Deep-sea mining: what are the alternatives?
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Deep-sea mining: fact sheet 9
Deep-sea mining:
what are the alternatives?
Deep-sea mining is out of step with the direction the world is taking1 as leaders across both
public and private sectors seek nature-based solutions to the climate and biodiversity crises.
Set within a circular economic model, this approach is in line with the United Nations (UN)
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12 – to ensure responsible consumption and production
– and the UN’s designated decades of ocean science and habitat restoration.
goal to “stop mining the earth altogether” in
20174 battery technology has advanced rapidly.
Investment in innovation means that the next
generation of longer-lived batteries that reuse
metals – or do not use deep-sea minerals at
© OFOS-Launcher Team (AWI), RV SONNE 2016
all – are already entering the market. A joint
study by the International Energy Agency (IEA)
and the European Patent Office underlines the
key role that battery innovation is playing in
the transition to clean energy technologies. It
revealed that between 2005 and 2018, patenting
activity in batteries and other electricity storage
technologies grew at an average annual rate
of 14% worldwide, four times faster than the
average of all technology fields.5
Experts anticipate that new technologies
Above: goosefish Deep-sea mining prospectors claim we have will unlock additional applications sooner than
(Lophiodes beroe), a type no choice but to open the ocean to mining in expected and create a “seismic shift” in how we
of anglerfish 640 meters. order to power the green shift. This is because power our lives and organize energy systems as
the minerals they are targeting – manganese, early as 2030. They warn investors that change
cobalt and nickel – are used to build batteries for will be rapid, with timelines that “may not align
renewable technologies. However, alternatives with traditional venture capital criteria.”6
to deep-sea mining are within reach providing “As early as 2025, and no later than 2030,
we continue to invest in three RMI expects non-Li-ion battery technologies
“It is true that there are main areas: innovation in battery to have made significant commercialization
technology; increased reuse and steps… Regulators and policymakers must look
enough metal-bearing deposits
recycling capacities; and the ahead to understand just how quickly lower-
on land to meet the needs of
continued extraction of metals cost batteries will accelerate the transition to
the clean energy transition.”3 from terrestrial sources under zero-carbon grids and open new pathways for
DeepGreen subsidiary, Tonga greatly improved environmental mobility electrification.” RMI, 2020.
Offshore Minerals Ltd and social governance (ESG) Some foresee companies moving away from
frameworks.23 the use of nickel altogether, due to its cost.7
Solid-state batteries, that require no nickel or
Innovation in battery technology cobalt, can be lighter and provide more range
Ensuring clean and green battery supply at a lower cost than today’s electric vehicles
chains has been identified as a requirement for (EVs) that use lithium-ion batteries. They also
business and government energy strategies have faster charging times and do not contain
in order to shape an energy transition that flammable electrolytes.8 This may explain why
does not repeat the mistakes of the fossil fuel- solid-state battery technology is predicted to
based economy. Since Apple announced its massively disrupt the battery industry in the near
Fact sheet 9 | Deep-sea mining: what are the alternatives? | JULY 2021 1
what are the alternatives?
Deep-sea mining: fact sheet 9
future, and why Ford and BMW q In May 2021, the world’s biggest truck
“Lithium-iron phosphate and are leading a $130 million makers – Volvo and Daimler – bought into
its upgraded versions will have funding round in a solid-state a joint hydrogen venture for large vehicles,
battery start-up, Solid Power, predicting that hydrogen will “take off” as the
a major role in the future of
with hopes of integrating next- future of long-distance transport between
EVs and fundamentally change
generation batteries into its 2027 and 2030 before going “steeply up”.19
large-scale energy storage.” electric vehicles by the end of q In April 2021, IBM Research reported
Professor Shirley Meng, materials this decade.9 progress in testing a new battery chemistry
scientist at the University of In addition, lithium-iron that is free from any heavy metals, such as
California San Diego13 phosphate (LFP) batteries, also nickel and cobalt.20
cheaper than nickel and cobalt q In February 2021, UK government-funded
batteries, have seen huge tests successfully developed a cobalt and
success over the past year. Although they tend nickel-free solid-state battery system which,
to hold less power and have a shorter range they say, costs half that of lithium-ion.21
than ‘conventional’ lithium ion batteries,10 their q In January 2021, Guoxuan High-tech
overall share of the global battery market rose launched its new generation LFP cell.22
to 18.5% in January 2021, compared to just 1% q In September 2020, SAIC Motors produced
in January 2020. In March 2021, Volkswagen the first high end hydrogen cell vehicles.23
announced its intention to employ LFP batteries It aims to roll out at least 10 models and
in its own models.11 This upward trend is produce 10,000 hydrogen vehicles by 2025.
forecast to increase to 25% during 2021.12 13 q In May 2020, Chinese automotive battery cell
In April 2021, China’s BYD announced14 that manufacturer, SVOLT, launched a cobalt-free
it is going all-in on LFP and removing cobalt, battery.24
nickel and manganese from its vehicle batteries q In April 2020, Honda announced it will use solid
entirely, enabling it to produce vehicles at a state battery technology by the late 2020s.25
lower cost to consumers and with a lower fire q Mercedes is exploring advances in battery
risk. Overall, the installation of LFP batteries in technology from lithium-sulphur to solid state,
EVs in China is reported to have increased by and even lithium-air or organic batteries,
around 21% in 2020 and Tesla’s move to LFP describing solid state battery technology as a
batteries in its Model 3 cars15 has proved to be a “step change” for battery technology.26
runaway success.16 17
Recycling and re-use
Other recent innovations include: The International Resource Panel Global
q In June 2021, a Bioleaching Research Group Resources Outlook has emphasized that
at Coventry University reported that all metals rapid growth and inefficient use of natural
present in EV batteries can be recovered resources will continue to create unsustainable
using bioleaching, allowing them to be pressures on the environment. It stresses that
“recycled indefinitely into multiple supply the decoupling of natural resource use and
chains.”18 environmental impacts from economic activity
and human well-being is an essential element in
the transition to a sustainable future.27
“LFP battery capacity deployed onto roads increased six-fold Now is the time to invest in recycling
and we continue to see cathode manufacturers ramping up plants for rare earth elements and other non-
output and a growing list of the automakers in China announcing renewable natural resources used in renewable
upcoming model-versions that will incorporate LFP cells. Among energy systems, in tandem with these market
shifts. Research into ‘urban mining’ – making
the more prominent are Xpeng, Seres and VW.”
better and smarter use of the metals we have
Alla Kolesnikova, Head of Data and Analytics at Adamas17
already taken – is already underway. As one
of the fastest global waste streams – one that
threatens to grow into a global problem of
unmanageable proportions – the recovery of
2 Fact sheet 9 | Deep-sea mining: what are the alternatives? | JULY 2021
? © NOAA OKEANOS Explorer Program , 2013 ROV Shakedown and Field Trials
the total supply if effective
recycling policies are adopted
more widely across the globe,
with larger benefits particularly
for the regions with higher
EV deployment”.35 Recycling
processes that recover all
metals are also needed.36
Currently, when Li-ion batteries
are recycled, processes
usually prioritize certain high
value metals but do not
recover significant quantities
of lithium. Clarios, which
produces a third of the world’s
Above: methane bubbles electronic waste can play a significant role in EV batteries, has stated that battery recycling
rising above a cold reducing the need for virgin-mined metals to should be baked into battery designs rather than
seep site. Quill worms, meet future demand. It also has the potential to thought of at the end of the life cycle.37
anemones, patches of be more cost-effective.28 Research has shown Manufacturers should also provide detailed
bacterial mat, pandalid that it is technologically possible to recover and information to facilitate battery recycling.Many
shrimp, and a large recycle upwards of 95% of lithium, nickel, cobalt governments have, or are developing, policy
red crab (Chaceon and copper in batteries,29 and that significant or regulatory instruments to encourage the
quinquedens) along reductions in demand for virgin mining are recycling, reuse or refurbishment of consumer
the periphery of the feasible in the nearer term. Moreover, large electronics and industrial batteries. The ReCell
seepage area. amounts of nickel, copper and cobalt that have Center, the US Department of Energy’s Li-ion
been used in other manufacturing processes, battery recycling Research and Development
products and applications besides batteries are center, has been running since December
already being recycled and are available on the 2017 with the goal of making recycling
market. For example, around 50% of the nickel,30 competitive and profitable.38 More recently,
38% of the copper31 and 29% of the cobalt32 on the US Battery Supply Chain Review called
the US market in 2020 consisted of recycled for more research into “alternates to critical
metal, or metal recovered from scrap. minerals” and measures to enable “end-of-
In 2021, Earthworks analyzed and quantified life reuse and critical materials recycling at
the recycled content from general end-markets scale”.39 Meanwhile, the proposed EU Batteries
and the recycling of end-of-life EV lithium-ion Regulation aims to ensure that batteries placed
batteries, as well as demand reduction driven in the EU market are sustainable and safe
by improved recovery rates. On comparing the throughout their entire life cycle. It requires
results with total metal demand, it found that: manufacturers to use a minimum amount of
“Effective recycling of end of life batteries has recycled cobalt, lithium, nickel and lead from
the potential to reduce global demand by 2040 2030 and to provide information that facilitates
by 55% for copper, 25% for lithium and 35% for recycling at end-of-life. This would also affect
cobalt and nickel – creating an opportunity to manufacturers outside the EU if they intend to
significantly reduce the demand for new mining.”33 sell their products within the bloc.40
“If the market steers away from cathodes
containing cobalt to an LFP-dominated market,
cobalt, manganese, and nickel become less “The sustainability of batteries has to
relevant and reach circularity before 2040.”34
grow hand in hand with their
The IEA has also confirmed that recycling end
increasing numbers on the EU market.”
of life Li-ion batteries could “relieve a proportion
of the burden from mining them from virgin ores”,
Virginijus Sinkevičius, EU commissioner
highlighting that “contributions from recycled for environment, oceans and fisheries40
minerals could be even more prominent in
Fact sheet 9 | Deep-sea mining: what are the alternatives? | JULY 2021 3what are the alternatives?
Endnotes
1 DSCC (2020) Deep-sea mining and the transition economy.
https://bit.ly/3645zWQ
2 Amnesty International (2021) Powering Change: Principles for Businesses
and Governments in the Battery Value Chain https://bit.ly/2U9y6HE
3 Matangi Tonga Online (2021) How to transition to clean energy future
with the lightest possible impact. https://bit.ly/3h5hN7z
4 Apple (2017) Environmental Responsibility Report
https://apple.co/3qCCaMz
5 IEA (2020) Innovation in batteries and electricity storage
https://bit.ly/3h6W0wi
© NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program.
6 RMI (2020) Breakthrough Batteries: Powering the Era of Clean
Electrification https://bit.ly/3dxhbWf
7 Clean Technica (2020) Why Lithium Iron Phosphate Batteries May Be
The Key To The EV Revolution https://bit.ly/3qzX8Mi
8 Autoweek (2021) What You Need to Know About Solid-State Batteries
https://bit.ly/3hoeU0G
9 CNBC (2021) Ford and BMW lead $130 million round in EV battery
start-up Solid Power https://cnb.cx/3xes2MQ
10 Mining.com (2021) Cobalt, nickel free electric car batteries are a
runaway success https://bit.ly/2U9yFkK
11 S&P Global (2021) Volkswagen's plan on LFP use shifts hydroxide
dominance narrative in EV sector https://bit.ly/3AhfeqT
Above: goiter sponge Conclusion 12 Roskill (2021) Lithium-ion batteries: LFP cathode materials market
share forecast to increase in 2021 https://bit.ly/3dsRJkG
(Heterochone calyx). Assessments of deep-sea mining should not 13 Clean Technica (2020)Why Lithium Iron Phosphate Batteries May Be
only consider the significant risks it poses to The Key To The EV Revolution/ https://bit.ly/3jv6BCU
14 Mining.com (2021) World’s no. 2 electric carmaker goes nickel, cobalt
biodiversity and humanity but also the risks for free https://bit.ly/3jpEfKq
investors; minerals from the deep may come 15 Business Insider, 2020. https://bit.ly/3dwCZRP
too late to compete with rapid advances in 16 Mining.com (2021) Cobalt, nickel free electric car batteries are a
runaway success https://bit.ly/2Tmb8Nq
alternatives that underpin a circular economy 17 Ibid.
and a genuinely green transition.41 18 The Conversation (2021) Bacteria can recover precious metals from
electric vehicle batteries – here’s how. https://bit.ly/3yeouK
19 Financial Times (2021) Volvo and Daimler bet on hydrogen truck boom
this decade https://on.ft.com/3h54OCT
“The economic viability of exploration and extraction in 20 IBM (2021) IBM Research is reshaping the scene of sustainable
the deep sea as of 2030 must be carefully evaluated in batteries https://ibm.co/3h54TGH
21 SP Global (2021) UK cobalt-free solid-state battery technology claims
light of advances in battery and other technology as well major cost efficiencies https://bit.ly/3hk6S93
as circular economy benefits. More research is required to 22 Roskill (2021) Lithium-ion batteries: LFP cathode materials market
share forecast to increase in 2021 https://bit.ly/2SBa8EI
thoroughly consider the environmental implications before 23 Fuel Cell Works (2020) SAIC Motors reveals the world's first high end
increasing the exploitation of these resources” hydrogen fuel cell MPV SAIC Maxus Euniq 7 https://bit.ly/3x3627n
24 Businesswire.com (2020) SVOLT Officially Launches Two Cobalt-Free
The World Economic Forum41 Batteries via Livestream https://bwnews.pr/3dvfzMB
25 Auto Express (2021) Honda to be electric only by 2040 with solid state
battery tech coming late 2020s https://bit.ly/3hlFt6J
26 Elecktrek, (2021) Mercedes-Benz invests in next-gen li-ion battery,
promises faster charging and longer range https://bit.ly/3qCWcGW
27 IInternational Resource Panel (2019) Global Resources Outlook: Natural
About the DSCC
Resources for the Future We Want https://bit.ly/3x7QO0N
28 Zeng et al., (2018) Urban Mining of E-Waste is Becoming More Cost-
Effective Than Virgin Mining. Environmental Science & Technology, 52,
8, 4835–4841
The Deep Sea Conservation Coalition (DSCC) was founded 29 Earthworks, 2021 https://bit.ly/3whxfCh
in 2004 to address the need to prevent damage to deep-sea 30 U.S. Geological Survey, 2021a https://on.doi.gov/2UbWWGP
31 U.S. Geological Survey, 2021b https://on.doi.gov/3w2TKdL
ecosystems and the depletion of deep-sea species on the
32 U.S. Geological Survey, 2021c https://on.doi.gov/2UTbvzw
high seas from bottom trawling and other forms of deep-sea 33 Earthworks, 2021 https://bit.ly/3whxfCh
fishing. The DSCC is made up of over 90 non-governmental 34 Dunn et al., (2021) Circularity of Lithium-Ion Battery Materials in
Electric Vehicles. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(8)
organizations (NGOs), fishers organizations and law and policy 35 Argus (2021) Battery recycling could cut raw material use by 12pc
institutes, all committed to protecting the deep sea. https://bit.ly/3yb4456
36 Duesenfeld (2021) https://bit.ly/3Af8EBe
37 Auto News (2021) Recycling could help fill battery demand
For further information: https://bit.ly/360PbGm
info@savethehighseas.org 38 C & En (2019) It’s time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion
batteries https://bit.ly/3hodW4y
www.savethehighseas.org 39 National Blueprint for Lithium Batteries (2021) https://bit.ly/3Af4pFH
@DeepSeaConserve 40 European Commission (2020) Green Deal: Sustainable batteries for a
circular and climate neutral economy https://bit.ly/3w7fV2K
41 World Economic Forum (2019) A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value
Chain in 2030 https://bit.ly/3ju40Jv
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