Conceptualisation of Metaphors in Bongo Flava Music
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ISSN 2277-0852; Volume 1, Issue 4, pp. 59-67; September 2012
Online International Journal of Arts and Humanities
©2012 Online Research Journals
Full Length Research
Available Online at http://www.onlineresearchjournals.org/IJAH
Conceptualisation of Metaphors in Bongo Flava
Music
Hadija Jilala
Department of Linguistics and Literary Studies, Open University of Tanzania, P.O. Box 23409, Dares Salaam, Tanzania.
Email: dijaah@yahoo.com; Tel: 0712569555.
Downloaded 13 July, 2012 Accepted 18 September, 2012
This paper was about the conceptualisation of metaphors in bongo flava music. It critically analyses the
way metaphors are conceptualised and interpreted by audience. By employing cognitive theory of
metaphor, the paper argue that metaphors are conceptualised and interpreted depending on time,
people embodied experience, context of use and social cultural interaction. The paper also argues that,
people of different age groups differ in conceptualising metaphor. That means that there is difference in
conceptualisation of meaning between different age groups, peers, employees and employers, parents
and children, lovers and friends. People use metaphor to communicate among groups in the society.
Keywords: Metaphors, bongo fleva, conceptualisation, audience, cognitive theory.
INTRODUCTION
Sangharakshita as quoted by Jilala [1], explain that, Art is word ubongo that means brain and intelligence. Literary it
the organisation of sense impression into pleasurable means “Brain”. Bongo is a local slang word referring to
formal relations that expresses the artist’s sensibility and the city of Dar es Salaam or to Tanzania. The idea is that
communicates to one’s audience a sense of value that you need to have good “brains” to survive in Tanzania,
can transform their lives. Art refers to the developed and Haas and Gesthuizen [2]. Bongo music is a creation of
efficient use of language to convey meaning with Tanzanian young generation by adopting American hip
immediacy and depth. Basically it includes aesthetics, hop and rhythm to sing Kiswahili hip hop.
architecture, crafts, drama, fine arts, literature, music and Bongo Flava music includes different styles such as
primitive arts. A work of art, therefore, is something that Hip hop, Rap, RandB and Zuku. Hip hop music originated
employs skills and imagination in the creation of aesthetic in America. It was a voice of the marginalized youth from
objects, environment or experience to share with others. poorer areas (Senkoro [3], Perullo [4], Southern [5].
A work of art embodies the artist’s understanding of the Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine how
world as it reveals different meanings depending on one’s listeners interpret metaphors. Specifically it aims to find
perspective in a specific context, time and space. out if there are differences in the process of
Basically, language has various stylistic devices which conceptualisation of metaphors among different age
are employed by artists in works of art. These devices groups. Furthermore, it tries to find out if the
include metaphor, metonym, allegory, simile, conceptualisation of metaphor among different age
synecdoche, irony, personification, hyperbole, parallelism groups is influenced by the type of metaphor. Therefore,
and parenthesis. This paper deals with metaphors as this study was set out to find the answers to the following
language devices which artists employ in their works of questions:
art. Metaphors are some of the linguistic devices used in
people’s everyday language to convey meanings and i) How do listeners conceptualise metaphors in new
messages to the respective audience. generation songs?
This paper deals with Tanzania’s bongo flava music ii) Is there any difference among listeners of different age
popularly known as Bongo Flava. Bongo Flava originates groups in conceptualising metaphors?
from a word Bongo in Kiswahili which comes from the iii) Does the type of metaphor in question influence the60 Online Int. J. Arts Human.
degree of conceptualisation among different age groups? Perullo, Rap music is used as a medium to express
various issues in society. His paper did not show how
Review of Related Literature those issues are conveyed through the artistic use of
language. This paper has been able to explore how
Some scholars have written about bongo flava music in metaphors are used to articulate those issues.
different social settings in Tanzania. They include Omari [10] looks at style and language use in new
Majembe [6], Fenn and Perullo [7], Perullo and Fenn [8], generation hip hop music, in Tanzania. She explored the
Senkoro [3], Perullo [9] and Omar [10]. Majembe [6] and uses of figures of speech such as similes, metaphors,
Fenn and Perullo [7] deals with language use in Hip hop satire, image, repetition, taboos and other language
music. Both paid attention to the socio-linguistic aspect of features such as the uses of children’s songs, code
code mixing in these songs. Majembe argues that mixing, onomatopoeia, intonation and borrowing.
language mixture is a feature which frequently appears in However, her paper did not analyse in detail stylistic
these songs. His paper goes on to point out that features and artistic functions of those figures of speech
language mixing is a foregrounding feature in bongo flava as they appear in works of art. This paper therefore,
music. Fenn and Perullo present ideas that extend makes a critical analysis of metaphor as a stylistic device
Majembe’s arguments by saying that language mixture in by analyzing the types and structure of those metaphors.
Hip hop is due to a certain ideology built among these Also it explores the artistic use of metaphor in creating
artists for the purpose of getting many followers. They meanings and messages to which Omari did not pay
use English because it is viewed as an international attention.
language and they use Kiswahili because it is the
language which is known by the majority of Tanzanians. The Concept of Metaphor
Both Majembe and Fenn and Perullo analyse the
language choice in the bongo flava music. They have not Most scholars agree that metaphorical use of language
gone beyond content analysis to include stylistic analysis essentially involves seeing something in one domain in
of these songs. However, they did not deal with the terms of something in a second domain. It is the
interpretation of metaphors. The question of language transference of meaning from one reference to the other
choice is also the subject matter of such writers as reference (see for example, Black [11,12], Leech [13],
Perullo and Fenn [8] who look at language ideologies, Lakoff and Johnson [14], Lakoff [15, 16], Lakoff and
choice and practices in Eastern African Hip Hop. They Turne [17], Kahigi [18], and Gibbs [19, 20, 21, and 22]. In
too argue that the process of language choice among this paper therefore, we conceptualise metaphor in
rappers is a function of language ideologies. In their relation to our cognitive understanding of metaphor as
discussion they do not deal with the way audience “that figure of speech whereby we speak about one thing
interpret metaphors. in terms which are seen to be suggestive of another.”
In his article, Senkoro [3] acknowledges the language Therefore, we use metaphor in our everyday life to
mixture in bongo fleva songs. He however goes one step convey reality and abstract things. Lakoff and Johnson
further to comment on the content of the song by saying [14] argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life
that artists use rap music as a medium to express their not just in language but in thought and action and they
hope, problems, emotion, and expectations. Looking at it form a regular semantic feature in people’s thought. They
from a socio-economic view point, he explains that artists further argue that our ordinary conceptual system, in
use language as a commodity which they use for self- terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally
employment. He also argues that, although these songs metaphorical in nature. Metaphor has become the thing
have a mixture of Kiswahili, English and local languages, to be expected in cognition instead of a thing to be
the predominant language used is Kiswahili because it is avoided in language Steen, [23].
the language which is popular to the majority. Like To stress the pervasiveness of metaphors, Lakoff and
Majembe and Fenn and Perullo, Senkoro’s paper does Johnson [14:30] say that if we are right in suggesting that
not discuss how metaphors are interpreted by different our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the
listeners. way we think, what we experience, and what we do every
The question of content is also the concern of Perullo day is very much a metaphor. By this statement, these
[4] in his work: “Hooligans and heroes: Youth Identity and cognitive linguists acknowledge that metaphor is a major
Hip-Hop in Dar es Salaam.” He argues that the youth use device of human conceptualization and, although largely
rap music to deal with social pressures and project unnoticed, the processes are pervasively and
themselves as creative and empowered individuals in the systematically at work in everyday language.
society. Rap music, he says, is a central means for
youths to teach others about joblessness, corruption, Structure of Metaphor
class differences, AIDS and other social problems. It
empowers youths by providing them with confidence and Meaning transference from one domain to another
self-reliance, not anger and violence. According to basically involves three notional elements of metaphorJilala 61
which are tenor, vehicle and ground (Hester [24], Leech supported by the Cognitive Theory which holds that
[25], Hedley [26], Kahigi [18]. The corresponding terms to literary texts are the products of the cognising minds and
“tenor” and “vehicle” in Lakoff’s terminology are “target” their interpretations is the product of other cognising
and “source.” The tenor of the metaphor is the literal part minds in the context of the physical and socio-cultural
of expression which is reconstructed in the literal context. worlds in which they have been created and are read.
The vehicle which is the figurative part of the expression From the cognitive point of view both text and reader
together with its reconstructed context is the image or are of equal importance, though they are not equal.
analogue in terms of which the tenor is presented. There is no meaning without interpretation and no
Ground is the likeness perceived between tenor and interpretation without the individual memory, and the
vehicle. Therefore, every metaphor is in the form of “X is mnemonic space is the only site where meaning can
like Y in respect of Z where X is the tenor, Y the vehicle occur. Furthermore, the theory holds that the reader’s
and Z the ground”. Therefore, in the example “Hamisa is interpretation is a function of his or her mnemonic
gold”, the tenor is Hamisa, the vehicle is gold and the potentials, which include inter-textual knowledge of
ground is the characteristics of gold (expensive, attractive literary conventions and above all, knowledge of
and highly valued) which are attributed to Hamisa. language and the world [28].
The tenor, vehicle, and ground of metaphor are Furthermore, Gibbs [21] argues that it is difficult to
considered as the important elements in the explain the richness of these metaphorical inferences
understanding of metaphors, in the interpretation of their without appealing to people’s embodied experiences. To
meaning and the theme they construct in a specific stress on this, Lakoff and Turner [17] argue that the basic
context. Therefore, these characteristics which are conceptual metaphors are part of the conceptual
perceived to be shared by items of different semantic apparatus shared by members of a culture. In addition,
fields enable the hearer or reader to find the probable Lakoff and Johnson [14] put forward the idea that
meaning by making a plausible comparison. individuals are coupled to the world through embodied
interaction with the environment on which their sense of
what is real is based. Following the insights from the
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY findings and literature review, the paper makes a model
which summarises the interpretation process. The
The research was done in Dar es Salaam whereby ten findings on listeners’ conceptualisation of metaphors can
artists and twenty audiences were involved as research be illustrated by the Figure 1.
respondents. The audiences comprise ten elders and ten Figure 1 show how the interpretation process of
youths. Hence, ten songs were used in collecting metaphor is reached. This process involves four
metaphors. To meet the objectives, the study employed elements which are society, artist (encoder), metaphor
interview technique on both artists and listeners of these and listener (decoder). Both encoder and decoder are
songs to get their views and opinions on the uses and members of the society, thus they are bound by certain
understanding of metaphors to convey meanings and norms prevailing in the society. Therefore, during
messages. Moreover, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) metaphor construction, the encoder relies on the society
were held with listeners to explore their understanding of as the basis for making the metaphor; that is, he/she
meanings and messages conveyed by metaphors in the makes the metaphor reflecting the context of that
society. By employing focus group discussion a group of particular society. The same process applies to the
six people were formed to form a discussion group. The decoder during metaphor interpretation; the decoder
method was useful since it produces a lot of information understands the metaphor because of the shared
quickly and is good for identifying and exploring beliefs, member resource (shared knowledge) between him/her
ideas or opinion in a community. and the encoder of the metaphor. It is for this reason that
it is hard for a member of one society to decode the
metaphor constructed by a member of another society.
FINDINGS However, there is indirect relationship in meaning and
message between artist and listener. Their relationship is
Listener Conceptualisation of Metaphors based on the fact that they are all members of the same
community and thus they have socially shared knowledge
One of the specific objectives of this study was to that aids communication between them. The following are
examine how listeners conceptualise metaphors. Thus, the member resources (shared knowledge) which the
the researcher interviewed her respondents on how they paper found to be guiding metaphor interpretation.
conceptualise the metaphors. The research observes
that, people do get meanings from society. As suggested • The context
by different scholars (Lakoff and Johnson [16], Gibbs • People embodied experience
[21], Johnson [27], and Lakoff and Turner [17], society as • Time and the events happening in the society
the source of conceptualising metaphors is also • Cultural interaction62 Online Int. J. Arts Human.
Metaphor construction SOCIETY Metaphor interpretation
Context
Time
Culture
Experience
Social interaction
Reference Shared knowledge (member
Object resource) Reference
Object
ENCODING DECODING
Metaphor
Indirect relationship
ARTIST LISTENER
Message/Meanings
Source: Worked out
Figure 1. Model of Interpretation Process
Source: Worked out from data analysis
• Social interaction the society in question. One interviewer had this to say
on the use of metaphors “Maneno tunayatoa ndani ya
Context of Use jamii yetu maana zake zinajulikana kulingana na mila na
desturi zetu” (we select words used in our society, their
The analysis reveals that there is a relationship between meanings are known in accordance with our cultural
context and the listener’s understanding and customs). This means, for example, that the meaning of
interpretation of metaphors. That is, the metaphor is metaphors such as ngoma (a drum), miwaya (electrical
understood in the context of use and the artist selects a wires), changu (sea fish) and dege la jeshi (military
metaphorical expression within the cultural context. aircraft) exist in the society and within people’s mental
Metaphorical meaning of an expression is understood in cognition. Consequently, they are easy to interpret.
the context of use whereby an expression can have Therefore, the choice of an expression is done within the
different meanings depending on the context of use. The society given time and space; that is why a large
choice of a metaphor also depends on the context and percentage of respondents who were interviewed
the message to be portrayed. For example, the appeared to have the knowledge of metaphorical
expression ngoma (drum) refers to a woman or HIV but meanings because they share similar embodied
could mean a strong person in a different context. experience of the society. This explains the reason why
the new metaphorical expressions cannot be easily
People’s Embodied Experience interpreted by old listeners. Most metaphors are drawn
from the language of youth therefore; the adults fail to
The analysis reveals that people interpret metaphors map the metaphor unto what is stored in their memory.
from their body of experiences within their cultural context That is, the word does not relate to the world material in
and social cognition. The interpretation is done between adult’s physical world. Furthermore, the interpretation of
what already exists in their mind and how they interact metaphors involves the transfer of the relation between
within their society. This means that younger generation’s the semantic field of the vehicle and that of the tenor. The
experience is different from that of the older generation; listener has primary knowledge and experience on the
as the old generation may not be aware of all that is literal expression.
happening in the world of the new generation. That is
why the old generation sometimes fail to understand Time
some metaphorical meanings used by the youth.
However, despite the difference, the artistic use of The paper observed that metaphors are developed and
metaphorical language does not go beyond the culture of interpreted within a given time. The data shows thatJilala 63
youths were better able to interpret contemporary its use as a metaphor for HIV/AIDS.
metaphors compared to elders. Interpretation of In the same context, the metaphor mtoto (baby) is used
metaphors goes with time/age. Old people can easily for a girl. Society has the understanding that a baby is a
interpret metaphors that existed during their times as delicate being that needs care in handling; the baby is
opposed to youths. For example, it was easy for them to also dependent. The characteristics of the baby are
interpret metaphor such as taa, nguzo, malaika, uaridi transferred to a girl or woman. The listeners thus view a
and malkia because these are common metaphors. On girl through their understanding of a baby; thus, women
the other hand, the youth can interpret contemporary are delicate beings who need care in handling; they are
metaphors better than the old because the former use thought to be dependants who cannot stand alone
them frequently. However, metaphors related to diseases without the support of men. Therefore, from these
and other burning issues are easily used and interpreted examples the paper concludes that metaphors are
better by both the youth and the old, because these are culturally constructed and understood in a particular
issues which surround both groups. society.
Furthermore, the paper found that there are words,
phrases, clauses or sentences, which become metaphors Differences in Meaning Interpretation
as time goes by, due to changes of the physical
environment. For example, disease metaphors such as The researcher did a comparative analysis to find out if
umeme (electricity), miwaya (electrical wires) and ngoma there is any significant difference in conceptualising
(drum) are metaphors for HIV, and they have been metaphors among different age groups. The following
determined by time. They have become metaphors due question guided the analysis: Is there any difference or
to the HIV problem in the society, currently. Generally, similarity in conceptualising metaphor among the two age
the paper observes that time/age greatly determine groups?
metaphor interpretation. The researcher measured the rate of conceptualising
metaphors by employing a structured interview whereby
Cultural Interaction respondents were provided with a list of collected
metaphors selected from 10 bongo flava music. Then
Cultural influence also plays a great role in interpreting every respondent was required to give either literal
metaphors. The interpretation of many metaphors were meaning or metaphorical meaning of each metaphor in
said to be determined by culture. For example, it was the list. The researcher analysed the responses to the
said that the expensive value of dhahabu (gold) is questionnaire which were given to listeners of different
culturally constructed within the society, because of the age groups, by calculating the frequency in similarity of
uses that gold can be put into. This makes it easy for a meaning of metaphors given by each member of the
listener to interpret a metaphor dhahabu (gold) as an group. Table 1 summarises the findings.
expensive and highly valued commodity. This is because Table 1 shows that people aged 15-35 (the youth) were
its characteristics, e.g. glittering and attractive look are able to interpret metaphorical meanings 1,942 (86%)
known to all members of the society. compared to people aged 36-55 (adults) who scored
Another example of metaphors whose interpretation is 1,042 (46%). This implies that the youth have better
culturally determined is Ngoma (drum), as a metaphor for knowledge of metaphors employed by the new
a woman. In its literal meaning ngoma is an instrument generation artists in their works of art than adults. The
associated with entertainment. Culturally, women are reason for such difference in meaning interpretation is
sometimes perceived as key instruments for entertaining that these songs draw the language of youth so the
men; thus, the choice of ngoma as a metaphor for conceptualisation of meanings is easier to the youths as
woman is done through the characteristics and uses of compared to adults. Consequently, youths have more
ngoma within a particular society. “Ngoma hutumika interest in these songs compared to adults who seem to
kuburudisha, hii ni kazi ya mwanamke kuburudisha have a negative attitude towards these songs.
mwanamume ndiyo maana mwanamke anafananishwa The age group 15-35 has higher level of grasping the
na ngoma kulingana na wajibu wake kwa jamii” (the drum meanings of metaphorical expressions; the reason for
is used for entertainment, the role of women in the this may be because this group highly wants to be
society is to entertain men, that is why a woman is recognised. They use these songs as a medium of
compared to a drum). This was reported by a participant expressing their needs such as love, sexuality,
in FGDs. Furthermore, ngoma is used for communication employment and economic needs. This observation is not
and calling the attention of people just like a bell or different from the observation of other scholars such as
whistle would be used. It is also used as a metaphor for Senkoro [3] and Perullo [4], who also found out that
HIV/AIDS since the major transmission of the disease is youths use this song to express their problems, needs,
sexual intercourse, which is regarded as a luxury and feelings and expectations—socially, economically and
entertainment. Therefore, the cultural function of ngoma politically. The metaphors used by youths are different
is associated with the transmission of the disease, hence from the metaphors used by the older generation due to64 Online Int. J. Arts Human.
Table 1. Rate of Metaphor Conceptualising Among Different Ages Groups
Age group Frequency Frequency in %
A B C A B C
15-35 267 1942 41 12 86 2
36-60 998 1042 210 44 46 9
Source: Researcher’s interpretation of data.
Key: A= Literal meaning B= Metaphorical meaning C= I don’t know
Among the Two Age Groups
46%
86%
Youth Adult
Figure 3.2.
Figure The Difference
The in Conceptualisation
Difference Metaphors.
in Conceptualisation Metaphors.
time and events, context and experiences in the material are other metaphors which were well interpreted by both
world. On the other hand, adults aged 35-55 have a low groups and others were only understood by one group.
capacity of grasping meaning of metaphors compared to Table 2 shows the different levels of metaphors
the youth. The group is at the age in which love and conceptualization in score for each metaphor depending
sexuality are not their urgent needs; therefore they are on the familiarity of that particular metaphor.
not interested in bongo flava music because the message Table 2 indicates that there is significance of similarity
in these songs is not their immediate interest. Hence the in scores between the two age groups. Both groups score
paper has generalised that the age factor determines the the highest (34-50) in meaning interpretation. This
familiarity of metaphorical meaning. The paper shows a reveals that those metaphors are familiar to both groups.
significant difference in metaphorical meaning The paper considers these metaphors as popular
interpretation between youths and adults. This can be metaphors; they are well known to the majority in the
explicitly explained by Figure 2. Figure 2 shows that the society. They appear to be associated with events and
youth have more knowledge and understanding of burning issues which call for the attention of the people in
meaning and messages addressed by bongo flava music the society. For example, disease metaphors such as
compared to adults. However, the research has also miwaya, umeme, ngoma and moto, which are metaphors
revealed that, the understanding of meaning differs from for HIV/AIDS disease; romantic metaphors (metaphor
one age group to another. associated with love, sexual organs and sexual
intercourse) such as machangu, a metaphor referring to
Types of Metaphor and the Degree of female prostitutes. Such metaphors are created in the
Conceptualizing Metaphor among Different Age society and exist for a long period, so everybody knows
Groups their meaning.
In addition, there are metaphors which are also well
The analysis reveals that the interpretations of metaphorical known by both groups so that it was easy for people who
meanings in bongo flava music are also determined by the were interviewed to interpret their meanings. With this
familiarity of metaphor in the society. The understanding type, there was no significant difference in conceptualising
of metaphor differs from one metaphor to another. There these metaphors between the two groups. The paperJilala 65
Table 2. Metaphor According to Events and Burning Issues in the Society
Metaphors Age group 15-35 Age group 36-55
34-50 17-33 1-16 34-50 17-33 1-16 (lowest
(highest (mild (lowest (highest (mild score)
score) score) score) score) score)
Miwaya √ √
Umeme √ √
Ngoma √ √
Moto √ √
Machangu √ √
Source: Field Data. (Fieldwork 20 January 2007).
Table 3. Common Metaphors.
Metaphor Age group 15-35 Age group 36-55
34-50 (highest 17-33 1-16 34-50 17-33 1-16
score) (mild (lowest (highest (mild (lowest
score) score) score) score) score)
Uaridi √ √
Jua kali √ √
Miba √ √
Malaika √ √
Kioo √ √
Kandanda √ √
Nguzo √ √
Malkia √ √
Source: Field Data (field work 20 January 2007).
Table 4. Contemporary Metaphors.
Metaphors Age group 15-35 Age group 36-55
34-50 17-33 1-16 34-50 17-33 1-16
(highest (mild (lowest (highest (mild (lowest
score) score) score) score) score) score)
Dege la jeshi √ √
Kombati √ √
Kicheche √ √
Pipi √ √
Kopo lenye marashi √ √
Geti √ √
Source: Field Data (field work 20 January 2007).
considers these metaphors as common metaphors Thus, both groups scored highest in interpreting these
because they are well established, as they have existed metaphors. This might be because these metaphors are
in the society for a long time. That is why they are well common and well established in the society and they are
known to both groups. Table 3 shows such metaphors used as daily language. Furthermore, there are
and their level of conceptualisation. metaphors which are only known by youths. Table 4
Table 3 shows that the difference in metaphorical shows those metaphors and the score for each group.
understanding between the two groups is very small. Table 4 reveals a significant difference in interpretation66 Online Int. J. Arts Human.
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