopoly over information
flows.
• Digital mediatization of politics in Malaysia encouraged
cyberattacks such as DDoS attacks, hacking and spamming.
Cyberbullying on social media is also on the rise.
• Information warfare is being perpetuated by organized teams
of cybertroopers who disseminate propaganda, fake news, and
disinformation in order to influence public opinion.
• Digital mediatization of politics has opened up the public sphere and
given ordinary citizens, especially youths, the opportunity to voice
their opinions on the issues of the day. Social media campaigns,
especially on Twitter, discuss the trending issues through the use of
hashtags.
• PN component parties have the incumbency advantage going
into the next election. Its narrative is likely to be ethno-religious.
The challenge for the opposition PH, therefore, is to provide an
alternative message of inclusivity, unity and acceptance of diversity.
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 7 31/5/21 3:39 PM21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 8 31/5/21 3:39 PM
Digital Mediatization and the
Sharpening of Malaysian Political
Contests
By Pauline Pooi Yin Leong1
INTRODUCTION
The emergence of digital media in the Malaysia was due to the
government’s initiative to tap into the information and communications
technology (ICT) sector in an effort to open up new economic frontiers.
The introduction of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) in 1996 was
an attempt to lure world-class multinational technology companies into
Malaysia to boost the local digital industry. While this move spearheaded
Malaysia into the digital economy, it also set off a chain of events that
influenced the political and democratic process. Digital media enabled
the opposition and civil society to compete and break the government’s
monopoly of traditional media—print, television. and radio—by
circulating news and information that challenged the official narrative.
Furthermore, the MSC’s Bill of Guarantees stated that the Malaysian
government would not censor the Internet as part of its commitment to
provide a conducive environment for the digital economy to develop.
Thus, the entry of digital media into Malaysia enhanced political
competition and became a catalyst for political change because it
provided alternative news and information. This was evident during
the sacking of former deputy prime minister Anwar Ibrahim and the
Reformasi movement in the late 1990s, with the usage of emails and
1
Pauline Pooi Yin Leong is Associate Professor with the Department of
Communication, School of Arts, Sunway University, Malaysia. Her research
interests are in political communication, digital media, freedom of speech and
journalism.
1
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 1 31/5/21 3:39 PMUsenet newsgroups. Short message service (SMS) was employed in the
2004 general election, while socio-political blogs dominated the 2008
general election. Facebook and other social media such as Twitter were
the main forms of political communication in the 2013 general election;
in 2018, it was Facebook Live and WhatsApp. Every new iteration
of digital technology into the Malaysian ecosystem had an impact on
communication in general election campaigns.
IMPACT OF DIGITAL MEDIATIZATION
OF POLITICS
Digital mediatization of politics in Malaysia has several consequences,
such as cyberattacks and cyberbullying, cybertroopers and propaganda,
as well as fake news, disinformation and misinformation.
Cyberattacks and Cyberbullying
Interference with online access, especially to alternative news portals
and opposition content, intensifies especially in the run-up to general
elections. For example, during the 13th general election in 2013,
independent news website Malaysiakini experienced a Distributed
Denial of Service (DDoS) attack which affected its operations for a
period of time.2 Cyberattacks also occurred in the 14th general election in
2018 when some political candidates found their mobile phones hacked
and spammed by calls from the US and UK on polling day.3 In January
2021, hacktivist group Anonymous Malaysia issued videos and posts
on its social media accounts, threatening to launch cyberattacks against
government websites to highlight Malaysia’s low-level security systems
that allow hackers to breach and steal data for sale, which facilitated
2
E. Yapp, “GE13: Evidence of Websites, Political Content Being Throttled”,
Digital News Asia, 3 May 2013, http://www.digitalnewsasia.com/digital-
economy/ge13-evidence-of-websites-political-content-being-throttled
3
P.P.Y. Leong, “Public Sphere in the Digital Age”, in Malaysian Politics in
the New Media Age: Implications on the Political Communication Process
(Singapore: Springer Nature, 2019), pp. 62–64.
2
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 2 31/5/21 3:39 PMspamming and cyber-scams.4 In 2015, the same group also threatened
“all-out Internet warfare” on “strategically selected” websites if then
prime minister Datuk Seri Najib Razak did not resign over problems in his
administration. Anonymous Malaysia became prominent in 2011 when
it managed to hack and disrupt ninety-one websites, fifty-one of which
belonged to the Malaysian government.5 Although the recent threats did
not materialize, this does not mean that cyberattacks will not occur in
the near future. Digital mediatization of politics in Malaysia opens up
possibilities of cyberattacks, thus political parties and politicians need
to consider cybersecurity measures when planning their communication
campaign.
Cyberbullying is also another common issue in the Malaysia.
According to CyberSecurity Malaysia, the Ministry of Communications
and Multimedia’s national cybersecurity specialist agency, the number of
cyber-harassment cases reported to its Cyber999 Help Centre rose from
260 in 20196 to 596 in 2020.7 This shows that cyberbullying is becoming
a major issue in Malaysia. One example was the experience of some
online activists during the #UndiRosak (#SpoilVote) campaign prior to
the 14th general election in 2018. One of the campaigners, Maryam Lee,
encountered sexist remarks such as “whore” and “slut” by social media
users who disagreed with her crusade.
4
Zurairi A.R., “Hacktivist Group Anonymous Malaysia Resurfaces, Vows
Cyberattack Against Govt Over Data Breaches”, Malay Mail Online, 25 January
2021, https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2021/01/25/hacktivist-group-
anonymous-malaysia-resurfaces-vows-cyberattack-against-go/1943943
5
Liau Y.-S. and N. Koswanage, “Hackers Disrupt 51 Malaysian Government
Websites”, Reuters, 16 June 2011, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-malaysia-
hackers-idUSTRE75F06Y20110616
6
Malaysia Computer Emergency Response Team, “Reported Incidents Based
on General Incident Classification Statistics 2019”, 2019, https://www.
mycert.org.my/portal/statistics-content?menu=b75e037d-6ee3-4d11-8169-
66677d694932&id=0d39dd96-835b-44c7-b710-139e560f6ae0
7
Malaysia Computer Emergency Response Team, “Reported Incidents Based
on General Incident Classification Statistics 2020”, 2020, https://www.
mycert.org.my/portal/statistics-content?menu=b75e037d-6ee3-4d11-8169-
66677d694932&id=2650ed29-88be-4cec-86cc-13f8e07ae228
3
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 3 31/5/21 3:39 PMA recent cyberbullying incident involved Veveonah Mosibin, a
foundation studies student with Universiti Malaysia Sabah, who posted
a YouTube video of her experience spending twenty-four hours on a tree
in her remote village to obtain sufficient Internet connection to take her
online exams. Her viral video highlighted the difficulties that students
in the interior regions of Malaysia face with online learning during the
COVID-19 pandemic, as a result of inadequate Internet connection.
This issue became a source of embarrassment for the Perikatan Nasional
(PN) government such that two federal deputy ministers claimed that
Veveonah faked her video to gain publicity for her YouTube channel. The
negative online comments and attacks affected Veveonah, who posted
her exam schedule on Instagram and expressed her sadness, hurt and
disappointment. She said, “Fake news is dangerous, I get lots of negative
comments. All clear but we need to be fair [sic].” 8 Former deputy women,
family and community development minister Hannah Yeoh lambasted
the two federal deputy ministers by tweeting, “If you don’t recognize
it—this is cyberbullying in action by two deputy ministers against a
young child.” 9
Cybertroopers and Propaganda
Prior to the 12th general election in 2008, the Barisan Nasional (BN)
government, confident of its hegemonic control of traditional media
and overwhelming success in the 2004 general election, underestimated
the impact and influence of socio-political bloggers who dominated
cyberspace. This led to BN losing its two-thirds majority in Parliament
8
S. Lee, “‘Treetop girl’ Veveonah Goes off the Grid Following Negative
Comments on Social Media”, Star Online. 6 September 2020, https://www.
thestar.com.my/news/nation/2020/09/06/039treetop-girl039-veveonah-goes-off-
the-grid-following-negative-comments-on-social-media#:~:text=KOTA%20
KINABALU%3A%20Veveonah%20Mosibin%2C%20the,have%20gone%20
off%20the%20grid
9
J. Bunyan, “Hannah Yeoh Slams Two Deputy Ministers for Cyberbullying
of Sabah Student Veveonah”, Malay Mail, 8 September 2020, https://www.
malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2020/09/08/hannah-yeoh-slams-two-deputy-
ministers-for-cyberbullying-of-sabah-student-v/1901156
4
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 4 31/5/21 3:39 PMand the control of five states. Then Premier Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
said, “We certainly lost the Internet war, the cyberwar … It was a serious
misjudgement … We thought that the newspapers and TV were supposed
to be important, but young people were looking at SMSes and blogs.” 10
BN learned a bitter lesson from that episode and started engaging
bloggers and cybertroopers to counteract the opposition’s influence in
cyberspace. The United Malays National Organization (UMNO) created
a New Media Unit, headed by Tun Faisal Ismail Aziz. During the
13th general election, Tun Faisal said he managed 45 paid full-timers,
175 part-timers and 750 volunteers in his Cybertroopers Club, which
was a more “systematic and extensive group” as “the opposition were
releasing lies through Facebook, Twitter and through blogs”, and the
government had to “counter false news more quickly”.11
Just before the 14th general election, UMNO organized a social media
convention in November 2017 during which then prime minister Najib
Razak called upon some 4,000 cybertroopers to defeat cyberattacks from
the opposition. Their mission was to explain BN’s policies, counteract
attacks by the opposition coalition Pakatan Harapan (PH) and conduct
online psychological warfare. Najib said, “We must press the button now
and we must all move even stronger as the 14th general election is a
battlefield where the cyberwar will decide the victor. The cyber [sic] is
our new battlefield, and we must fight through it”.12 Syarul Ema Rena
Abu Samah, whose moniker is Ratu Naga (Dragon Queen), was one of
the many cybertroopers then aligned to BN. She revealed that during
the 13th general election, she headed a team of eighty cybertroopers
who created and operated fake social media accounts. Some pretended
to be opposition supporters and made fake statements to stoke public
T.C. Kee, March 8: The Day Malaysia Woke Up (Malaysia: Marshall Cavendish,
10
2008).
11
R. Tapsell. “Negotiating Media ‘Balance’ in Malaysia’s 2013 General Election”,
Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 32, no. 2 (2013): 39–60.
12
Hakim J., “Social Media the Key Factor to Win GE14: Najib”, Sun Daily,
4 November 2017, http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2017/11/04/social-media-
key-factor-win-ge14-najib
5
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 5 31/5/21 3:39 PManger against the opposition. She disclosed that cybertroopers were paid
from thousands to millions of Malaysian ringgit, depending on their
expertise.13
According to the Malaysian Insight, some cybertroopers were paid by
the Special Affairs Department (JASA) under the Prime Minister’s Office,
which was later disbanded by the PH government; others by businessmen
linked to UMNO leaders. One UMNO cybertrooper revealed that their
“coordinators have all gone missing”, adding that some have switched
to PH, while some were still being paid by their divisions or branches,
or a senior leader with deep pockets.14 Nevertheless, their fortunes were
revived when the new PN government came into power in March 2020.
Deputy Communications Minister Zahidi Zainul Abidin said in July 2020
that JASA would be revived to assist those who had lost their jobs under
PH. He added, “We have appointed a deputy director-general and opened
up job vacancies, conducted interview processes to rehire them. JASA
used to have over 1,000 staff but we can only take 500 of them for now.”
In November 2020, the Communications and Multimedia Ministry
allocated RM85.5 million to JASA to recruit and train staff to be skilled
communication practitioners, especially in social and digital media, and
to equip the department with sufficient digital infrastructure to ensure
that information is disseminated to the community.15 This amount is a
185 per cent increase from the previous allocation of RM30 million by
the BN government under Budget 2018.16 The Communications and
Multimedia Minister, Saifuddin Abdullah, said that JASA would be
P. Guest, “‘Queen of Dragons’: The Inside Story of Malaysia’s Election Fixer”,
13
Wired, 9 May 2018.
14
Radzi R., “As Funding Dries Up, Umno Cybertroopers Fade Away or Switch
Sides”, Malaysian Insight, 11 June 2018, https://www.themalaysianinsight.
com/s/53913
15
Adib P., “Communications Ministry: Jasa Revival Vital in COVID-19 Era”,
New Straits Times Online, 8 November 2020, https://www.nst.com.my/news/
nation/2020/11/639334/communications-ministry-jasa-revival-vital-COVID-19-
era
16
Malaysiakini, “Govt Revives Jasa Propaganda Unit with RM85.5m Budget”,
6 November 2020, https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/549769
6
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 6 31/5/21 3:39 PMrebranded the Department of Community Communication (J-KOM)
and would not function as the government’s propaganda machine.17
He explained that the objective of J-KOM was to establish two-way
communication between the government and the people, especially at
grassroots level during the COVID-19 pandemic. Saifuddin added that
J-KOM is different from the Information Department which is responsible
to “provide an understanding of government’s policies, programmes and
initiatives to the public through … communications.” In comparison,
J-KOM’s main task is to implement strategic communication to promote
the new normal following COVID-19.18 Sceptics, however, believe that
J-KOM will function as the PN government’s propaganda machine,
just as JASA had done for BN. Political analyst Associate Professor
Ahmad Martadha Mohamed from Universiti Utara Malaysia said, “The
government knows that the only way forward to garner support for the
elections is to establish a social media presence … This is reflected in the
amount of money allocated to JASA in the budget this year …” 19
Fake News and Disinformation
Fake news is not a new phenomenon; rumours, disinformation, and
propaganda have long existed in human history. The United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines
news as “verifiable information in the public interest”, and information
that do not meet these standards should not be labelled as such. In its
17
E.S.M. Chin, “Saifuddin: Jasa to be Rebranded as J-Kom, Won’t Function
as Govt Propaganda Machine”, Malay Mail Online, 25 November 2020,
https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2020/11/25/saifuddin-jasa-to-be-
rebranded-as-jkom-wont-function-as-govt-propaganda-mac/1925968
18
Bernama, “JASA Rebranded as J-KOM with Different Roles, Functions, Says
Saifuddin”, Edge Markets, 25 November 2020, https://www.theedgemarkets.
com/article/jasa-rebranded-jkom-different-roles-functions-says-saifuddin.
19
Amir Y., “Why There Is Robust Debate in Malaysia’s Parliament Over a
Move to Revive the Government’s ‘Propaganda Unit’”, Channel NewsAsia,
12 November 2020, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/malaysia-
budget-2021-propaganda-jasa-pn-ph-dap-umno-13514056
7
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 7 31/5/21 3:39 PMview, “fake news” is an oxymoron which undermines the credibility of
“real news” that meet the standards of verifiability and public interest.
According to UNESCO, fake news can be seen as acts of fraud, and “as
a particular category of phony information within increasingly diverse
forms of disinformation”. The organization explained that disinformation
is the deliberate orchestration of “attempts to confuse or manipulate
people through delivering dishonest information to them”. In other
words, disinformation occurs when false information is deliberately
disseminated by the person who knows that it is false.
In contrast, misinformation refers to “misleading information
created or disseminated without manipulative or malicious intent”.
In this case, the person disseminating the false information believes
it to be true. UNESCO warns that both phenomena are problematic,
but disinformation is “particularly dangerous because it is frequently
organized, well resourced, and reinforced by automated technology”.
Disseminators of disinformation exploit the susceptibility and
potential bias of its receivers, whom they aim to recruit as “amplifiers
and multipliers” by using their predisposition to share information
through social networks and social messaging. UNESCO states that
disinformation is a “deliberate, intentional lie”, resulting in “people
being actively disinformed by malicious actors”.20 Digital media has
facilitated unprecedented acceleration of the production, circulation and
consumption of false content through cyberspace.
Similarly, the Malaysian digital public sphere is rife with
disinformation from cybertroopers who manipulate, exaggerate and
distort information. For example, just before the 13th general election
in 2013, there were viral claims and purported photographs online that
BN had flown in 40,000 Bangladeshi workers to become “phantom
voters”. Many believed the allegations despite refutations by authorities
such as the Election Commission, immigration, police, and national
20
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation: Handbook for Journalism Education
and Training (France: UNESCO, 2018).
8
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 8 31/5/21 3:39 PMregistration department,21 as well as the Bangladesh High Commission;22
and aggressively confronted voters who resembled Bangladeshi foreign
workers.
Another example of viral fake news during the same general election
were accusations of a “blackout” due to power outage at a vote-counting
centre in Bentong town, and reports of the sudden appearance of a
suspicious ballot box, which led to the belief that there was fabrication
of the election results.23 The Election Commission investigated and
said that the alleged photograph circulating on the Internet was a fake,
and that the claims were lies.24 Although opposition leaders from the
Democratic Action Party (DAP) subsequently clarified that there was no
such blackout nor was there any additional ballot box, there were people
who still believed that the election results were tainted.
The use of cybertroopers to create and disseminate disinformation
was confirmed by former BN operant Syarul Ema Rena Abu Samah, also
known as Ratu Naga (Dragon Queen). She admitted that by 2013, she
and her team of eighty cybertroopers created and managed thousands
of fake social media accounts, purportedly of opposition supporters,
and concocted fake racist comments to spur anger and hatred towards
opposition parties to undermine and delegitimize them. For example, in
2014, she created a fake quote that was attributed to opposition politician
Teresa Kok, which resulted in the latter being charged with sedition.25
Hannah Yeoh was another opposition politician who became the target
of fake news. University lecturer Kamarul Zaman Yusoff alleged on
Facebook that Yeo’s 2014 memoir, which discusses how her Christian
21
Chong L.T., “The Negative Impact of Fake News”, Straits Times, 6 May 2017,
https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/the-negative-impact-of-fake-news
22
Aidila R., “40,000 Bangladeshi Voters in GE13? That’s Absurd!”, Malaysiakini,
3 June 2013, https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/231903
23
Chong, “The Negative Impact of Fake News”.
24
Star Online, “EC: Blackout Photo Is a Fake”, 25 May 2013, https://www.
thestar.com.my/news/nation/2013/05/25/ec-blackout-photo-is-a-fake-many-
elements-in-picture-did-not-conform-to-sop-says-wan-ahmad
25
Guest, “‘Queen of Dragons’: The Inside Story of Malaysia’s Election Fixer”.
9
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 9 31/5/21 3:39 PMfaith had prompted her entry into politics, could “coax, influence and
instigate” people to convert, and thus could be seen as proselytizing to
Muslims, which is a crime in Malaysia. That viral post became the basis of
a disinformation campaign on social media, and users, many anonymous,
produced doctored quotes on memes with her image, alleging that she
had called for the establishment of a Christian state in Malaysia and was
an overt supporter of Israel.26
Meanwhile, former prime minister Najib Razak claimed that the
BN government had fallen victim to fake news in the previous general
election, and he believed that “the same thing will happen during the
14th general election”. At the launch of BN’s portal TheRakyat.com
(ThePeople.com), in preparation for the upcoming 14th general election,
he said, “The reality is, fake news has become the opposition’s weapon
and has brought about consequences for us.” He added, “That is why we
need a platform that can be used to connect, and to spread accurate and
quick information to the people. In other words, (all) information in the
portal must be authoritative.”27 Just a year earlier, the Communications
and Multimedia Ministry, in collaboration with the Malaysian
Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) launched
sebenarnya.my, a one-stop information verification portal for the public
to check on the authenticity of news content that they receive online
through digital media. Then Communications and Multimedia Minister
Salleh Said Keruak said that the portal was part of the government’s
efforts to curb fake news that could endanger national harmony and
security, disrupt the economy, and create chaos in society.28
26
Ibid.
27
Straits Times, “Barisan Nasional Launches Portal to Combat ‘Fake News’”,
5 January 2018, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/barisan-nasional-
launches-portal-to-combat-fake-news
28
Fairuz M.S., “Communications Ministry Launches sebenarnya.my to Quash
Fake News, Information”, New Straits Times Online, 14 March 2017, https://
www.nst.com.my/news/2017/03/220604/communications-ministry-launches-
sebenarnyamy-quash-fake-news-information
10
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 10 31/5/21 3:39 PMAnti-Fake News Act
Just months before the 14th general election was held in May 2018, BN
decided to introduce the Anti-Fake News Act. Azalina Othman Said, then
Minister in the Prime Minister’s Department, said the Act was to stop
the transmission of false news that “threatened public order and national
security”, adding that the law would protect society “from becoming
victims of fake news”.29 Critics condemned the haste in which the Act
was passed, and how that was done without much debate, labelling it
as another tool for BN to cover up any inconvenient news stories about
itself. Amnesty International considered it a “blatant attempt to shield
the government from peaceful criticism”, while Lawyers for Liberty said
that it was “the death knell for freedom of speech”.30
The Anti-Fake News Act was passed in April 2018. However, the
tide of political sentiment against BN was so strong then that it lost the
14th general election in May 2018 to PH, which had, in its manifesto,
pledged to repeal the said Act.31 On 16 August 2018, the Dewan Rakyat
(Lower House) voted to repeal the Act but this motion was rejected
by Dewan Negara (Upper House). Former senator Khairul Azwan
from UMNO denied that they were trying to stymie its repeal, saying
that, “I understand that this is a very unpopular law, but we must also
recognize that we live in a world of fast information. Just this week the
Prime Minister was a target of fake news. The threat is real and I fear
our political landscape is too young to be further polarized because of
fake news.”32 The PH government tabled a bill to repeal the Act again in
October 2019, after a cooling off period of one year under Article 68 of
29
Star Online, “Azalina: Media Providers Consulted over Fake News Laws”, Star
Online, 14 March 2018, https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/03/14/
azalina-media-providers-consulted-over-fake-news-laws/
30
Guest, “‘Queen of Dragons’: The Inside Story of Malaysia’s Election Fixer”.
31
A. Karen, “PH Vows to Abolish Anti-Fake News Law”, Sun Daily, 3 April
2018, http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2018/04/04/ph-vows-abolish-anti-fake-
news-law
32
Malaysiakini, “Dewan Negara Rejects Anti-Fake News Act Repeal”,
12 September 2018, https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/442741
11
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 11 31/5/21 3:39 PMthe Federal Constitution. This was passed in Dewan Rakyat and tabled in
Dewan Negara. Regardless of the Dewan Negara’s decision, the bill was
presented to the Malaysian King for his assent within thirty days, after
which it automatically became law.33
However, the change from PH to the current PN government in
March 2020 has revived talk of reintroducing the Anti-Fake News Act to
deal with the proliferation of fake news, especially during the COVID-19
pandemic. According to Bernama news agency, the proposal would be
presented by Shahidan Kassim, Member of Parliament (MP) of Arau, at
the Dewan Rakyat via a question to the Communications and Multimedia
Minister during Question Time.34 The Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC)
also urged the government to reintroduce the Anti-Fake News Act, after
a string of arrests involving those who spread disinformation about the
COVID-19 outbreak. National MIC Youth leader R. Thinalan said that
the law was necessary as disinformation worsened panic and hampered
efforts to contain the pandemic. He added that existing platforms and
laws were insufficient to deal with the surge of fake news during the
crisis, and that the sebenarnya.my portal did not solve the problem.
Thinalan believed that existing laws such as section 505 of the Penal
Code and section 233 of the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998
were “grossly insufficient” to deal with the issue of fake news during
the COVID-19 pandemic, and that PH was too “short-sighted” to see
the significance of the Anti-Fake News Act, which had appropriate
mechanisms and features in place to battle the problem, especially in
crisis situations.35 While supporters of the Anti-Fake News Act want its
Star Online. “Anti-Fake News Act Scrapped”, 20 December 2019, https://
33
www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2019/12/20/anti-fake-news-act-scrapped
34
Straits Times, “Malaysia to Discuss the Revival of Anti-Fake News Act in
Parliament”, 16 November 2020, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/
malaysia-to-discuss-the-revival-of-anti-fake-news-act-at-parliament
35
P. Yiswaree, “MIC Urges Govt to Reinstate Anti-Fake News Act After Influx of
False News Related to COVID-19”, Malay Mail Online, 31 March 2020, https://
www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2020/03/31/mic-urges-govt-to-reinstate-
anti-fake-news-act-after-influx-of-false-news-r/1852041
12
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 12 31/5/21 3:39 PMreinstatement, which gives more power to the authorities to clamp down
on free speech, it is unlikely that this will happen in the near future,
with Parliament being suspended from 11 January until 1 August 2021
through an emergency proclamation.
Digital Media Literacy
The Center for Media Literacy (CML) states that media literacy “provides
a framework to access, analyse, evaluate and create messages in a variety
of forms—from print to video to the Internet. Media literacy builds an
understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills
of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy.” 36
To address the issue of fake news and disinformation, UNESCO, in its
Handbook for Journalism Education and Training, created a module
that introduces the concept of media and information literacy, which
it believes is an essential life skill to understand the consumption,
production, discovery, evaluation and sharing of information in today’s
digital society.37
Nevertheless, digital media literacy among Malaysians is rather low.
In a 2019 study conducted on a small sample of university undergraduates,
more than half of the respondents (61.7 per cent) were found to have
medium level of media literacy; only 32 per cent had high levels.38 Other
studies done by Malaysian scholars found that schoolchildren were
able to search for information using digital media but were not critical
in analysing content. Often, they passively accepted online content,
36
E. Thoman and T. Jolls, Literacy for the 21st Century: An Overview and
Orientation Guide to Media Literacy Education, 2nd ed. (Santa Monica, CA:
Center for Media Literacy, 2005).
37
UNESCO, Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation: Handbook for
Journalism Education and Training.
38
Y.S. Chin and H. Zanuddin, “New Media Literacy and Media Use Among
University Students in Malaysia”, International Journal of Engineering and
Advanced Technology (IJEAT) 8, no. 5C (2019): 469–74.
13
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 13 31/5/21 3:39 PM“blindly shared information”, and freely posted comments.39 In Malaysia,
digital technology is seen as a tool to promote economic growth, and
little attention is paid to the raising of media and information literacy.40
As disinformation becomes more and more sophisticated, a higher level
of media literacy is required for the common citizen to distinguish fake
news, disinformation and misinformation.
Often, Malaysian netizens share unverified news and information,
with the caveat “forwarded as received”, contributing to the viralization of
dubious content with questionable origins, resulting in chaos, confusion
and misinformation. On the information superhighway, they have access
to diverse and extensive content, but are not sufficiently media literate
to be able to analyse and evaluate the authenticity and credibility of the
material they receive. The lack of critical thinking may affect the quality
of decision-making among Malaysian voters to rationally choose their
government.
Unfortunately, there has not been any major concerted effort from the
authorities to promote digital media literacy in the school curriculum.
To address this gap, civil society and media practitioners have started
their own media literacy programmes. One such grassroots group is
Media Education for All (ME4A), Malaysia’s first national movement to
equip youths with media literacy skills so that they can be more “critical,
discerning and assertive”. The team comprises of media practitioners who
train and provide educators with the “right skills, tools and knowledge
to process information”, who will then pass on their awareness to their
students.41
Another initiative is the Malaysia Information Literacy Education
(MILE), which aims to educate youths on media, information, and digital
39
S. Baboo, “Media Literacy in the Lifeworlds of Malaysian Children”,
Global Studies of Childhood 3, no. 1 (2013): 72–85, as cited in Sabariah M.S.,
“Malaysia”, in Media and Information Literacy Education in Asia, edited
by M. Kajimoto, M. Ito, and M.K. Lim (Paris and Bangkok: United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2020), pp. 56-64.
40
Sabariah M.S., “Malaysia”.
41
https://me4a.arusacademy.org.my/
14
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 14 31/5/21 3:39 PMliteracy awareness as well as critical thinking. The group has created
Infolit workshops for high school students between the ages of 13 and
15. It has several modules with interactive lessons, videos and games to
create awareness of fake news and how to identify them. The modules
also aim to develop critical thinking among the youths and draw their
attention to the echo chambers that they inhabit.42 Recently, MILE
launched a fun role-playing game called “Choices I Make” that enables
players to learn and experience how fake news is created and spread, as
well as its impact on others. The game, which is available in English,
Bahasa Malaysia, Tamil and Chinese, can be played on desktop and
mobile at www.choicesimake.com. It is funded by the Institute for War
and Peace Reporting, an international non-profit organization, while the
illustrations are produced by Studio Behind 90, a creative studio.43
UNDI18 AND MUDA
Such initiatives from the ground are critical and timely to prepare youths
as voters in future general elections, especially when the Undi18 (Vote18)
Bill comes into effect once it is gazetted by Parliament. The Undi18 Bill,
which lowers the voting age from 21 to 18 and includes automatic voter
registration, may see 7.8 million first-time voters in the next 15th general
election which has to be held by September 2023.44 However, this has
not occurred as Parliament has been suspended from 11 January until
1 August 2021. The Malaysian Election Commission (EC) also recently
announced that Undi18 will only be implemented after 1 September
2022, and not in 2021 as scheduled, due to the COVID-19 pandemic,
42
https://www.facebook.com/milemsia/
43
Astro Ulagam, “Navigate Malaysia‘s COVID-19 Pandemic with This New
Browser Game”, 18 January 2021, https://www.astroulagam.com.my/lifestyle/
navigate-malaysias-covid19-pandemic-new-browser-game-181347
44
Nuradzimmah D. and Nur Ain M.R., “Over 7 million New Voters by 2023 if
Voting Age Lowered, Says PM”, New Straits Times, 16 July 2019, https://www.
nst.com.my/news/nation/2019/07/504741/over-7-million-new-voters-2023-if-
voting-age-lowered-says-pm
15
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 15 31/5/21 3:39 PMadding that it needed time to re-evaluate constraints, obstacles and issues
that affected the initial planning and preparations.45
Supporters of Undi18 say that it empowers youths to take an active
role in the nation’s political process. Critics, however, are worried that
youths will be easily manipulated as they have inadequate understanding
of socio-political and governance issues in the country. It is difficult to
predict how these youths are likely to vote; political parties that are savvy
in the digital environment can gain a competitive advantage in the next
general election, as digital media will be the key channel for political
communication, participation and mobilization. Thus, it is not surprising
that the former Youth and Sports Minister, Syed Saddiq, started a new
political party called Malaysian United Democratic Alliance (MUDA) in
anticipation of this new voting bloc. Furthermore, it was through his efforts
that the Undi18 Bill was passed in Parliament. Although the acronym
MUDA means youth in Bahasa Malaysia, the party is to represent all
levels of society, regardless of age, ethnicity, or religion.46 Syed Saddiq
said that he took inspiration from French President Emmanuel Macron’s
La Republique En Marche! party and the now-defunct Future Forward
Party of Thailand.47
Syed Saddiq’s strong presence and engagement on social media, with
1.8 million Instagram, 1 million Twitter and 500,000 Facebook followers
respectively, is an important leverage in Malaysia’s competitive political
scene. As many as 50 per cent of Malaysians spend between 5 and 12 hours
online communicating via text, voice or video, and social networking
sites. This is according to the 2020 Internet Users Survey conducted
45
R. Loheswar, “EC Defers Undi18, Automatic Voter Registration to Next
Year”, Malay Mail, 25 March 2021, https://www.malaymail.com/news/
malaysia/2021/03/25/ec-defers-undi18-automatic-voter-registration-to-next-
year/1960986
46
Mazwin N.A., “Syed Saddiq Applies to Register New Party, Muda”, Star Online,
17 September 2020, https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2020/09/17/syed-
saddiq-registers-new-party-malaysian-united-democratic-alliance-muda
47
FMT Reporters, “Syed Saddiq to Form Own Youth Party”, Free Malaysia
Today, 24 August 2020, https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/
2020/08/24/syed-saddiq-to-form-own-youth-party/
16
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 16 31/5/21 3:39 PMby the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission. The
survey also found social networking to be the second most frequent
online activity, rising from 85.6 per cent in 2018 to 93.3 per cent in 2020,
and that reading online publications such as newspapers, magazines or
e-books has become more popular, increasing from 56.3 per cent in 2018
to 68.3 per cent in 2020.48 MUDA’s publicity blitz during the campaign
launch was successful; within a month of submitting its application to the
Registrar of Societies (ROS), it received more than 30,000 applications.49
However, ROS rejected its application via email on 6 January 2021
without giving any reasons. MUDA said in a press statement it believed
that the rejection was a strategy by the PN government to prevent it
from contesting in the next general election.50 MUDA has since initiated
legal proceedings against ROS.51 It will take some time before the courts
can decide on the merits of the case; meanwhile Syed Saddiq and his
supporters will need to try another gambit. This blue ocean strategy has
ignited the excitement and imagination of youths and the “young-at-
heart” voters. But despite its savviness on social media, the party still
needs to build up its membership and grassroots support, as well as its
political machinery on the ground.
DIGITAL PARLIAMENT
Political awareness among youths has been increasing since the passing
of the Undi18 Bill in Parliament. In fact, the PN government’s suspension
48
Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, “Internet Users
Survey”, Cyberjaya, 2020, https://www.mcmc.gov.my/skmmgovmy/media/
General/pdf/IUS-2020-Report.pdf
49
K. Tee, “A Month Since Official Registration, Muda Says Now Boasts Over
30,000 Members”, Malay Mail Online, 18 October 2020, https://www.malaymail.
com/news/malaysia/2020/10/18/a-month-since-official-registration-muda-says-
now-boasts-over-30000-members/1913927
50
A.Y. Teh, “RoS Rejects Registration of Muda as Political Party”, New
Straits Times Online, 7 January 2021, https://www.nst.com.my/news/
politics/2021/01/655291/ros-rejects-registration-muda-political-party
51
Hidir Reduan A.R., “Muda Goes to Court over Registration as Political Party”,
Malaysiakini, 24 January 2021, https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/560268
17
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 17 31/5/21 3:39 PMof Parliament and its refusal to hold online sessions resulted in youth-
led civil society organizations organizing a “digital parliament” session
in July 2020 to demonstrate that virtual parliamentary proceedings are
possible.52 The two-day online mock session, organized by Challenger
Malaysia, Undi 18, Liga Rakyat Demokratik and United Nations
Association Malaysia (UNAM) Youth, saw 222 “parliamentary
representatives” debating and discussing new “laws” and “policies”
on economic and education issues that affect Malaysian youths, using
Microsoft Teams. The co-founder of Undi18, Tharma Pillai, said that this
endeavour encouraged youths to “express their thoughts and engage in
Malaysia’s policy-making and nation-building exercise. ... By providing
access to youth and digitalizing democracy, we can encourage greater
youth participation in the process.”53 Parlimen Digital, which was
broadcast on Facebook, had 88,000 views, with 561 shares and 693
reactions, and it received positive feedback and support.54
However, the authorities were rather concerned about the online
assembly; the police contacted some participants after the virtual
sessions ended.55 Ramkarpal Singh, MP for Bukit Gelugor constituency,
said that such moves by the authorities can be perceived as an “act of
intimidation” as the programme had not breached any laws by simulating
52
Azril A., “Youths Show Malaysia’s Lawmakers That Virtual Parliament
Completely Possible”, Malay Mail, 4 July 2020, https://www.malaymail.com/
news/malaysia/2020/07/04/youths-show-malaysias-lawmakers-that-virtual-
parliament-completely-possible/1881385
53
G. Dashika, “The World’s First-Ever Youth-Led Digital ‘Parliament’ Goes Live
with Microsoft Teams”, Microsoft Malaysia News Center, 17 July 2020, https://
news.microsoft.com/en-my/2020/07/17/worlds-first-ever-youth-led-digital-
parliament-goes-remote-with-microsoft-teams/
54
Azril A., “Youths Show Malaysia’s Lawmakers That Virtual Parliament
Completely Possible”
55
Soo, W.J. “Parlimen Digital Representatives Contacted by Police, Says
Organisers”, Malay Mail, 4 July 2020, https://www.malaymail.com/news/
malaysia/2020/07/04/parlimen-digital-representatives-contacted-by-police-says-
organisers/1881470
18
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 18 31/5/21 3:39 PMa virtual parliamentary session. He added that the police had no
justification for its action, unless the intention was to “stifle freedom of
speech and valid criticism of the government”. Organizers said in a press
statement that its participants had engaged elected lawmakers from both
the ruling coalition and federal opposition to guide them in preparing for
the simulated Parliament sitting. They added that Parlimen Digital was
supposed to be a “safe space” for Malaysian youths to debate and discuss
pressing issues that affect them, and that all information can be found
on its digital platforms—website, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. The
organizers urged the police to contact them for clarification and expressed
gratitude for the outpouring offers of support, solidarity and assistance.56
Such incidents do not bode well for the state of free speech in
Malaysia, and has an overall “chilling effect” in society.
SOCIAL MEDIA CAMPAIGNS
Digital mediatization of politics in Malaysia has opened up the public
sphere and given ordinary citizens the opportunity to voice their opinions
on issues of the day. Social media campaigns emerge periodically,
especially on Twitter, depending on trending discussions. For example,
when Undi18 was postponed, Twitterjaya, the Malaysian Twitter
community, vented its frustration through the #PNipu hashtag, a play on
the current PN government and the Malay word penipu for cheat. Other
hashtags included #PNakut (#PNScared) and #PNgecut (#PNCoward).57
Frustrations with the PN government’s alleged failure to manage the
56
I. Lim, “DAP MP Says Cops Quizzing Parlimen Digital Youth Participants
Possibly Seen as Intimidation, Organisers Urge Authorities to Contact Them
Directly Instead”, Malay Mail, 5 July 2020, https://www.malaymail.com/news/
malaysia/2020/07/05/dap-mp-says-cops-quizzing-parlimen-digital-youth-
participants-possibly-seen/1881691
57
V. Ragananthini, “#PNipu Trends on Twitter as Young Malaysians Rage
over Undi 18 Reversal”, Malaysian Insight, 26 March 2021, https://www.
themalaysianinsight.com/s/307311
19
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 19 31/5/21 3:39 PMCOVID-19 pandemic and the economy led to another trending hashtag,
#KerajaanGagal (#GovermnmentFail).58
A recent brouhaha involved the monarchy, which stemmed from a
comment made by the Queen on her Instagram account when she was
asked whether the chefs working at the palace had been vaccinated.
Her reply, “dengki ke?” (are you jealous) became a trending hashtag
#DengkiKe with more than 70,000 related posts, which led her to
temporarily suspend her account. The sheer number of hashtags led
lawyer-activist Azira Aziz to share a contact list of legal aid centres
in every state, should anyone become arrested for their posts.59 At the
same time, activist Fahmi Reza, who curated a Spotify playlist based on
#DengkiKe, was arrested by the police for investigations on sedition.60
In the era of postmodern politics, reality is often perceived through
the lens of media hype. Ventilating frustrations online are often cathartic
but whether such actions have offline impact remains to be seen. A
survey conducted by public opinion research firm Merdeka Center
from 31 March to 12 April 2021 found that Prime Minister Muhyiddin
Yassin’s approval rating was relatively stable, between 63 per cent and
74 per cent since he took office in 2020. The same survey also showed
that 70 per cent were satisfied with his government’s handling of the
COVID-19 crisis.61 The contradictory positions indicate that the hype
in online campaigns do not necessarily reveal actual ground sentiment.
58
Malaysiakini, “#KerajaanGagal: Twitterjaya Vents over PN‘s ‘Incompetence’
on COVID-19, Economy”, 16 April 2021, https://www.malaysiakini.com/
news/570976
59
TheVibes.com, “#DengkiKe Trending Hashtag Manifestation of Malaysians’
Frustration”, 20 April 2021, https://www.thevibes.com/articles/news/24577/
dengkike-trending-hashtag-manifestation-of-malaysians-frustration
60
I. Lim, “Lawyer: Fahmi Reza Out This Evening as Magistrate Gave Just One-
Day Remand in Spotify Playlist Probe”, Malay Mail, 24 April 2021, https://www.
malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2021/04/24/lawyer-fahmi-reza-out-this-evening-
as-magistrate-gave-just-one-day-remand-i/1969084
61
E.S.M. Chin, “Muhyiddin’s Approval Improves to 67pc, Perikatan’s COVID-19
Pandemic Handling Viewed Favourably”, Malay Mail, 23 April 2021, https://
www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2021/04/23/muhyiddins-approval-
improves-to-67pc-perikatans-covid-19-pandemic-handling/1968905
20
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 20 31/5/21 3:39 PMTHE AFTERMATH OF THE 14TH GENERAL
ELECTION
The 14th general election was significant in Malaysian history as this
was the first time that the opposition managed to unseat BN, which was
at that time, the world’s longest-serving elected government. There was
widespread unhappiness among the Malaysian electorate, thanks to the
1 Malaysia Development Board (1MDB) scandal involving Najib Razak,
and the unpopular Goods and Services Tax (GST) that was introduced
in 2015 by BN. The opposition seized on this public dissatisfaction and
effectively used digital media in its political communication campaign to
successfully whip up sufficient support to win the 14th general election.
For the first six months, there was euphoria that the new PH
government would be able to “right” the past “wrongs” and resuscitate
Malaysia from its sick bed. Of the ten promises in its manifesto that it
hoped to achieve within 100 days of its administration, it fulfilled two—
abolishment of the unpopular GST and the initiation of a comprehensive
review of all megaprojects awarded to foreign countries. Five other
promises were partially fulfilled. For example, the weekly fuel float
price system for RON95 and diesel was abolished, thus stabilizing
petrol prices. However, the introduction of targeted petrol subsidies was
delayed as PH had to manage the RM1 trillion debt that it inherited from
the BN government. PH was also unable to fulfil its promise to postpone
the repayment of the National Higher Education Fund (PTPTN) student
loans for all graduates whose salaries were below RM4,000 per month,
due to procedural and bureaucratic difficulties. However, it did manage
to abolish the policy that blacklisted defaulters from travelling.62
PH also took steps towards ethnic inclusivity by appointing non-
Malays to high-ranking positions such as Lim Guan Eng as Finance
Minister, Tommy Thomas as Attorney General and Richard Malanjum
as Chief Justice. To ensure separation of powers, agencies that were
62
N. Aw and S. Ho, “10 Promises in 100 Days: Monitoring Pakatan Harapan’s
Manifesto Pledges”, Malaysiakini, 2018, https://pages.malaysiakini.com/
100days/en/
21
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 21 31/5/21 3:39 PMpreviously under the Prime Minister’s Office such as the Malaysian
Anti-Corruption Commission, Election Commission, and National Audit
Department, now function independently and report to Parliament.63
However, other promises have remained unfulfilled such as
abolishing unnecessary debts imposed on Federal Land Development
Authority (FELDA) settlers. The Economic Affairs Ministry said that it
was looking at ways to reduce the debt of these settlers such as revising
the loan interest rate, but no concrete steps were taken. Similarly, PH
had promised to establish a Royal Commissions of Inquiry on 1MDB,
FELDA, Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) and Tabung Haji in order
to reform their governance. While it could not do so for 1MDB since
that would have conflicted with ongoing investigations by enforcement
agencies, not much headway was made to investigate allegations of
impropriety in the other organizations. PH was also unable to introduce
Peduli Sihat, a national healthcare scheme that gives low-income groups
RM500 (US$122) a year for basic healthcare treatment in registered
private clinics. It also did not manage to equalize the minimum wage
between East and West Malaysia due to opposition from East Malaysian
employers concerned about cost.64 One of the reasons given for the delay
was the country’s financial situation due to the previous government’s
mismanagement of funds.65
In August 2018, then Prime Minister Dr Mahathir Mohamad admitted
that PH had overpromised and underdelivered. In a closed door-meeting,
he told PH and Parti Warisan Sabah MPs that “actually, we did not expect
to win, and we made a thick manifesto with all kinds of promises. We
need to make sacrifices to fulfil our promises. If we can’t fulfil them, we
63
Serina R., “Many Unrealised Promises to Tackle, as the Pakatan Harapan
Government Approaches 100 Days in Office”, Channel NewsAsia, 5 August
2018, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/pakatan-harapan-
hundred-days-in-office-promises-unrealised-10585592
64
N. Aw and S. Ho, “10 Promises in 100 Days: Monitoring Pakatan Harapan’s
Manifesto Pledges”.
65
Serina R., “Many Unrealised Promises to Tackle, as the Pakatan Harapan
Government Approaches 100 Days in Office”.
22
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 22 31/5/21 3:39 PMwill need a good reason that is acceptable to the people”.66 PH’s inability
to deliver on its election manifesto was a point of contention for then
opposition UMNO. Zahida Zarik Khan, Puteri UMNO chief, stated that
PH should stop giving excuses for failing to honour its election promises.
In a speech delivered at the movement’s annual general assembly, she
said, “In the Malay community, a promise is considered as a debt. One
should not make any promises if he or she cannot fulfil them … And in
the Malay community, the dignity of a person lies on the extent to which
he adheres to his promise.” 67
While PH’s mastery of political communication during the 14th
general election contributed towards its electoral success, it could not
maintain the momentum of its performance once it settled into governing
the country. After overcoming the initial shock of losing power, BN
slowly regrouped and rebuilt itself to challenge PH. The then opposition’s
rhetoric on race, religion and royalty came to the fore when PH tried to
ratify United Nations International Convention for the Elimination of
Racial Discrimination (ICERD) and Rome Statute treaty, on which is
established the International Criminal Court to prosecute individuals on
genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and crimes of aggression.
Despite explanations to the contrary, the then opposition incited protests
and fuelled the perception that the ratifications could affect the position of
Islam, the Malay-Muslim and bumiputra (sons of the soil) community, and
royalty in Malaysia. MP Maria Chin Abdullah decried the “coordinated
disinformation campaigns” on social media that led to the failure to ratify
ICERD and the Rome Statute treaty.68 Another MP, Lim Kit Siang, also
noted that both treaties became “grist in the mill for Malay extremists to
66
FMT Reporters, “We Over-Promised, Dr M Tells Ruling MPs”, Free
Malaysia Today, 17 August 2018, https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/
nation/2018/08/17/we-over-promised-dr-m-tells-ruling-mps/
67
Masriwanie M., “Puteri UMNO to PH Govt: ‘Honeymoon Is Over’”,
New Straits Times, 29 September 2018, https://www.nst.com.my/news/
politics/2018/09/416143/puteri-umno-ph-govt-honeymoon-over
68
Chin Abdullah, M., “Disinformation Killing Our Democracy”, Sun Daily,
28 August 2019, https://www.thesundaily.my/opinion/disinformation-killing-
our-democracy-AA1310651
23
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 23 31/5/21 3:39 PMdrum up the campaign” that the “allegedly anti-Malay, anti-Islam and
anti-royalty DAP was running the PH government.” 69
To gain further political mileage, the then opposition, led by UMNO
and Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS) ratcheted up the “three-R rhetoric
of race, religion and royalty”. Malay rights groups exploited the
appointments of non-Malays to key government positions by claiming
that the bumiputra affirmative action policies may diminish under the PH
government.70 Furthermore, Parti Bumiputera Perkasa Malaysia (Putra)
vice-president Hamidah Osman, alleged that more than 100,000 Chinese
nationals received Malaysian citizenship under the PH administration.71
This claim was promptly debunked as “baseless and irresponsible” by
the Home Ministry, which said that only thirty-seven persons from China
became citizens between 10 May 2018 and 15 May 2019.72 Another
example of disinformation on social media came from UMNO’s former
secretary-general Annuar Musa, who tweeted a picture of a Chinese-
looking man burning a Malaysian flag, with the post “UMNO n BN
have laid strong foundation for the nation. We live in peace and harmony
for almost seven decades…BUT NOW IT STARTS TO CRUMBLE,
piece by piece, bit by bit…[sic]” 73 This caused outrage among the
Malay community, with some netizens demanding for unpatriotic
69
Lim K.S. “Saifuddin Claims He Was Unaware of JASA’S RM85.5 million
Budget Allocation”, The Rocket, 11 November 2020, https://www.therocket.
com.my/en/saifuddin-claims-he-was-unaware-of-jasas-rm-85-5-million-budget-
allocation/
70
Mohsin A., “Politics and Policy: The PH Government, Its Low Ratings and
Ineffective Communication”, Edge Weekly, 16 May 2019.
71
Lim, I., “In Malaysia, Are China’s Citizens Becoming the New Bogeyman?”,
Malay Mail, 22 January 2020, https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/
2020/01/22/in-malaysia-are-chinas-citizens-becoming-the-new-bogeyman/
1830299
72
Malay Mail, “Home Ministry Denies Allegations That 100,000 Chinese
Nationals Were Granted Citizenship under Pakatan Govt”, 30 May 2019,
https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/05/30/home-ministry-denies-
allegations-that-100000-chinese-nationals-were-granted/1757870
73
Annuar M. (@AnnuarMusa), 22 August 2019, https://twitter.com/AnnuarMusa/
status/1164218206942191616 (accessed 5 May 2021).
24
21-J07710 01 Trends_2021-10.indd 24 31/5/21 3:39 PMYou can also read
