Detailed Table of Contents - IGI Global

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................... xxxii

                                                                Section 1
                                                          Finance and Economics

Chapter 1
The Impact of COVID-19 on the Business Performance and Financial Position in Hotel Industry:
The Case of Croatia................................................................................................................................. 1
     Sanja Sever Mališ, Faculty of Economics and Business, Croatia
     Ivana Mamic Sačer, Faculty of Economics and Business, Croatia

The hotel industry, among others, has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The effect of the pandemic
can be noticed through financial statements. The aim of the chapter is to analyse how the COVID-19
pandemic has affected the financial position and business performance of the hotels in a tourism-oriented
country such is Croatia. The chapter covers the basic information of tourism and the features of the hotel
industry in Croatia. The authors represent the sets of national recommendations for dealing with the
pandemic in the tourism sector that are enriched with available macroeconomic statistical data. Further,
the analysis of financial statements of the five selected hotels is presented. The analysis was done in
order to provide comparative analysis of financial results in the pandemic environment (2020) and the
previous year (2019). Based on the calculated liquidity, solvency, activity, economy, and profitability
ratios, the authors conclude that all the mentioned ratios worsened in 2020 for all the observed hotels.

Chapter 2
The Impact of COVID-19 on Volatility of Tourism Stocks: Evidence From BIST Tourism Index...... 23
     Burze Yaşar, TED University, Turkey

This chapter analyzes the economic impact of COVID-19 on the tourism sector in Turkey. Stock
markets are a barometer for the economy and reflect the pandemic’s direct financial impact on tourism
companies. The BIST Tourism Index return volatility during 2020 is modelled considering the effects
of global economic policy uncertainty, economic sentiment, daily new cases, and Turkey’s containment
and health index. The index return volatility is high during the pandemic. The results show a statistically
significant interrelation between economic sentiment, new cases, and containment and health index, and
the BIST Tourism index return volatility. Policies that slow down the virus spread and fiscal support
may improve consumer and investor sentiment. The revival of confidence would strengthen the financial
markets and decrease volatility.






Chapter 3
Financial Impacts of COVID-19 on Tourism: Evidence From Some Listed Companies...................... 45
    Derya Üçoğlu, Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey

Tourism is a vulnerable sector to risk-related events such as natural disasters, terrorist attacks, economic
crises, or infectious diseases. After the outbreak of COVID-19 being confirmed a pandemic in March
2020, the operations of tourism companies decreased sharply due to the restrictions and measures imposed
as the virus was being transmitted easily between people through droplets or particles that float in the
air. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the financial impacts of COVID-19 on tourism by examining the
financial statements and disclosures of some listed companies. Although there are some studies on the
potential effects of the COVID-19 on the economy or the businesses, there are hardly any concerning
the financial impact of the pandemic on tourism companies as of the end of pandemic’s first year. This
study identifies the effect of COVID-19 on the financial position and performance of tourism companies,
COVID-19 related risks, the strategies implemented by companies and their possible impact on operations.

Chapter 4
The Effect of COVID-19 on the Tourism Sector in Turkey: An Evaluation with Financial
Statement Analysis................................................................................................................................. 69
     Duygu Şengül Çelikay, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey
     Ferdi Çelikay, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey

This study aims to reveal the effect of COVID-19 on the financial performance and position of the tourism
sector. The financial statement data of the firms traded in the restaurants and hotels sub-sector in Borsa
Istanbul were analyzed by using financial statement analysis techniques. According to the comparative
income statements, the firms’ total profit turned into a loss by declining 181%. The first 9-month analyses
are essential in revealing the significant decrease in the firms’ revenues and the fact that the expenses
could not be reduced; the firms sold fixed assets and realized capital increases to continue their activities.
The policymakers should develop a comprehensive cash support policy and develop short-term measures
such as cost-free financing opportunities and expanding loan opportunities to reduce the damage.

Chapter 5
The Economic Impacts of COVID-19 on the Tourism Global Value Chain......................................... 92
    Maha Mohamed Elhini, The British University in Egypt, Egypt
    Dina Kafafy, Egyptian National Competitiveness Council, Egypt

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the
tourism global value chain (GVC). Theoretical analysis revealed that being triggered by health factors,
the coronavirus pandemic exerted an unprecedented shock on both the supply and demand sides of
the tourism sector and the global economy. This resulted in implications that are more severe and less
predictable than earlier crises that the world had witnessed. Analysis of the economic impact on various
components of the tourism GVC revealed that measures adopted by world governments to protect their
citizens resulted in massive damage to tourism related industries and to the global economy. The chapter
concludes by predicting that the consequences of the current pandemic will inevitably give rise to new,
more innovate tourism models, responding to the changing global economic and tourism landscape and
to the change in consumers’ characteristics and expectations.



Chapter 6
“Infernum”: Economic Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Health Tourism Industry – A
Snapshot............................................................................................................................................... 115
     Dilek Çetin, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
     Erkan Erdil, Middle East Technical University, Turkey

The tourism sector is directly and enormously influenced by COVID-19. The main aim of this study is to
investigate the effect of COVID-19 on health tourism income and tourism income. The tourism income
and health tourism income of Turkey are used for the 2002Q1-2020Q4 period for time series analysis.
For both variables, the structural break is detected for the 2020Q1 period. The main conclusion of this
study is that actual tourism income is 60% less than the forecast value while health tourism income is
39% less. One way causality from health tourism income to tourism income is found which indicates
forward linkages of health tourism.

Chapter 7
Economic Impacts of the Pandemic on the Tourism of the Developing World: The Case of
COVID-19............................................................................................................................................ 135
    Ayca Sarialioglu Hayali, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
    Cabir Celik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey

The COVID-19 pandemic crisis of 2020 with its policy measures and economic impacts has negatively
affected the tourism industry, which is regarded as the most negatively affected one due to the nature of
the sector, both directly and indirectly. In other words, through its policy measures such as restrictions
on travel, it has affected the tourism sector directly, and through its economic impacts such as decreasing
GDP per capita and hence total demand, it has influenced the tourism sector indirectly. In this regard,
the aim of this study is to empirically investigate the economic impacts of the pandemic on tourism of
the developing world for the case of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis of 2020. This is done by a panel
data analysis including 38 developing countries for the nine months of 2020, January-September, the
ongoing era of pandemic crisis of 2020 considering the available data. The findings support the main
hypothesis of the study.

Chapter 8
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Tourism Economy: Evidence From Borsa Istanbul.155
     Süleyman Şen, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Turkey
     Süreyya Kovacı, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Turkey

This chapter seeks to examine the impact of COVID-19 on the Turkish tourism economy. Towards this
end, first of all, tourist arrivals and tourism income of Turkey were compared between pre-pandemic and
within the pandemic period. Afterwards, to investigate whether COVID-19 leads to a decrease in stock
prices of tourism firms, the return data of 11 firms listed in the Borsa Istanbul restaurants and hotels
subsector for 10 months were examined by panel data methods. According to comparison of tourist
arrivals and tourism income to the previous year, there was a vital decrease as 69% and 65% respectively
in 2020. Moreover, coverage rate of foreign trade deficit of tourism income in Turkey decreased almost
80% in 2020. Overall, results of pooled OLS regression analysis revealed that COVID-19 cases and
COVID-19-related deaths were decreasing monthly stock price returns. Based on these findings, it is
recommended to policymakers to find better policies for a better tourism economy.



Chapter 9
Tourism in the Low Touch Economy: Challenges and Opportunities................................................. 177
    Cynthia Maria Montaudon- Tomas, UPAEP Universidad, Mexico
    Ingrid N. Pinto-López, UPAEP Universidad, Mexico
    Anna Amsler, Independent Researcher, Mexico

This chapter analyzes the situation of the tourism industry during the COVID-19 pandemic. The health
crisis’s main effects are explained, as well as how the sector is learning to function under strict sanitary
and hygiene measures, relying more on technology than before. The opportunities and challenges in a
low contact economy are described. Post-pandemic fear, crowded conditions, mass tourism, travel guilt
and shaming, extensive job losses, fixed costs, and employee morale are the challenges identified. The
opportunities include variants of slow tourism, products and services for the remote worker, and the
digitalization of the sector.

Chapter 10
Economic and Social Impacts of COVID-19 on European Tourism................................................... 200
    Gorkemli Kazar, Munzur University, Turkey
    Altug Kazar, Munzur University, Turkey
    Tuba Akpınar, Munzur University, Turkey

European tourism has been largely disrupted by the pandemic throughout 2020. In this study, the
economic and social effects of COVID-19 on the tourism sector of European countries were examined.
To understand the extent of the pandemic on European tourism, policies followed by countries, physical
tourism flows of the accommodation sector, tourism employment, and turnover rates were considered.
The study showed that the European tourism sector, especially after the second half of 2020, was hit
socially and economically by the devastating effects of the pandemic. In addition, the study revealed the
necessity for radical regulations within the sector in the post-pandemic period.

Chapter 11
The Effects of COVID-19 on Turkey’s Tourism Economy: An Assessment Within the Scope of
Employment and Tourism Revenues................................................................................................... 226
    Mete Dibo, Hitit University, Turkey

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of the measures taken to combat the effects of the
coronavirus pandemic in the tourism sector. Therefore, the study evaluates the employment rates in the
tourism-related sectors and the course of the tourism sector revenues during the pandemic period in
Turkey. According to the results of the study conducted based on the observation of statistical data, the
arts, entertainment, and recreation sector experienced the highest employment loss with 38.9%. As a
result of the restrictions on tourist mobility, the decrease in tourism revenues has reached 65% compared
to the pre-pandemic period. While the research reveals the importance of the tourism sector for national
economies, it also emphasizes the sensitivity of the sector against unexpected developments. The study
is expected to contribute to the literature as it is an example and source for future applied and theoretical
studies on the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.



Chapter 12
Economic Impacts of the Pandemic on Tourism Management in Turkey: The Case of COVID-19... 247
    Demokaan Demirel, Kocaeli University, Turkey

The process of globalization has increased interdependence between countries. The COVID-19 pandemic,
which broke out in December 2019, has been effective worldwide. The pandemic directly affected the
country’s economies, leading to a global recession. Tourism is one of the sectors directly affected by the
economic downsides. The decline in tourist mobility in the international arena has led to a decrease in
demand and unemployment in the tourism sector and its associated sub-sectors. This study aims to reveal
how tourism activities are affected by the pandemic in Turkey, which has an important place in world
tourism. The study analyzed the scientific literature that, together with the COVID-19 crisis, provided
a general profile of the crisis process in the tourism sector. Economic difficulties of Turkish tourism,
their indirect effects on a macroeconomic level, and tourism-related sectors were examined. Various
solutions and recommendations have been made to get out of the crisis. Guiding assessments have also
been made for future academic studies.

                                                        Section 2
                                            Marketing and Consumer Behavior

Chapter 13
Application of the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior to Understand Holiday Purchase
Intention During the COVID-19 Period.............................................................................................. 268
     Gönül Göker, Çankırı Karatekin University, Turkey
     Ilknur Ayar, Çankırı Karatekin University, Turkey

This study aimed to evaluate the holiday purchasing intentions of touristic consumers during the COVID-19
pandemic within the scope of the expanded TPB, which is empirically tested in very large areas in the
disclosure of behaviors. In this study, in addition to TPB variables, fatigue variable was included. With
the long-term nature and intensity of COVID-19, many people have naturally experienced some kind
of physical or psychological fatigue. The impact of this fatigue caused by COVID-19 on the intention
to buy holidays can be critical. In the first part of the study, holiday purchasing intentions, COVID-19
pandemic period, theory of planned behavior, and fatigue were explained. In the methodological part of
the study, 389 people who were potential touristic consumers were surveyed. The data collected from
the participants were measured by statistical analysis method, and the findings were reached.

Chapter 14
The Destination Preferences of Foreign Tourists During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Attitudes
Towards: Marmaris, Turkey................................................................................................................. 285
    Funda Varnacı Uzun, Aksaray University, Turkey

This chapter aimed to determine the factors affecting the destination preferences of foreign tourists
visiting Marmaris while COVID-19 pandemic continues, their reasons for selecting Marmaris, and their
attitudes and thoughts related to the pandemic. In this chapter, a conceptual framework was presented.
Within the context of the conceptual framework, the relationship between COVID-19 and tourism was
discussed. Then, the factors affecting the destination preferences of tourists and the changes in these
factors as a result of the pandemic was mentioned. Within the context of the theoretical framework,
tourists’ security perceptions during the pandemic and the effects of the pandemic on the participation



of tourists in tourism and tourist behaviours was discussed. In the present study, qualitative research
method was employed. The data collected from the tourists were analyzed by using content analysis,
one of the qualitative analysis techniques.

Chapter 15
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Holiday Preferences at the Example of Z Generation
Within the Youth Tourism................................................................................................................... 307
     Daniela Matušíková, University of Prešov, Slovakia
     Kristína Šambronská, University of Prešov, Slovakia
     Martina Košíková, University of Prešov, Slovakia

Youth travel is an important segment of the tourism market. The motives of travel as we knew them until
2020 were more or less constant, but the pandemic situation had a huge impact on the interest in travel.
For this reason, it is important to test the reaction of young people to current pandemics in the tourism
market and their current attitudes and views on travel. This chapter deals with changes in consumer
behavior on the example of Slovak youth, based on the implemented qualitative research on a sample
of more than 300 Slovak youths who participate in tourism activities. The aim was to identify changes
in consumer behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic, their motivations, and barriers to travel. The
results of the empirical part bring clear conclusions that the pandemic significantly affected the interest,
purchase, and overall behavior of youth in the context of travel.

Chapter 16
Understanding Tourist Perceptions and Expectations During Pandemic Through Social Media Big
Data...................................................................................................................................................... 330
     Ibrahim Sabuncu, Yalova University, Turkey

This chapter describes social media’s role in understanding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
the tourism industry. At first, collecting large amounts of unstructured data from tourism-related digital
media, social media, and search engines is explained. Then how these data can be analysed with artificial
intelligence and machine learning-based sentiment analysis, content analysis, and topic modelling
algorithms is described based on similar studies in the literature. Finally, how the collected data can
be used to understand tourists’ positive and negative experiences in the pandemic and determine their
expectations from tourism enterprises, tourism-related public institutions, and government officials is
expressed. Consequently, this chapter summarises how the digital world’s big data resources can be used
to extract knowledge about tourism during the pandemic.

Chapter 17
Travel Risk and Intention to Visit a Destination During the COVID-19 Pandemic............................ 351
    Gonca Aytaş, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey
    Aysel Aliyeva, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey
    Engin Aytekin, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey

The primary purpose of this chapter is to look into the risk perceptions of people traveling during the
COVID-19 and their intention to visit destinations. Another aim of this chapter is to provide the readers
with conceptual information about the concept of perceived risk, risk factors encountered in the tourism
sector, and the intention to visit a destination. In this context, a literature review was performed, and
the concept of perceived risk, perceived risk factors in tourism, and the process of intention to visit a



destination in connection with the previous studies were explained. Later on, the risk perceptions and
destination visit intentions of the individuals regarding the destination visit during the COVID-19 were
studied. Finally, suggestions have been offered relating to the tourism sector by making inferences from
the information obtained from secondary data.

Chapter 18
The Effect of COVID-19 Measures in Hotels on Tourists’ Perceptions of Safe Tourism Service...... 372
    Şirvan Şen Demir, Süleyman Demirel University, Turkey

For a tourist, the perception of safety is the most important element of the holiday purchase decision
process. With the COVID-19 pandemic, people’s health concerns have also increased. The expectation of
safe tourism on holiday has become more prominent. Hotel management takes the necessary precautions
to provide safer service to its customers. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of COVID-19
measures in hotels on tourists’ perception of safe tourism service. A total of 734 questionnaires were
collected from local tourists at four- and five-star hotels. Factor analysis, correlation, and regression
analyses were used to examine the hypotheses. The results of this study have been revealed that while
general COVID-19 measures, restaurant services, room services, and human resources measures
significantly affect safe tourism service, general area services, pool-beach services, and bar services do
not have a significant effect.

Chapter 19
Psychological Characteristics of Tourist Behavior During a Pandemic and Expectations of Future
Tourists................................................................................................................................................ 393
    Darja Kobal Grum, University in Ljubljana, Slovenia

The COVID-19 pandemic has radically cut into tourism behaviors and virtually disabled any form of
tourism. This chapter deals with the problem of how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the changes
of tourist behavior and how these changes are reflected in the wellbeing of potential tourists. The purpose
of this chapter is to find out what are the psychological characteristics that will help to return to tourist
behavior after the pandemic subsides. Next, the chapter will pay attention to the relationship between
the gradual return to tourist activities and safe, but at the same time relaxed tourist behavior. The author
performed a method of systematic review, which performed a systematic analysis of the most relevant
target literature since the COVID-19 pandemic has existed. Based on the obtained results, the author
designed a model of the psychological characteristics of safe tourist behavior at the transition to the
post-COVID-19 period.

Chapter 20
The Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Tourism: A Qualitative Study................ 416
    Gülden Güvenç, Işık University, Turkey
    Damla Til Öğüt, Işık University, Turkey

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an extensive deterioration of many industries including the global
tourism industry. There has been a strong need for psychology-informed research on tourism that
investigates the impact and implications of the pandemic. This chapter is based on a qualitative study
that included 60 individuals, recruited through snowball sampling method, 10 females and 10 males
from three age groups. Participants were sent an online survey, querying their feelings and thoughts
regarding tourism during and after the pandemic, to investigate the psychosocial impact of the pandemic



on the population’s tourism-related representations, decisions, and emotions. The data was subjected
to thematic analysis that would reflect the social representations of the participants and the effects of
the pandemic on these representations. Findings were discussed from social and clinical psychology
perspectives, particularly via Maslow’s and Fiske’s theories and the discursive psychology perspective
that aim to unfold decision-making processes and motivation underlying human actions.

Chapter 21
Changes in Tourism Sales and Marketing Post COVID-19................................................................. 437
    Murat Selim Selvi, Namik Kemal University, Turkey

What kind of new sales and marketing methods tourism businesses follow post-pandemic constitutes the
research problem. Within this scope, this study aims to discover what kind of changes hotel businesses
and travel agencies have experienced in sales and marketing post-COVID-19 and how these businesses
direct their marketing strategies. At first, relevant studies in the literature were reviewed, and document
analysis was conducted. Primary data were obtained through semi-structured interview forms as well
as a short questionnaire form. The sample size consists of 17 hotels and nine A group travel agency
managers. The data were collected by e-mail. Discourse analysis was conducted on qualitative data. In
conclusion, it was determined that the COVID-19 pandemic had a compelling effect in tourism businesses
revising their marketing strategies and increasing their product diversity. To persuade consumers and
win them back, it was observed that tourism businesses had made an effort to guarantee safe holidays
and travel against the pandemic.

Chapter 22
Socio-Cultural Impacts of the Pandemic on Tourism: The Case of COVID-`9.................................. 461
    Caner Çalışkan, Adıyaman University, Turkey
    Hülya Yeşilyurt, Adıyaman University, Turkey
    Boris Michalík, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia

During the pandemic, global life has been adversely affected. These negativities have been observed in
different dimensions, especially in health, economy, and education. The pandemic has also deeply affected
many industries such as tourism. With the pandemic, damages have increased gradually in terms of both
supply and demand. In this process, the view of the local people, one of the most important stakeholders
of the tourism, towards tourism and tourists is very important. As a matter of fact, while there are health
problems and social distance obligations that dominate the whole world on the one hand, economic
concerns are dominant on the other hand. In this dilemma, the question that arises is whether COVID-`9
is a new barrier to local community interaction. In this study, based on this question, pandemic-induced
social changes are evaluated in the context of local people tourism and tourist.

Chapter 23
Analysis of Online Hotel Reviews During the COVID-19 Pandemic Using Topic Modeling............ 478
    Özlem Ergüt, Marmara University, Turkey

The world is facing the COVID-19 pandemic that has impacted economies and millions of people
worldwide. The fact that COVID-19 is highly contagious from person to person has greatly affected the
daily lives of people, and it has also had a devastating effect on many sectors, particularly the tourism
industry. In order to mitigate losses for the tourism sector and for it to gain a new dynamism under the
current pandemic conditions, monitoring and analyzing online reviews is an important factor for better



understanding the needs and desires of customers. The purpose of this study was to determine the main
topics in online reviews by foreign guests staying in İstanbul during the pandemic period using text mining
techniques. The information obtained as a result of the analysis is important in terms of understanding
how to manage the current situation, developing suggestions for solutions, improving service quality,
making future decisions, and adapting to the new normal.

                                              Section 3
                                      Management and Organization

Chapter 24
(Re)acting to the COVID-19 Crisis in Hotels: The Perceptions of Portuguese Managers.................. 496
     António Melo, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal
     Sandra Vieira Vasconcelos, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal
     Carla Melo, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal
     Miguel Silva, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal

Aiming to provide an overview of the hospitality sector in Portugal amid the COVID-19 pandemic, in this
chapter, the authors call on hotel managers and their perceptions to identify key dimensions and relevant
crisis management practices within this unique setting. Supported by eight semi-structured interviews,
it focuses on operations, human resources, and marketing, putting forward practical examples of the
measures and changes introduced to create a safe environment for hotel guests and staff. Additionally,
drawing from content analysis and the ensuing emerging categories, the chapter also provides relevant
insights as to the most valued skills at this particular time. Standing out as key skills, adaptability,
leadership, teamwork, and motivation are considered to be instrumental for businesses’ sustainability
and recovery, being the most valued by managers.

Chapter 25
COVID-19 and Its Employment Dimension in the Tourism Sector.................................................... 520
   Derya Alimanoğlu Yemişci, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Turkey
   Barış Öztuna, Çankırı Karatekin University, Turkey

With its labor-intensive nature, the tourism sector is critically important for providing employment
volume and foreign exchange reserves in the national economies. The tourism sector is influenced by
the events such as economic crises, wars, and epidemics faster than other sectors. The world is facing an
unprecedented global health, social, and economic emergency as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Travel and tourism are one the most impacted sectors with a great amount of decline of international
demand amid global travel restrictions to constrain the virus. In this study, first of all, the literature on
the effect of the COVID-19 virus on the workforce in the tourism sector was included. It identified
the impacts of technology on the tourism sector with the pandemic, and suggestions for the future of
employment in the tourism sector were presented.

Chapter 26
The Effects of COVID-19 on Tourism and Hospitality Employment................................................. 539
    Zeynep Karsavuran, Akdeniz University, Turkey

This chapter attempts to draw attention to the effects of COVID-19 on tourism and hospitality employment.
Specifically, two major impacts on the workforce are detected and discussed within this scope: job losses



and deterioration of the working conditions. Job loss causes financial strain, deterioration of physical
and psychological health, and social consequences for the dismissed individuals. In addition, employees
who remain in the organizations also face negative impacts of the COVID-19 crisis such as health risks,
increasing precariousness, and changing working methods. These labour issues are further discussed
for their consequences on the tourism and hospitality industry, and solution and recommendations are
provided to overcome the negative effects.

Chapter 27
The Impact of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic on Airport Operations: A Study in Turkey.. 558
     Güzide Karakuş, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey
     Fatma Selin Sak, Giresun University, Turkey
     Ahu Altınel, Selçuk University, Turkey

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, which started in China as of December 2019, has spread all over
the world and caused different adverse effects in each country. The coronavirus has affected millions of
people around the world and caused thousands of deaths. The pandemic, which causes us to question our
knowledge to be true and is a new factor that should be seen as a risk in future planning, has brought new
regulations in all vital activities. The fact that airline transportation is one of the sectors most affected
by coronavirus determined the scope of the study. Within the scope of the study, exploratory case study
was preferred and how airport operations were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic was illustrated.

Chapter 28
Forecasting Hotel Occupancy Rates With Artificial Neural Networks in the COVID-19 Process..... 583
    Arzu Organ, Pamukkale University, Turkey
    Cansu Tosun Gavcar, Pamukkale University, Turkey

In the tourism sector, accommodation business demand forecasting provides a great benefit for tourism
professionals, especially hotel managers, in the strategic decision-making process. For demand estimation,
the artificial neural networks (ANN) method, which works similar to a human brain cell and makes
realistic predictions, has been preferred. The aim of this study was to develop an eight input and output
variable of the feedforward radiated back an ANN is in a specially certified hotel room occupancy rate
in Turkey to investigate the applicability of the method to predict. Four different alternative network
structures were created from the data set with the K-fold cross validation method. As a result of the test
simulation, it was determined that the estimated and actual occupancy rates of the network with the
lowest error were close to each other. According to this designed model, the monthly occupancy rate
for the years 2019 and 2020 has been estimated. As a result, the effect of COVID-19 was revealed by
comparing the hotel occupancy rate with the actual rates.



Chapter 29
Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) and Food Safety: Are the Consumers in the Hospitality, Food,
and Beverage Industry Right to Worry?.............................................................................................. 603
    Asokan Govindaraj Vaithinathan, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
    Naeem Anwar, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
    Abdelmoneim Sulieman, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia
    Fadheela AlAlawi, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
    Mohammed Yousif Mohammed, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
    Sharique Ahmed, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

The COVID-19 pandemic is continuing to impact our daily chores of work, education, travel, and food.
In this chapter, historical anecdote of SARS pandemic of 2003 is compared with the current COVID-19
with the timeline. The emergence and the primary mode of airborne transmission of the SARS CoV2
that has been incriminated in the outbreaks of meat processing plants is discussed. Considering the
WHO report on the likelihood of four possible pathways in the introduction of SARS CoV2 that included
the introduction through cold food chain products, advisories for owners, employees, and guests in the
hospitality, food, and beverage industry are provided that emphasize on food safety through HACCP
food management systems. The approaches of pretravel consultation, vaccination, and adhering to good
behaviors of physical distancing, hand hygiene, and face masking are detailed to anticipate early bounce
back of the tourism, hospitality, food, and beverage industries.

Chapter 30
COVID-19 Policy Actions for the Recovery of the Tourism Industry and a Discussion for the
Post-COVID Era.................................................................................................................................. 627
     Burcu Turkcan, Ege University, Turkey

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the world, and a new normal has some new rules including travel
restrictions, social distancing, contactless technologies, and health and hygiene protocols. The post-COVID
era will witness transformations in the tourism industry, and discussions about new policies and actions
will be critical. In this context, the main aims of this study are twofold. The first aim is analyzing the
policy actions of different countries for the recovery of tourism industry during COVID-19 pandemic.
And the second aim is making a comprehensive discussion about the actions that should be taken in
the post-COVID period. In this sense, the main contribution of this study is expected to be on the point
that the enhanced discussion will shed light on the tourism recovery for the analysts, academics, and
policymakers.

Chapter 31
New Practices in the Tourism Sector During COVID-19.................................................................... 645
    Meral Büyükkuru, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Turkey
    Neşe Yılmaz, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Turkey

The tourism sector is one of the main economic sectors of both developed and developing countries. It
is one of the sectors that feels the most destructive effects of COVID-19 in terms of generating income,
providing employment, and covering many sub-sectors. A number of practices, recommendations, and
decisions have been put forward to minimize the devastating effects of the pandemic by the international
bodies. Although the COVID-19 epidemic has been brought under control in some countries with various
vaccination practices and a new normalization process has been entered into, the traces of its destructive



effects are still visible in the tourism industry. Therefore, this chapter draws the attention of the reader
to comprehensive and up to the present unconventional practices in the industry due to the impacts of
COVID-19 on the tourism and hospitality industry.

Chapter 32
The Impacts of Cognitive and Affective Risk Perception of COVID-19 on Life Well-Being: The
Mediating Effect of Understanding COVID-19................................................................................... 664
     Ali Dalgıç, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Turkey
     Mahmut Demir, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Turkey
     Fatma Doğanay Ergen, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Turkey

The purpose of this study is to reveal the effect of cognitive and affective risk perceptions that the
employees perceive due to COVID-19 on their well-being. Another purpose is to reveal the mediating
role of understanding of COVID-19 in the impact of the risk perceptions perceived by the employees
due to COVID-19 on their well-being. The data of the study were collected between December 15, 2020
and February 15, 2021. It was found that cognitive and affective risk perceptions caused by COVID-19
significantly and negatively affected the well-being of the employees.

                                                            Section 4
                                              Alternative and Sustainable Tourism

Chapter 33
Rediscovering the Rural as a Tourist Destination in Pandemic Times: The Case of Portugal............ 684
    Susana Silva, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal
    Paulo Carvalho, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the global tourism sector in an unprecedented manner. After
the relaxation of lockdown measures, there was an expectation about the chosen tourist environments
and how rural tourism would be positioned. This chapter starts from a theoretical framework on rural
tourism in Portugal and analyses how this segment has been impacted by COVID-19 from a quantitative
perspective and the choices of summer season environments by Portuguese tourists through a questionnaire
survey applied to almost 700 Portuguese tourists. The results show that demand increased and that rural
environments strengthened their position relative to pre-COVID-19 planning. This was mainly motivated
by the notion of safety conveyed thanks to low population density which leads to the perception that
rural areas offer a lower risk of transmission. This information provides a relevant support tool for rural
territories, since they now have an opportunity to be creative, to re-invent themselves, and to promote
a more sustainable tourism.

Chapter 34
The Impact of COVID-19 on the Rural Second Home Tourism: Case of Eastern Black Sea
Region, Turkey..................................................................................................................................... 703
     Ersin Türk, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
     Aygün Erdoğan, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
     Beytullah Sulak, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
     Gökhan Hüseyin Erkan, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey



The aim of this study is to examine the level of satisfaction of second home users in the EBSR countryside
due to the COVID-19 pandemic. For this purpose, a qualitative research based on in-depth interview
technique using semi-structured questionnaire was applied to six households. Gürgenağaç Village within
the borders of Trabzon Province, Maçka District was selected as the case area. The study provided results
to discuss whether rural second homes, which are seen as insurance against risks, fulfill the expected
task by virtue of the global pandemic experience and the problems arising from second homes and their
surroundings. In conclusion, the study shows that behaviors and attitudes of rural second home owners
had significantly changed with the COVID-19 pandemic.

Chapter 35
Obstacles and Adaptations of Mega-Events in São Paulo in the Face of the COVID-19 Pandemic... 728
    Daiane Oliveira da Silva, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
    Madalena Pedroso Aulicino, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil

The purpose of this research study was to identify how mega-events that had been established in the
official calendar of SPTuris (São Paulo Tourism Company) in 2020, of the Municipality of São Paulo,
Brazil, have adapted to the coronavirus pandemic. The study verified the impacts and obstacles caused
in the event industry as well as the mitigation of such difficulties. A presentation was made on concepts,
classifications of events, their history, and position in the market, including a description of actions by
organizers not to stop all activities; the authors also included an interview with a representative of two
companies in the event industry. The study conclusion was that most events opted for the internet and
social media, in addition to drive-thru and delivery activities in the case of gastronomy; and that there
have been gains in health safety and in the role of hybrid events in the future.

Chapter 36
The Effects of COVID-19 on Health Tourism and Tourist Health...................................................... 747
    Mehtap Ataseven Bulun, İstanbul Okan University, Turkey
    Onur Yarar, İstanbul Okan University, Turkey

The high epidemic rate of COVID-19, its impact on the shrinkage in the world economy, and changes
in the daily routines of people show that it is not only a problem that concerns public health, but also
a major concern which coerces people (and countries) all over the world to rethink in the name of
sustainability of contemporary lifestyles and to work on systemic changes. Undoubtedly, health tourism
is one of these subjects. In this chapter, the authors present an overview of COVID-19’s effects on health
tourism and tourist health.

Chapter 37
Modeling Attitudes to Nature, Tourism, and Sustainable Development in National Parks: A
Survey of Visitors in the Vesuvius National Park................................................................................ 768
    Ilaria Marotta, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
    Fabio Corbisiero, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
    Luigi Delle Cave, University of Naples Federico II, Italy

The chapter, part of the broader debate about the concept of sustainable tourism, pays particular attention
to the characteristics and environmental, social, and economic effects of tourist flows in protected natural
areas. The concept of sustainable tourism includes all those forms of tourism that are neither invasive
nor destructive in relation to natural and cultural resources. The combination of tourism, protected



areas, and sustainability is, in fact, a central lever in the analysis of local development processes. Based
on the results of the survey, they identify several aspects that make up the profile of users, develop a
sustainability index, assess the local impact of tourist flows, and reflect on socio-economic development
processes in light of the consequences of the pandemic.

Chapter 38
COVID-19 and Alternative Tourism: New Destinations and New Tourism Products........................ 786
   Buket Buluk Eşitti, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), tourism is expected to lose between $900
billion and $1.2 trillion in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It is also estimated that the decrease in
the total number of tourists due to the COVID-19 pandemic will occur between 58% and 78%. It can be
said that competition in the tourism sector will be experienced intensely among countries with alternative
tourism diversity when evaluated in terms of outbreaks that may occur in COVID-19 process and after.
In this context, it is seen that natural habitats, physical spaces isolated from society, digitalization, and
smart tourism applications will gain more importance in terms of tourism activities and will come to the
fore in the destination preferences of tourists. Based on this, this chapter aims to examine the subject of
COVID-19 and alternative tourism in the context of new destinations and new tourism products.

Chapter 39
Alternative Suggestion for the Sustainability of Tourism During Coronavirus Breakout................... 806
     Remenyik Bulcsu, Budapest Business School, Hungary
     Cem Yesilyurt, Adıyaman University, Turkey
     Ali Bagdadi, Budapest Business School, Hungary

It was once again seen during the COVID-19 epidemic how demand elasticity is in the tourism sector
and how fragile the sector is. One of the most affected sectors by the pandemic was the tourism sector.
Due to the restrictions imposed by governments and the measures taken to protect the health of the
people, the tourism sector has suffered severely, and many tourism businesses have suffered financial
damage in this long process and have had to go bankrupt by not being able to maintain their business.
The situation has revealed the importance of sustainability and showed the necessity of ensuring the
continuity of business life for tourism enterprises. It has also revealed the importance of sustainability
for the tourism sector, which adheres to mass tourism and does not care about other alternative tourism
types. In this context, how ready is the tourism sector for crises? Could these crises be responded to with
new destinations and new tourism products? Thus, it seems important to consider sustainable tourism
and alternative tourism types.

Chapter 40
Sustainable Tourism Development in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Case Study of Slovakia.. 823
     Hana Bieliková, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia
     Zuzana Palenčíková, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia

The COVID-19 acute respiratory syndrome pandemic completely stopped global tourism. Many countries
have responded quickly to the situation with a package of measures to help minimize the negative effects
of the pandemic on tourism. These impacts are negatively perceived by local population of examined
areas which may lead to either uncontrollable tourism development or to dislike of locals in tourism
development. Sustainable rural development index for years of 2019 and 2020 was calculated in order



to define whether tourism development is under the limits of sustainability. To help to understand the
development of tourism and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, a SWOT analysis was conducted.

Chapter 41
The Rise of Digitalization in the Tourism Industry During COVID-19: Cyber Space, Destinations,
and Tourist Experiences....................................................................................................................... 843
     Öznur Akgiş İlhan, Ahi Evran University, Turkey

Undoubtedly, tourism is one of the sectors most affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. In this sense, it
is one of the most important issues in tourism research. The strategies implemented in combating the
pandemic caused a significant increase in the use of digital technologies in tourism. In this context, in this
chapter, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism on digitalization are examined in the context
of transportation, accommodation, food and beverage, and tourist experience. Research findings indicate
that the traditional concept of space in tourism geography is in a transformation towards cyberspace.
The pandemic has proven our need for digital strategies and planning tools in tourism. The future will
be a time when smart and cyber tourism is increasingly discussed.

Chapter 42
Tourism Education During the Pandemic: Is Distance Education a Solution?................................... 863
    Ina Keçi, European University of Tirana, Albania
    Ermira Qosja, European University of Tirana, Albania

The worldwide pandemic situation created by the COVID-19 disease confronted the education systems
of all countries with the most unpredictable challenge ever, a pedagogical revolution that required the
transition from traditional and conservative education of auditors to distance education formats. The
new front was clear, in a few days the entire education community had to adapt to the new environment,
developing and creating new plans to provide teaching through different electronic platforms and software.
As the tourism sector is one of the main sources of sustainable development, the role of higher education
systems in this sector is to prepare human resources able to proactively respond to all the challenges
created during the pandemic circumstances and post-pandemic circumstances. This chapter based on
semi-systematic literature review discusses distance education in tourism as an inevitable alternative to
education due to the pandemic conditions in terms of providing an appropriate preparation of human
resources in tourism to properly face the new reality.

Chapter 43
Review of the Studies Related to COVID-19 and Tourism Using Text Mining Techniques............... 885
    Burcu Kartal, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turkey
    Mehmet Fatih Sert, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turkey

This study aims to provide a roadmap for research dealing with the tourism sector. In this context, by
conducting a study in the form of a literature review, researchers are informed about what has been done
and what is missing. In the study, articles that have been accepted from scientific journals indexed in the
SCOPUS database before January 18, 2021 and dealing with COVID-19 and tourism issues are examined.
The study was carried out in two stages. In the first stage, descriptive statistics were given in terms of
the region studied in the articles, the journal in which the articles were published, and the methods used
in the articles from a general perspective. In the second stage, articles are divided into sections such as
title, keywords, abstract, and conclusion. Each article section has been analyzed separately with text



mining and clustering analysis, taking into account both single and double-word groups. As a result of
analysis, it was determined that theoretical studies were carried out and quantitative methods were used
in most of the studies.

Compilation of References...........................................................................................................xxxviii

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... clxi

Index................................................................................................................................................ clxxvi