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COVID-19 in
African cities
Impacts, Responses and Policies Recommendations
©Yahya Burugu/Mathare Roots Initiative
COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
Impacts, Responses and Policies
CONTRIBUTORS
Supervision : Oumar Sylla, Edlam Abera
Yemeru, Jean Pierre Elong Mbassi
Contributors: Claude Ngomsi, François
Yatta, Dmitry Pozhidaev, Lucia Kiwala,
First published by United Nations Human Settlements Robert Ndugwa, Donatien Beguy,
Programme (UN-Habitat) 2020 Dennis Mwaniki, Christophe Lalande,
All rights reserved Gianluca Crispi, Marco Kamiya,
Muhammad Gambo, Marios Pournaris,
Jack Zulu, Yohannes Ghebru
Disclaimer: The designations employed and the pre- Editor: Dr. Joseph Maseland
sentation of material in this publication do not imply
Reviewers: Xing Quan Zhang, Lucia
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part
Kiwala, Benedict Arimah, Omoayena
of the secretariat of the United Nations concerning the
Odunbaku
legal status of any county, territory, city or area or its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers Published by: UN-HABITAT, UNCDF,
or boundaries regarding its economic system or degree UCLG-Africa, UNECA
of development. Excerpts may be reproduced without
Layout: Michael Lusaba
authorization, on condition that the source is indicated.
Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily
reflect those of the United Nations Human Settlements
Programme, the United Nations and its member states.
Table of Contents Executive summary 2 Introduction 4 1.African urbanization: A huge risk factor for COVID-19 7 1.1. Rapid and unplanned urbanization 7 1.2. Prevalence of slums and informal settlements 8 1.3. Access to basic services in urban areas 9 1.4. Informal employment, poverty and inequality 10 1.5. Density, mobility and market places: Contagion opportunities 11 2.The impacts of COVID-19 on cities 12 2.1. Health systems and coping measures 12 2.2. Economic and financial impacts 13 2.3. Potential impacts on the housing sector 16 2.4. Observing social and physical distance 16 2.5. Food security challenges in cities 17 2.6. Governance and institutional dimensions 18 2.7. Information Inequality 18 2.8 Increased vulnerability of women 19 3.Responses in addressing COVID-19 20 3.1. National responses in brief 20 3.2. Local and regional governments’ responses 22 4. Conclusions and recommendations 24 4.1. Conclusions 24 4.2. Policy Recommendations 24 Bibliography 27 References 29
Executive Summary
COVID-19, a global pandemic declared urban population lived in slums or Other challenges include elevated risks
by the World Health Organization informal settlements, which translates of eviction and homelessness, food
(WHO), is crippling the global economy into about 257 million people across insecurity and information inequalities
and upending people’s lives thereby the whole of Africa. Only 55% and especially among women. As first
threatening sustainable development 47% of Africa’s urban residents have responders in tacking the urban impacts
across all its dimensions. Africa is also access to basic sanitation services and of COVID-19, local authorities are key
facing the dire consequences of the hand washing facilities respectively. actors in taking measures to tackle
crisis, necessitating timely responses, Furthermore, most urban residents rely the crisis, yet many face capacity
recovery and rebuilding policies and on the informal sector that employs constraints including a loss of up to 60%
strategies. Globally, urban areas are the 71% of Africans, making them highly of their revenues.
epicentres of the epidemic accounting vulnerable to loss of income and unable
for the vast majority of the confirmed to abide by restrictions and lockdown To promptly and adequately address
COVID-19 cases. This report looks at the measures. African cities often have the challenges of COVID-19 pandemic
impacts, responses and policy pathways high population densities coupled in Africa at the urban scale and through
related to COVID-19 in the context of with overcrowded public transport and local governments, six key responses
cities in Africa. marketplaces making social distancing are recommended for short, medium
almost impossible. These factors and long term interventions led by
Africa is currently experiencing the combined make Africa’s cities hotbeds national and local governments with
most rapid urban growth in the world. for COVID-19. the support of the African Union,
The urban population increased more United Nations System and Regional
than 10 times in six decades, from 53 COVID-19 has registered adverse Economic Communities (RECs)1. Apply
million to 588 million during the period impacts in cities in multiple ways. local communication and community
from 1960 to 2020.1 African cities are With Africa having low ratios of health engagement strategies 2. Support
epidemiological foci of for COVID-19 professionals and hospital beds and SMEs and the informal economy 3.
like other urban areas globally. However, most of its stock of pharmaceuticals Deepen decentralized responses
the quality and nature of Africa’s being imported, health systems are to COVID-19 through strengthening
urbanization exacerbates transmission highly constrained in their response local government capacities 4. Target
rates of infectious diseases like to COVID-19. Inhabitants of slums informal settlements through data
COVID-19 and makes containment and and informal settlements face driven contextualized measures 5.
response measures considerably more heightened challenges in accessing Establish mechanisms to promote rapid
difficult. healthcare services and products. access to housing and prevent forced
From an economic perspective, urban evictions 6. Integrate urban planning
The COVID-19 risk factors are acute based enterprises and sectors have and management as key priorities
in African cities in part due to the undergone drastic reductions and for recovery and rebuilding strategies
largely unplanned and poorly managed closures especially SMEs which have a towards long-term resilience.
urbanization process resulting in constrained ability to absorb shocks..
widespread informal settlements Widespread loss of employment income
and severe infrastructure and service has been registered with informal sector
deficits. In 2019, about 47% of Africa’s workers being especially vulnerable.
1 World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision, in https://population.un.org/wup/
2
© UN-HABITAT/Julius Mwelu
Introduction
COVID-19 has produced adverse
impacts at an unprecedented scale
and the pandemic is likely to set off a
historic global economic recession. So
far, the measures taken worldwide to
contain the spread of COVID-19 have
affected the global value chains of
manufacturing, transportation, retailing
and consumption. According to the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
anticipated recession of ‘The Great
Lockdown of 2020’ is estimated at -3%
compared to -0.1% during the global
financial crisis of 2009.4 According to
The world is facing an the International Labour Organization
unprecedented health crisis due (ILO), an estimated 1.6 billion people
© UN-HABITAT/Julius Mwelu
to the spread of COVID-19. So employed in the informal economy - or
far, the world has recorded over nearly half the global workforce - could
seven million confirmed cases see their livelihoods destroyed due to
the decline in working hours brought
and over 400,000 fatalities.2 In
on by lockdowns and curfews aimed at
just a few months, the pandemic
curbing the spread of COVID-19.
has dramatically transformed the
way people live, work, shop and
© UN-HABITAT/ Benedict Otieno
socialize globally. Urban areas
are the epicentres of the epidemic
and over 95% of the confirmed
COVID-19 cases are in urban In Africa, where 163,699 positive cases
areas.3 were recorded as of 31 May 2020,5 the
United Nations Economic Commission
for Africa (UNECA) estimated
considerable economic damage, social
costs and compromised overall well-
being. The average GDP growth in Africa
in 2020 is expected to fall from 3.2%
to 1.8% but may contract even further.
2 Johns Hopkins University Center for Systems
Science Engineering (2020) COVID-19
Dashboard; https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.
html 4 IMF (2020) World Economic Outlook (Chapter
3 UN-Habitat (2020) UN-Habitat COVID-19 1 The Great Economic Lockdown); https://
Response Plan; https://unhabitat.org/sites/ www.imf.org/~/media/Files/Publications/
default/files/2020/04/final_un-habitat_ WEO/2020/April/English/text.ashx?la=en
covid-19_response_plan.pdf 5 Africa CDC Dashboard, http://africacdc.org/
covid-19/
4
COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
Major economic sectors had already This inter-agency coordination platform
been adversely affected with the global on risk communication and community
The informal sector fall in oil prices which accounts for 40% engagement stated that the population
which employs of region’s exports. The informal sector most at risk are those who depend
71 %
which employs 71% of Africans could heavily on the informal economy, occupy
face dire consequences, with up to areas prone to shocks, have inadequate
25 million people possibly falling into access to social services or political
extreme poverty. As elsewhere, urban influence, have limited capacities
of Africans could face areas in Africa are the main hotspots for and opportunities to cope and adapt
dire consequences, the spread of COVID-19 and therefore with inadequate or no access to
require specific focus as the region technologies. Migrants are also part of
with up to 25 million
defines and implements a continental this group and, according to the United
people possibly falling
response to the crisis. Nations Capital Development Fund
into extreme poverty. (UNCDF),7 the flow of global remittances
Estimates show that about 47% of to low- and middle-income countries
Africa’s urban population live in slums may fall by about one fifth in 2020.
or informal settlements in 2019, which
translates into about 257 million urban So far, different measures have been
residents living in slums or slum-like taken by national, sub-national and local
conditions across the whole of Africa governments to contain the epidemic
(Figure 3). Such conditions contribute and to address its impacts on vulnerable
to accelerating COVID-19 transmission groups and on national economies.
and present major challenges for Their implementation involved the
response measures. The United Nations development of technical partnerships,
socio-economic framework for the including the private sector and civil
immediate response to COVID-19 society. After close to two months of
considers the urban informal sector implementing COVID-19 responses,
and the self-employed as among the some countries among those that
‘at risk’ population groups experiencing imposed a partial or full lockdown
a high degree of socio-economic and restrictions on movements have
marginalization. This is also the view of announced measures to reopen their
the Regional Risk Communication and economies. UNECA8 is advocating for
Communication Engagement working an effective COVID-19 lockdown exit
group (RCCE). 6 strategy to mitigate the risks and protect
vulnerable people.
6 RCCE (2020) COVID-19: How to include marginalized and vulnerable people in risk communication
and community engagement; https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/COVID-19_
CommunityEngagement_130320.pdf
7 UNCDF (2020) COVID-19 changing the landscape for migrants and remittances; https://www.uncdf.
org/article/5606/covid-19-changing-the-landscape-for-migrants-and-remittances
8 UNECA (2020) COVID-19: Lockdown exit strategies for Africa
5
COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
© UNHabitat/Kirsten Milhahn
The pandemic is an opportunity for economic response and recovery; and 3) This report reviews the key impacts
a new generation of multilateralism ‘Recovering better’. of COVID-19 on African cities as well
based on the subsidiarity principle and as the response measures taken so
for effective decentralization to ensure African capital cities have proven to be far to identify innovative practices,
that attention to the needs of citizens the main entry points and epicentres of solutions and opportunities to inform
is incorporated in all governance COVID-19 and they are now the hubs and improve current and future recovery
mechanisms and levels. At the country for the conception, implementation and and rebuilding strategies. In doing so, it
level, UN Country Teams are working monitoring of COVID-19 responses. The draws on the call by the United Nations
with donors to build partnerships with COVID-19 pandemic has shown that for the scaling up of international
national and local governments, as well African Governments need to revisit solidarity and political commitment
as communities and the private sector their urbanization perspectives and to ensure that people everywhere
to ensure that the SDGs remain on track highlight the factors and actions that will have access to essential services and
and that no one is left behind at the make their cities more resilient to future social protection. This is important to
country or local level while addressing shocks and crises. To do so, they need strengthen multi-sectoral and multi-
the COVID-19. to embark on interventions that improve dimensional international cooperation
the planning and implementation of in supporting the region and its country
Conscious of the importance of synergy existing policies with local authorities responses but, more importantly, to
of actions, the UN Secretary-General, as their key partners, and recognize advance post-pandemic socio-economic
António Guterres, has asked the the strategic role of community recovery and resilience.
international community to focus on engagement in addressing and reducing
three critical areas of action: 1) Tackling the pervasive urban, social and spatial
the health emergency; 2) Addressing inequalities.
the social impact of the pandemic, the
6
COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
1. African urbanization: A huge risk factor of COVID-19
The confirmed COVID 19 cases in 1.1. Rapid and unplanned urbanization
Africa have reached the number
of 163599 on the 31 of May While Africa is still the least urbanized continent, it is urbanizing very
2020.9 The number of confirmed rapidly. UN population projections show that, in 2020, 44% of Africa’s total
cases increased by 2,038% population lives in areas defined as urban, compared to only 19% in 1960.10
with the disease spreading from This translates suggests a 10-fold increase, from 53 million urban residents
in 1960 to 588 million in 2020. It is projected that the number of Africa’s
airports to the major cities and
urban residents will increase to 1.5 billion by 2050 and that Africa will pass
then to secondary and third-tier
the tipping point of 50% urban population around 2035. Small- and medium-
cities. Subsequently, COVID-19 sized cities are the fastest growing ones and concentrate most of the urban
in Africa, especially in its population in Africa. In 2018, only 221 African cities’ populations exceeded
initial phases, is mostly a city- 300,000, while more than 10,000 cities and towns had less than 300,000
based disease. The quality and inhabitants. These towns face pronounced urban planning and management
nature of Africa’s urbanization capacity challenges which may also constrain COVID-19 responses.
presents specific challenges for
addressing the pandemic. The
type of urbanization in Africa both
exacerbates transmission rates of Africa will pass the
infectious diseases like COVID-19, tipping point of
50
and makes containment and
response measures difficult. Some
of the key factors for this include %
the pace and extent of planning
of urbanization, the dominance urban population
of informal settlements, the around 2035
basic services and infrastructure
deficits, the persistence of
informal employment, among
Historically, urbanization has been a transformative force of change and
others. This section highlights
is closely associated with structural transformation, innovation, economic
these elements briefly given the growth and improved well-being. Cities enable the expansion of the
implications for Africa’s response, productive sectors of the economy which is key in driving growth and decent
recovery and rebuilding strategies. job creation. However, with inadequate urban planning and management,
and where severe infrastructure and service deficits prevail with limited
productive job opportunities and inadequate housing, urbanization can pose
as risk factor. COVID-19 has vividly revealed that the characteristics of African
urbanization have exacerbated the vulnerability of cities to the pandemic’s
impacts, as many of these stem from systemic shortfalls in urban planning
and management.
9 Word Health Organization (WHO) 10 UNDESA, 2018
7
COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
One of the revealing trends regarding the state of urban 1.2. Prevalence of slums and informal
planning in Africa is the low number of urban planning settlements
experts available in the region. According to UN-Habitat
and the African Planners Association,11 countries such As deliberated, informality in human settlements is prevalent in
as Mauritius, Nigeria, South Africa and Zimbabwe have the region. In the East and West Africa regions, at least half of
relatively high numbers of registered planners per 100,000 the urban population lives in slums or informal settlements. The
inhabitants if compared with Burkina Faso, Malawi and same is true for about 3 out of 5 urban residents in Central Africa
Uganda. However, in comparison with Australia, the United (see Figure 1). In absolute numbers, West Africa has the highest
Kingdom and the United States of America, the ratios count of slum residents, while Southern Africa has the lowest, 94
of registered planners per 100,000 are very low. This million and 11 million people, respectively.
has implications for the extent to which urban growth is
planned in advance and fosters chaotic and unplanned
development. Beyond the expertise, and even where Figure 1. Distribution of slum population in Africa
urban planning policies and regulations are in place, poor
enforcement is also a key challenge. 300
A further key challenge is that of gaps in financing the
investments needed in Africa’s rapidly growing cities. As
much as USD 93 billion (about one-third of which is for
225
maintenance) is required annually to finance the urban
Total slum population (millions)
transition in Africa, but this amount has an estimated 40%
financing gap.12 Cities lack sufficient autonomy to mobilize
and use revenues or incur long-term debt to support
their development. Cities and local governments are not 150
financially equipped to respond to people’s needs and to
provide better living conditions for all. In addition, they
now face the added burden of responding to contain the
COVID-19 pandemic.
75
Moreover, African local authorities and city managers
usually lack the tools and capacities to handle equitable
delivery of quality services or the means to effectively
intervene in various crisis situations. While they may have
0
the mandate to lead immediate responses, this is typically Eastern Central Northern Southern Western Africa Sub-Saharan
not accompanied by adequate financial, technological Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa
and human resources or institutional and regulatory
frameworks. This poses serious challenges in the Data source: Global Urban Indicators Database, UN-Habitat, 2020
context of the current COVID-19 and any future infectious
epidemics or external crises.
People living in slums and informal settlements are at heightened
risk of contracting the COVID19. Whereas social and physical
distancing and hand washing are essential precautions against
11 UN-Habitat and APA (2013) The state of planning in Africa; https:// spreading COVID-19, in urban slums where physical space is
unhabitat.org/the-state-of-planning-in-africa
constrained, rooms are often shared and poorly ventilated, while
12 Foster, Vivien; Briceno-Garmendia, Cecilia. 2010. Africa’s
Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation. Africa Development water and sanitation services are inadequate or absent.
Forum. World Bank.
8COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
1.3. Access to basic services in urban areas
Access to safe water, sanitation and Figure 2: Access to safe water in Africa
other hygiene facilities is especially
87
critical to protecting populations during
infectious disease outbreaks. Access to
clean drinking water is considerably high
% African urban population with access to
improved drinking water which collection
did not exceed a 30-minute round trip.
in African urban areas. In 2017, 87%
of the total African urban population
had access to improved drinking AFRICAN URBAN RESIDENTS HAVE NO
water which collection did not exceed ACCESS TO SAFE WATER SERVICES (69M)
a 30-minute round trip.13 There are,
however, regional differences, with
Southern Africa having the highest level
of access (99%) and Central Africa the
lowest (73%). In absolute numbers,
6M
about 69 million African urban residents
have no access to safe water services,
most of which are in Central Africa (22 NORTHERN
million), West Africa (21 million) and AFRICA
East Africa (19 million).
UN-Habitat’s database shows that only
55% of all Africa’s urban residents have
access to basic sanitation services, (i.e.
improved sanitation facilities not shared
with other households) 44% in sub-
Saharan Africa) and access to hygiene
facilities is low in Africa since only 47%
of all urban residents have basic hand 21M
washing facilities in their homes (37%
in sub-Saharan Africa). This presents
challenges for preventing the spread of
WESTERN
COVID-19 and other infectious diseases.
AFRICA
22M 1M 19M
CENTRAL SOUTHERN EASTERN
AFRICA AFRICA AFRICA
13 UN-Habitat (2020) Urban Indicators Database
9COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
1.4. Informal employment, poverty and inequality
Informality, underemployment and the public assistance, in cash or in-kind,
precarious nature of employment affect to survive. Per a sample survey of five
almost all Africans of working age and slums in Nairobi conducted on 22 April
most work is self-employment (80% in 2020, 81% of the residents already
Africa overall).14 The informal sector suffered complete or partial loss of their
is where 71% of African’s work is the jobs and incomes due to COVID-19.
mainstay. 15 This poses significant But people have recurrent expenses for
threats to families, exposing them to food, energy, water and even in slums
food and health insecurity. Containment the rent still comes due at the end of the
measures such as lockdowns, curfews month.16 Risks of housing eviction due
81 %
and mandatory quarantines are to lack of income and consequential rent
extremely difficult to enforce in African arrears are thus high. In Africa, the share
cities where most people rely on casual of people renting their accommodation
informal work with daily earnings can be as high as 70% in urban areas.
covering critical expenses.
of slum residents have With nearly half of all Africans still
already suffered complete or Unlike inhabitants of countries with living on less than USD 1.25 a day,17
partial loss of their jobs and more advanced economies, informal poverty is also a dominant feature
incomes due to COVID-19 economy workers in developing of the continent’s cities. Inequality
nations lack the social protection remains a major challenge with South
Per a sample survey of five slums in and support mechanisms if they lose Africa has the highest level of income
Nairobi conducted on 22 April 2020,
their livelihoods. They have neither inequality in the world. Of the 19
safety nets nor alternative incomes most income unequal countries in the
and they often lack disposable cash world, 10 are in Africa. Furthermore,
to stockpile food. Many of them need inequality is positively correlated with
the size of urban settlements, with the
larger cities characterized by higher
levels of inequality. From an economic
development perspective, urbanization
yields significantly less value to the
GDP in Africa than it does in Asia and
the existing GDP growth does not
translate into matching improvements
in the quality of life. Persistent poverty
and inequality also pose challenges for
© SHUTTERSTOCK
COVID-19 containment and responses
given the underlying income and other
deprivations.
14 Oxfam (2019), A tale of two continents. Fighting inequality in Africa
15 ECA (2020) COVID-19 in Africa: Protecting Lives and Economies
16 https://covid19africawatch.org/urbanization-and-covid19-in-africa/
17 UN (2017) Africa Renewal. Combating Africa’s inequalities
10COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
1.5. Density, mobility and market places: Contagion opportunities
Urban areas with populations exceeding accounts for about 42.5% of the total and motorbikes. At peak hours,
500,000 inhabitants typically experience number of cases in Nigeria (2,624 out these urban public service vehicles
higher population densities, higher built- of 6,175 reported cases as of 19 May are typically overcrowded making
up area densities and overcrowding, all 2020) against zero cases in Maxixe in social distancing during pandemics
of which presenting increased COVID-19 Mozambique. impossible.
exposure risks. The three largest African
cities, Cairo, Kinshasa and Lagos, Despite government efforts to improve Urban marketplaces play a key role
have population densities in excess of mobility in Africa by introducing mass in the local economy and revenue
12,000 people per km2 but less built-up and energy-efficient transport such as generation. They are spaces for
area per capita at only 54 m2. On the the light rail in Addis Ababa, trams in sociability, meetings, services provision
other hand, a small town like Maxixe Casablanca, the underground metro in and marketing besides the sale of
in Mozambique, where the population Cairo, Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) in Dar goods and production. In African cities,
is below 100,000 has a population Es Salaam and promoting mass use open air marketplaces are typically
density averaging about 1,300 persons of bicycles in Ouagadougou, several poorly designed and often informal.
per km2 and 528 m2 of built-up area challenges remain. Urban mobility People use inadequate sanitation,
per capita (see Fig. 2). The lower systems in Africa are fragmented in clean water is rare and water storage
densities translate into significantly their coverage, service is poor, road tanks absent, electricity connections
less congestion and lower COVID-19 design usually excludes non-motorized are unreliable, fire safety equipment is
exposure risk. The prevailing density modes and pedestrians, and road safety lacking, pathways are narrow and there
conditions, as well as the strength of the systems have shortfalls. In the absence is limited space between sellers. Such
linkages with infection sources (such of high capacity public transport overcrowded marketplaces enhance the
as international travel) could explain the options, mobility in African cities spread of transmissible diseases.
current significant variations in reported depends on low- to medium-capacity
COVID-19 cases. For example, Lagos informal services, especially minibuses
Figure 3: Distribution of population density and built up area per capita in select cities
800
Sinjah, Sudan (pop 10m)
Dakar (pop 1-5m)
100 Lagos (pop > 10m)
Cairo (pop > 10m)
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000
Population Density (Person/Km2)
Data Source : UN-Habitat Urban Indicators data base, 2020
11COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
2. The impacts of COVID-19 on cities
Cities are the engines of national 1.8 hospital beds per 1,000 people, Governments in Africa have identified
economic development and growth. The compared to almost 6.0 in France. and diverted financial resources to
productivity in African cities are much Also, 94% of Africa’s total stock of create additional medical care facilities,
higher than in rural areas. Therefore, the pharmaceuticals is imported.19 With including repurposing hotels and other
COVID-19 lockdowns impacts on African increasing restrictions or outright facilities for group confinements.
cities are vast. African cities are home bans on exports of essential COVID-19 African entrepreneurs and governments
to more than 588 million people,but supplies, the outbreak of COVID-19 have also started their own production
the COVID-19 pandemic is impacting jeopardizes Africa’s access to these of face masks and materials for
far more, due to the region’s strong life-saving medical supplies. Africa’s sanitization to reduce the gaps in
linkages to rural areas and urban-rural urban dwellers, especially those living supply.
connections. in slums and informal settlements, face
challenges in accessing healthcare Africa also experienced international
Although the urban productivity is much services and products, notably so in and internal private sector donations
higher in Africa, cities’ overall economic the light of the COVID-19 related loss of and interventions in the response to the
development level is low as infrastruture incomes. COVID-19 pandemic. Chinese billionaire
is inadequate. The coronavirus and owner of Alibaba, Jack Ma donated
pandemic has revealed a series of 6 million face masks, 1.1 million testing
economic and social ailments in Africa’s Figure 3: Number of hospital beds kit and 60,000 protective gears to Africa.
per 1000 people
urban areas. This chapter will examine In Nigeria, the organized private sector
the economic and social impacts of such as Guarantee Trust Bank (GTB)
COVID-19 on African cities. built and transferred Isolation centres
equipped with state of the art medical
2.1. Health systems and facilities to the Lagos State Government
coping measures whilst other which included prominent
citizens followed with generous
Africa’s capacity to effectively contain donations to both the State and Federal
the pandemic will largely depend on Government purses in combating the
proactive responses and the resilience pandemic.
of its health systems. While the global
1.8
threshold for health professionals is
23 per 10,000 inhabitants, 13 out of
47 African countries have less than
five health professionals per 10,000
of the population.18 In addition, Africa
has lower ratios of hospital beds and
Number of hospital beds per
intensive care units (ICUs) relative to 1,000 people in Africa
other regions. On average, Africa has
18 https://www.who.int/workforcealliance/knowledge/resources/GHWA-a_universal_truth_report.pdf?ua=1
19 https://www.aetnainternational.com/en/about-us/explore/living-abroad/culture-lifestyle/health-care-quality-in-africa.html
12COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
2.2. Economic and financial impacts of COVID-19
2.2.1. Contracted growth of urban For example, Johannesburg and Lagos, 2.2.2. Major cuts in urban jobs and
economies the cities with the highest share of livelihoods
traded sectors -and major gateways
Africa’s cities account for more than for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) In March 2020, the ILO projected that
50% of the region’s GDP.20 At the country into Africa-, are expected to experience COVID-19 could lead to a loss of up to
level, this statistic is even higher for negative growth. Nairobi also has a about 25 million jobs in Africa. However,
countries such as Botswana, Sudan high share of the traded sector and, as the reality appears more severe and the
and Tunisia. As such, the economic a secondary African access point for actual job losses could be significantly
contribution of cities in terms of growth, FDI, is expected to contract by 5%. The higher. Urban-based sectors, particularly
jobs and revenues is far higher in two other cities in the sample will see a manufacturing and services, which
Africa than their share of the national decline of 3 to 4%. The urban economic currently account for 64% of the African
population. Given their centrality in contraction will directly reduce GDP , are expected to be hit hard by
urban development, the economic shock municipal revenues which, in turn, lead COVID-19 with substantial losses of
resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic to less financial resources to deliver productive jobs.
has a cascading impact on cities and urban services (see Fig. 4).
their functions and vise-versa.
In general, urban economies grow Figure 4: Projected growth and growth under COVID-19 conditions in selected African
primary cities
faster due to their concentration of
modern and higher productivity sectors,
such as manufacturing, services, 2020 (Projected) 2020 (Under COVID-19)
telecommunications, transport etc.
As the main economic hubs in most
African countries and associated with
Dar es Salaam 15
higher growth rates than the national 15 (14.8)
average, primary cities will experience
Growth in 2020 inder COVID-19, Percentage
pronounced economic impacts due to
Projected growth in 2020, percentage
Nairobi (11.6) Dar es Salaam
the lockdown and movement restriction 10 (10.7) 10
measures. As such, the economic
Kampala (7.6)
contraction will be more distinct in
local economies with a higher share Nairobi (6.6)
5 5
of tradable activities, particularly Kampala (4.9)
Lagos (3.7)
manufacturing and services, and a
Johannesburg
higher proportion of the GDP or the GVA (1.3)
(gross value added) contribution of the 0 0
informal sector, all other factors being
equal. Lagos (-2.6)
-5 -5
Johannesburg
(-5.9)
Source: UNCDF computations based on national statistics and IMF growth projections
20 UNECA, 2020
13COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
Small and medium-sized enterprises value and between 60% and 80% of 2.2.3. Shrinking local fiscal space
(SMEs), accounting for 80% of total employment in Africa. The sector will
employment, are especially vulnerable be hard hit, resulting in loss of income Local governments’ fiscal space has
to the impact of the pandemic given for many (see Figure 4).23 The risks are three main components: (a) own
their limited capacity to financially compounded by a likely spike in the cost source revenues, (b) fiscal transfers
absorb systemic shocks. Particularly of living due to disruptions in supply from higher levels of government,
affected are small businesses in trade, chains, threatening the livelihoods and and (c) borrowing. Many economic
hospitality, tourism and manufacturing, social welfare of millions of Africans activities are concentrated in urban
where a whopping 90% of businesses who depend on small businesses areas and constitute a key revenue
expect at least a 10% decrease in their or the informal sector for their daily source of central government. But often
2020 revenues compared to 2019.21 survival. Since most of those working the revenue flows to cities are weak.
85% of Uganda’s SMEs have cash in the informal economy are women Consequently, underfunded cities are
coverage sufficient for three months of and girls, particularly in low-paying common in Africa and their lack of
operation or less – a situation which occupations such as market vendors, fiscal space for health crises like the
is typical across the continent.22 With where women constitute 70% or more, COVID-19 pandemic is exacerbating the
the lockdowns in many countries the disparities between men and women crisis. Simulations based on data from
approaching three months, the recovery based on social norms and gender the Africa Local Finance Observatory
prospects for these enterprises are stereotypes are likely to worsen. This show that African local governments, on
shrinking fast as they face decreases is also related to increased risk of the average, are projected to experience
in their assets, workers, customers, and violence and harassment at work and of a drop in local finances in the order of
market shares. stigmatization of certain categories of 65% under the first simulation (worst
workers (e.g. immigrants and persons case scenario) and up to 30% under
The informal sector represents between with disabilities). the second (best case scenario). This
35% and 50% of the region’s added suggests that, if current trends continue,
local authorities could lose up to
Figure 5: Contribution of informal sector output to non-agricultural Gross Value two-thirds of their financial resources.
Added (GVA)
However, these averages mask strong
regional disparities. Figure 5 shows
South Africa (2013) 6 the projected COVID-19 impact on the
finances of local authorities by region:
Burkina Faso (2000) 36
for East Africa USD 51 per capita and
Cameroon (2003) 46
North Africa USD 150 per capita. These
Senegal (2000) 49 two regions also show the largest
Niger (2009) 52 declines in the best-case scenario,
assuming that national government
Togo (2000) 56
subsidies are maintained at the same
Benin (2000) 62
level. Central Africa (USD 21 per capita)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 is projected to experiences the smallest
Percentage of national gross value added declines in both scenarios among
the five regions, reflecting a smaller
Source: UNCDF based on Fourie, Frederick. (2018), The South African Informal Sector:
contribution by the informal sector and/
Creating Jobs, Reducing Poverty. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
or the impact of the many exemptions
that formal businesses do benefit from.
21 Stats SA 2020, UNCDF2020a.
22 UNCDF 2020a
23 See the results of the Ecolog studies.
14COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
Figure 6: Average impact on local and regional Figure 7: Impact on the capital investment of local
governments’ finances in the five regions of Africa and regional governments per size of population
Central Southern West North East More than
Between Between Between
More than
100 000 and 200 000 and 500 000 and
Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa 100 000
200 000 500 000 1000 000
1000 000
Inhabitants Inhabitants
0% Inhabitants Inhabitants Inhabitants
0%
-10%
-10%
-20% -20%
-30%
-30%
-40%
-40%
-50%
-50% -60%
-70%
-60%
-80%
-70%
-90%
-80% -100%
Simulation 1 Simulation 2 Simulation 1 Simulation 2
Source: Data from UCLG, Africa Local Finance Observatory Source: Data from UCLG Africa Local Finance Observatory
The sources of revenues that will be The second element is the investment Figure 7 shows that cities with less than
hit particularly hard include licenses expenditures of local governments 200,000 inhabitants are most impacted.
and fees, local service taxes, user fees, (averaging USD 28 per capita) based The fact that variations in investment
property taxes, and other revenues such on central government transfers. The spending in both simulations cover
as for example, municipal property rents impacts of COVID-19 range from 63%, if exactly the variation of the number of
and fines. These are expected to decline the current situation resumes, to 26% for subsidies from the national government
by about 50%.24 With some of these an optimistic scenario. Given the limited shows that these small cities have
revenues are intentionally foregone investment budgets in normal times, it no investment capacity. All financial
by local governments as part of a is necessary for national governments resources are used for the operation of
local economy relief package whereas to provide special grants dedicated to public services.
others are dropped precipitously due to investment.
diminished economic activity.
24 UNCDF 2020b
15COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
Small- and medium-sized cities, by some African countries in response
ranging in size from 0.2 to 0.5 million to COVID-19. In Gabon, insufficient
inhabitants, will experience the largest public information on the subsidy
proportion of decline in financial criteria affected the implementation
resources both due to the shrinkage of rental and mortgage payment
of subsidies and transfers from the subsidies, raising the question of lack
national government, and weak own of transparency. In Guinea, due to lack
resources. of reliable data, the government26 was
not able to estimate the total amount
2.3. Potential impacts on the In Kenya, required for the rental subsidies
30.5 %
housing sector indicated in the National COVID-19
Response Plan.
Adequate housing is essential for
social distancing and good hygiene The current health crisis however opens
practices. The COVID-19 pandemic is of households were unable prospects for a new type of recovery
therefore hitting hardest those living in to pay their rent due to that focuses on creating a different
informal settlements and the homeless, job losses attributable to society. It presents opportunities for the
exacerbating the seriousness of the pre- Decade of Action to set and reach new
COVID-19.
existing housing crises already affecting milestones in reducing inequality and
millions of people in Africa. As cities in poverty levels and to move towards
restrict movements and suspend daily access to adequate housing for all as
economic activities, staying at home is well as progressively delivering universal
not always an option for all. Homeless human rights everywhere.
people are particularly vulnerable to
health pandemics and often have pre- 2.4. Observing social and
existing health conditions. physical distance
The impact of COVID-19 on incomes As part of their COVID-19 pandemic
and jobs, particularly for low-income and response plans, African national
© UN-HABITAT/Kirsten Milhahn
informal workers, will result in mortgage and city governments have put in
defaults and rental arrears and may lead Kenya are increasing access to water in place restrictions on movement and
to forced evictions. In Kenya, 30.5% of informal settlements and in rural areas socializing. However, in many locations
households were unable to pay their by providing water tanks, standpipes these restrictions are only partially
rent due to job losses attributable to and by placing sanitizers in public followed, and flaunting social distancing
COVID-19.25 Governments across Africa spaces. Gabon and Guinea have called guidelines is worryingly common. The
seek to protect those most vulnerable for the suspension of rental fees for needs for many urban residents to
to the pandemic. Ghana, Guinea vulnerable households. earn their daily income to pay for rent,
and Gabon have announced that the food, school fees, hospital bills and
government will cover the water bills of Lack of data on tenants and the other expenses are a clear challenge to
its citizens, while ensuring stable water management of rents and mortgages enforcing the restrictions on movement
and electricity supply. South Africa and constrain housing subsidies planned and physical proximity.
25 Survey on Socio Economic Impact of COVID-19 on Households Report; https://www.theelephant.info/documents/knbs-survey-on-socio-economic-impact-
of-covid-19-on-households-report/
26 Primature (2020) Plan de riposte économique à la crise sanitaire COVID-19, République de Guinée
16COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
2.5. Food security challenges in cities
The COVID-19 pandemic also This is particularly pertinent in countries
exacerbates parallel ongoing crises, where health authorities indicated
such as the locust invasion and floods in to the general population that fruits
East Africa, the Boko Haram violence in and vegetables are key in increasing
the Lake Chad region, and insecurity in immunity to COVID-19. Prices of long
the Sahel region. According to the May shelf-life foods also increased due to
2020 update on the COVID-19 epidemic higher-income households scrambling
by the Global Humanitarian Response to purchase and accumulate household
Plan, it is estimated that, in 2019, around buffer stocks as a means of self-
The COVID-19 pandemic 135 million people experienced acute insurance against hunger and lockdown
also exacerbates food insecurity and a further 183 million uncertainty. The third channel is the
parallel ongoing crises, were on the verge of a food crisis, of fact that all school children and the
which some 60% in African countries unemployed youths are at home at
such as the locust
alone.27 Global, regional and national the same time on a 24-hour basis.
invasion and floods in
food supply chains are disrupted That means an increased reliance on
East Africa, the Boko by the current mobility restrictions. food from the household (and not on
Haram in Lake Chad Exporters and retailers of food products school meals) on a 24-hour basis.
region, and insecurity in and sellers of seeds, fertilizers and Lowest income households, where the
the Sahel region. insecticides, are experiencing decreased breadwinners are mostly employed in
activity and income. Restaurant and bar the informal sector accompanied with
operators also face similar challenges. daily or weekly wages, have seen a
Landlocked countries are affected by reduction in the number of meals from
shortages and delays in food imports three per day to one meal or maximum
and declines in revenue generation two meals per day.
through the food trade.
Many African countries are now
The population group mostly affected providing essential food supply to
by COVID-19 restrictions in terms of vulnerable households, targeting mainly
food security is the urban poor, who urban informal settlements. Those
are not able to afford bulk buy and interventions also aim at ensuring that
store their own food for subsistence. people have access to safety nets, but
There are three main channels to also seeking to reduce social tensions
explain the food restrictions for urban that could trigger food riots and other
poor. The first channel has been the security crises. City authorities and local
reduction in household incomes due to governments and institutions should be
the lockdown for those in the informal supported by their central government
sector, especially the self-employed in step-by-step and data-driven
with low income sources and no safety approaches to helping the vulnerable
net provision. The second channel and in balancing priorities related to
is the attendant changes in prices of surveillance, lives and livelihoods.
different types of foods resulting from
lower supply and leading to scarcity.
27 2020 edition of the Global Report on Food Crises
17COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
2.6. Governance and National COVID-19 Ministerial social interaction and generate new
institutional dimensions Committee, Uganda’s Presidential forms of information inequality such
Scientific and Strategic Advisory as, for example, access of students to
2.6.1. Overview of governance Committee and COVID-19 Presidential the Internet, computers or television
Task Forces in other countries. In to attend online classes. In Africa, the
Despite all its challenges, the COVID-19 South Africa, inter-governmental Statista28 group observed that there
pandemic also has the potential to associations such as the South African were nearly 55.3 million TV households
transform urban governance. The Local Government Association (SALGA) in 2015, a number which is expected
current health crisis has highlighted the have been enlisted to disseminate to rise to almost 75 million by 2021. In
critical role of national governments information, support its member East Africa, with a total 2014 population
in responding to emergencies in cities, municipalities and advocate for their of 146.9 million and with 33.6 million
as well as the equally crucial roles of interests with the national government. households, the TV penetration rate was
subnational and local governments Kenya has established collaborative a mere 23%.29 The limited use of the
in addressing the pandemic locally. mechanisms between the national and television platform makes a case for the
COVID-19 has catapulted non-state county governments. Internet and mobile phones. But Internet
actors (civil societies, community-and users in Africa are still comparatively
faith-based organizations and the 2.7. Information Inequality few with a 39.3% penetration rate. In
private sector) into prominent roles Nigeria, the largest economy and most
that underscored the value of societal The challenges posed by the COVID-19 populous country in the region, Internet
cooperation. It has also highlighted epidemic go beyond the health system. penetration is just 47%30.
the importance of coordination and They include restrained mobility, reduced
cooperation among different levels of
government and sectoral institutions.
© SHUTTERSTOCK
2.6.2. Coordination and cooperation
among government levels and sectoral
institutions
Coordination and cooperation between
Internet users in Africa
different levels of government
is essential when responding to
are still comparatively
emergencies and crises. Several
few with a
39.3 %
African governments have established
institutional structures to coordinate
actions, both vertically and horizontally,
between sectoral institutions and
ministries. These structures include penetration rate.
taskforces such as Equatorial Guinea’s
National Coronavirus Surveillance
Technical Committee, Ethiopia’s
28 https://www.statista.com/statistics/287739/number-of-tv-households-in-sub-saharan-africa/
29 https://advanced-television.com/2015/04/17/east-africa-tv-penetration-23/
30 https://www.statista.com/statistics/484918/internet-user-reach-nigeria/
18COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
2.8 Increased vulnerability of women and girls
As the pandemic hits low- and middle- education completion. COVID-19 and its
income countries within the region the aftermath are only expected to worsen
hardest, it is critical that the response Women aged 15 to 49 such outcomes and increase extreme
acknowledges underlying inequalities are overrepresented in poverty.34 Women in slums tend to be
that place women and girls at even urban slums and slum- in low paid, temporary and exploitative
greater risk. The harsh realities of like settings in work, making them more likely to be
80 %
gender inequality are particularly ‘working poor’ (employed but earning
obvious in slums where the population less than USD 1.90 a day). Many are
is most at-risk and least prepared. domestic workers who can’t render
services remotely, thereby losing income
Most countries have responded to of the 59 developing that enabled them to feed their families.
COVID-19 with shelter-in-place orders,
countries
lockdowns and measures to curtail It is therefore critical that the response
the spread. But urban inhabitants, acknowledges underlying inequalities
especially slum-dwellers, have a hard that place women at even greater
time complying, as their overcrowded risk. Staying at home, handwashing,
housing often lacks basic utilities, like maintaining good hygiene and practicing
water and sanitation. For women and social distancing is advised. However,
girls who live in slums, the challenges 1.2 billion urban-dwellers globally lack
are even greater as they face increased access to hygiene and handwashing
domestic violence (already being facilities and 2.2 billion urban-dwellers
reported) and unpaid care burdens.31 lack access to safely managed
sanitation facilities. In the Kibera slum,
Women aged 15 to 49 are residents have one latrine for 50 to 150
overrepresented in urban slums and people.35
slum-like settings in 80% of the 59
developing countries (UN-Habitat/ Ultimately, the worst-affected by the
UN-Women, 2019).32 In Kibera, Kenya, pandemic will be those facing multiple
the world’s fourth-most-populated and intersecting deprivations. Women
slum, there are 116 women for every 100 and girls in slums face the double
men. The figure is 120+ women per 100 whammy of greater exposure to the
men in Gabon, Ghana, and Lesotho.33 virus, given their limited access to
Women in slums are worse off than hygiene and space, while each day of
their male slum and female non-slum lost income and education multiplies
counterparts in access to employment, their vulnerabilities and pushes them
health facilities, secure housing and further behind.
31 https://www.wider.unu.edu/publication/covid-19-and-lockdowns
32 https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/harsh-realities-marginalized-women-in-cities-of-the-
developing-world-en.pdf?la=en&vs=747#page=8
33 https://unhabitat.org/covid-19-exposes-the-harsh-realities-of-gender-inequality-in-slums
34 https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/33622/Gender-Dimensions-of-the-COVID-19-Pandemic.pdf
35 https://www.fastcompany.com/90483973/what-will-coronavirus-do-to-one-of-africas-largest-slums
19COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
3. Responses in addressing COVID-19
The Risk Communication and Community Engagement (RCCE) 3.1. National responses in brief
task force (2017),36 reflecting on the Ebola responses by
humanitarian actors, observed that urban contexts exhibit In their COVID-19 response plans, most African countries
high levels of density, diversity, connectivity and change which instituted control measures ranging from restrictions on inter-
create complex social dynamics that are constantly changing regional movements to total lockdowns at the local, provincial
over time. This is what has also been observed with COVID-19. or national level. Some countries, Algeria for instance,
Responses are of different dimensions, continually adjusted established lockdowns on its most highly affected and high-
according to the disease’s trend, while alleviating the intrinsic risk areas. Table 1 shows an overview of the interventions by
economic and fiscal consequences of responding to the African governments. Almost all African countries formulated
demand of neighboring countries to continue trade. response plans and created taskforces to provide policy and
strategic guidance to address the pandemic.
Table 1. National measures put in place in Africa
Measures Country
Border closures and suspension of Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Cameroon, Chad,
international flights Congo, Djibouti, DRC, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia,
Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Mali,
Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,
Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, Tunisia,
Uganda, Zimbabwe
Schools closures Algeria, Angola, Cameroon, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar,
Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Sudan, Togo,
Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia,
State of emergency declared DRC, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Libya, Malawi,
Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa
Lockdowns (total lock down or lock down Total Lockdowns: Angola, Botswana, Cape Verde (Boa Vista under quarantine),
of high-risk areas/regions Congo, Djibouti, Eritrea, Liberia, Malawi, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Tunisia, Uganda,
Zimbabwe.
Partial lockdowns: Algeria (affecting Blida province); Benin (for 15 cities), DRC
(Kinshasa), Gabon (Libreville), Ghana (larger Accra), Namibia (Erongo and Khom as
regions), Nigeria (Lagos & Abuja), Sudan (Khartoum),
Restriction of cross-region/ internal Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Eswatini, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya,
movements Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South
Africa, Sudan,
36 RCCE (2017) Learning from the Ebola Response in cities research, by L. Campbell and L. M. Morel; in https://www.alnap.org/system/files/content/resource/
files/main/alnap-urban-2017-ebola-communication-community-engagement.pdf
20COVID-19 IN AFRICAN CITIES
Ban on group activities and social Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Djibouti,
gatherings Equatorial Guinea, Eswatini, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia,
Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria,
Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda,
Zambia, Zimbabwe
Night curfews Algeria, Burkina Faso, Chad (select regions), Congo, Egypt, Guinea, Ivory Coast,
Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Niger, Senegal, Seychelles,
Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, Uganda,
Mandatory quarantine for inbound Benin, Burundi, Central African Republic, Eswatini, Kenya, Mozambique, Niger,
travelers Tanzania, Tunisia, Zambia,
Compulsory wearing of masks (in entire Countrywide: Cameroon, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar,
country or high-risk areas) Rwanda.
Masks in high risk areas only: Benin, Ivory Coast (Abidjan)
Close of all or some non-essential All closed: Cape Verde, Chad, Egypt, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Sao Tome and
businesses (incl markets, restaurants, Principe, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Zimbabwe; Restaurants & bars closed: Algeria,
bars or markets) Burkina Faso, Gambia, Kenya, Libya
Suspension of public transport or reduced Suspension of public transport: Chad, Djibouti, Eritrea, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar,
capacity Uganda,
Reduction in carrying capacity: Cameroon, Kenya, Mali,
Economic relief measures for public Egypt, Gabon, Kenya, Liberia, Mauritania (through WFP), Mauritius, Morocco,
and businesses (lowered interest rates, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Togo, Tunisia, Zambia, DRC
tax reductions, bail outs of companies/
institutions, cash disbursements, food
distribution, free water and electricity,
Prisoners freed Ethiopia, Morocco, Nigeria, Tunisia, Cameroon
Emergency fund created Ethiopia, Gabon, Liberia, Malawi (through WB), Mali, Mauritania (from WB), Morocco,
Namibia, Niger (from WB), Nigeria, Rwanda (through IMF), Sao Tome and Principe
(through WB), Senegal, South Sudan (through WB), Tunisia, Zambia,
Introduction of new laws or guidelines for Ghana, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Nigeria, South Africa,
enforcement of measures including price
controls
Direct health sector actions – financial Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Burundi (Bujumbura), Kenya, Malawi, Niger, Nigeria,
support to ministry of health, health Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,
worker recruitments, insurance for
frontline workers, personnel equipment,
disinfecting of cities, hand washing
facilities in public areas
Economic measures/cushions (e.g. Mauritius
closure of stock markets)
Rental subsidies to vulnerable households Gabon, Guinea
Source: African countries’ COVID-19 response plans and subsequent measures
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