UNDERWATER FIELD GUIDE TO ROSS ISLAND & MCMURDO SOUND, ANTARCTICA
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Chordata: Birds / Mammals
penguins, marine mammals
UNDERWATER FIELD GUIDE TO ROSS
ISLAND & MCMURDO SOUND,
ANTARCTICA
Peter Brueggeman
Photographs: Norbert Wu, Peter Brueggeman, Rob Robbins, & M. Dale
Stokes
The National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs sponsored Norbert Wu on an Artist's
and Writer's Grant project, in which Peter Brueggeman participated. One outcome from Wu's
endeavor is this Field Guide, which builds upon principal photography by Norbert Wu, with photos
from other photographers, who are credited on their photographs and above. This Field Guide is
intended to facilitate underwater/topside field identification from visual characters. Organisms
were identified from photographs with no specimen collection, and there can be some
uncertainty in identifications solely from photographs.
© 1998+: Text © Peter Brueggeman; Photographs © Norbert Wu, Peter Brueggeman, Rob Robbins, & M. Dale
Stokes. Photographs may not be used in any form without the express written permission of the photographers.
Norbert Wu does not grant permission for uncompensated use of his photos; see www.norbertwu.com
Adelie Penguin Pygoscelis adeliae
page 3
Emperor Penguin Aptenodytes forsteri
page 7
Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellii
page 11
Leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx
page 17
crabeater seal Lobodon carcinophaga
page 23
killer whale or orca Orcinus orca
page 25
Antarctic minke whale Balaenoptera bonaerensis
Page 30
Sept 2014: taxonomic names checked in World Register of Marine Species www.marinespecies.org
2
Adelie Penguin Pygoscelis adeliae
The Adelie Penguin
Pygoscelis adeliae occurs
throughout Antarctica and the
subantarctic islands, limited
in distribution by shelf ice to
the south and pack ice to the
north (seldom found in open
water).
The Ross Sea area has the
largest estimated breeding
population at 1 million pairs;
the total estimated population
is 2,610,000 breeding pairs
and 10 million immature
penguins.
Breeding colonies are found
on rocky islands, peninsulas,
beaches and scree slopes
wherever ice-free and
accessible from the ocean.
3
Adelie Penguins eat mainly euphausids (over 70% of diet) as well as some fish and squid. They catch their prey by
diving in pursuit at 10 to 40 meters depth with an average dive duration of 1.4 - 1.9 minutes; they can dive down to
a maximum depth of 170 meters. The average swimming speed on an Adelie Penguin is 2.2 - 4.6 kilometers per
hour.
4
Adelie Penguins return to their breeding colony from September to October with egg laying occurring in October to
November. Shallow nests lined with pebbles are built by both parents. Two eggs are laid with peak egg laying from
November 10 - 15. Eggs are incubated by alternating parents for 35 days. After egg laying, the female leaves to
forage and the male sits on the egg. The egg will be left to die by the male if the female doesn't return from her first
foraging trip in time to relieve the male. Peak egg hatching is December 10-15. After hatching, chicks are brooded
in the nest for 22 days, guarded by a parent. Then the chicks leave the nest to form small creche groups while
awaiting the return of parents from feeding forays.
5
When possible, skuas will attack and kill Adelie Penguin eggs and chicks; 9% of the eggs were lost to predation in
1 year at Cape Bird. At the Cape Bird rookery where these pictures were taken during the egg incubation period,
Adelie Penguins make long foraging trips averaging 9-25 days in duration and up to 100 kilometers away. During
the chick rearing period, they make much shorter trips in duration and distance. Chicks are fed by their parents
every 1-2 days until they depart from the colony at 2 months of age. The chicks molt by early February and then
leave. 60-70% of the mating pairs retain the same partner each year. Adelie Penguins tend to be faithful to a
specific nest site; males are 99% faithful to the nest site with females less so. Adelie Penguins are most active
between 4 am and 10 am. Those in the Ross Sea Are have an annual mortality of 20%.
References: 1: The Penguins, Spheniscidae. TD Williams. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. pp.169-178; 2: Penguin Biology. LS
Davis & JT Darby. San Diego: Academic Press, 1990
6
Emperor Penguin Aptenodytes forsteri
The Emperor Penguin Aptenodytes forsteri is found throughout Antarctica within the limits of pack ice. Emperor
Penguins walk right up to the human visitor and trumpet their arrival. Their calls are used to recognize each other
and form pairs for mating. An estimated 400,000 - 450,000 individual Emperor Penguins with 195,400 breeding
pairs populate Antarctica; the Ross Sea area has half the total population of Emperor Penguins.
7
Emperor Penguins mainly eat nototheniid fish, squid, and euphausid and amphipod crustaceans which they pursue
to capture, diving down to 500 meters for a usual duration of twelve minutes. Emperor Penguins can dive to almost
600 meters and stay underwater for twenty minutes on a shallow dive. Emperor Penguins swim 2.4 - 3.4 meters per
second during foraging (5.4 - 7.6 miles per hour) and have been measured at maximum speeds of 4.6 - 7.1 meters
per second (10.3 - 15.9 miles per hour). A single foraging trip may involve travel up to 150 - 1,000 kilometers with
travel speeds ranging from 1.5 - 2.5 kilometers per hour.
8
Emperor Penguins breed on level, stable sea ice with only two colonies known on land. Cape Washington has a
large breeding population of 20 - 25,000 pairs. Before breeding, males weigh more than females ranging from 35 -
40 kilograms and 28 - 32 kilograms respectively. Emperor Penguins return to their breeding colonies in March
through early April, oftentimes walking 50 - 120 kilometers over sea ice to get there. A single, large egg is laid in
May through early June. Emperor Penguin egg laying, incubation, and chick rearing takes place in the Antarctic
winter; other penguin species do this in the Antarctic summer. Emperor Penguins are very colonial, are not
territorial, and are monogamous within that breeding season (but only 15% of the mating pairs retain the same
partner the following year).
9
Male Emperor Penguins are responsible for egg incubation and they huddle closely in large groups for warmth
during the two months of egg incubation. During their breeding fast, Emperor Penguin weight decreases by 35 -
40% in males and 20 - 25% in females; the males lose more weight since they incubate the egg. After egg hatching,
both parents alternate chick brooding for its fifty day period; one goes off to feed while the other. Chicks then form
large creches until they depart from the colony in December through early January. When left alone while its
parents are out feeding, the Emperor Penguin chick regularly calls for its parents who use that call to locate their
chick.
Review: The Penguins, Spheniscidae. TD Williams. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1995. pp.152-160; Diving Physiology: American
Scientist 85: 530-539, 1997; Swimming Speed: Journal of Experimental Biology 165:161-180, 1992
10Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellii
The Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellii commonly occurs on fast ice and nearshore pack ice along the Antarctic
coast and Peninsula and in small populations in the South Shetland Islands, South Orkney Islands, and South
Georgia Island [7,8,9,10]. Wandering Weddell seals have been sighted in the Falkland Islands, Argentina, Uruguay,
Chile, Juan Fernandex Island, Bouvet Island, Marion Island, Kerguelen Island, Heard Island, Macquarie Island,
Auckland Islands, New Zealand, and southern Australia, [7,8,9,10]. The McMurdo diver will see them around sea ice
cracks. The Weddell seal can be over three meters in length and 400 - 450 kilograms in weight. Its population is
estimated at 800,000 individuals. Weddell seals move around the sea ice, are not gregarious, and are spaced apart
when seen hauled out on the sea ice. Weddell seals are commonly found at 8 - 12 years of age with individuals 18
and 22 years old noted in the literature. Half or more of the Weddell seal diet is fish (Dissostichus mawsoni, Notothenia,
Trematomus, Gymnodraco including G. acuticeps, Pleuragramma antarctica, Cryodraco antarcticus, Pagetopsis macropterus) with the
rest being cephalopods (squid and Pareledone octopus), krill, mysids, isopods, amphipods, and decapods [3,4]. Weddell
seals hunt fish in the slushy platelet ice on the underside of the sea ice ceiling, by blowing out air to flush fish from
their refuge; they hunt the Antarctic cod Dissostichus mawsoni in midwater by silhouetting it against the sea ice
ceiling while remaining hidden from sight [12]. Due to the Weddell seal's preference for fast sea ice, the impact of
predators such as leopard seals upon the Weddell seal population is minimal.
11The Weddell seal dives beneath stable contiguous sea ice and can store a large amount of oxygen in their bodies
mostly in their blood and muscles. This enables them to stay underwater for a usual dive to 300-400 meters for
fifteen minutes [5]. Weddell seals have been observed staying underwater for 82 minutes and diving down to 700
meters [5]. Weddell seals glide a lot in deep dives rather than swim continuously [2]. The lungs of the Weddell seal
collapse during a dive from water pressure thus decreasing the seal's buoyancy on descent [2]. The Weddell seals'
limited oxygen storage is thus conserved by taking advantage of this physical change during a deep dive and
reducing the amount of swimming during deep dives looking for fish [2]. After several dives, they can be observed
coughing up a foamy white lung surfactant [6]. Their underwater swimming speed is estimated at 4- 7 knots [5].
12The Weddell seal keeps breathing and
entry/exit ice holes open year round using its
teeth.
Shown here at Granite Harbor are Weddell
seals and a hole along a sea ice crack that is
being kept open by Weddell seals, for their use
getting in and out of the water, as well as
breathing while in the water.
The inner edges of the ice crack would
ordinarily run straight, but the Weddell seals
round out holes in the crack using their teeth.
13The strong upper teeth of the Weddell seal project forward and are dragged from side to side on the edge of an ice
hole to keep it open. These teeth may be critical to survival. As the seal ages and its teeth wear down, they seals
may lose their ability to maintain breathing holes and die at an earlier age than other seals.
14Weddell seals are restless when breathing at a hole when other seals are nearby. They peer down and if a hole fits
only one seal, the seal will either dive as another seal comes up or reverse and face down to prevent the intruding
seal from surfacing. Weddell seals adopt a head-down fighting posture with eyes looking forward, foreflippers
extended and sometimes their jaw open. If a hole is large enough for two seals and the breathing seal refuses to
leave, the arriving seal may surface with a fight usually ensuing. It has been suggested that a Weddell seal does not
defend an area to the complete exclusion of other seals but to the discouragement of other seals. An intruding seal
may be physiologically forced to take a breath which would override territorial aggression.
15Here a Weddell seal mother and pup float in shallow water under a sea ice crack; their entry/exit/breathing holes are
visible as bright lights above them. Breeding and pupping occur in the summer months. Breeding Weddell sea bulls
set up under-ice territories of twenty meters diameter and tend to remain in the water where breeding takes place.
Female Weddell seals move freely through the territories of the bulls. Subordinate males have their activity
restricted by the dominant bull when moving through a territory. Females claim less well defined territories,
individually or jointly with other females. The mother gives birth to her newborn on the sea ice and stays with it for
the first twelve days; after that, the mother will spend 30-40% of her time in the water while the pup remains on the
sea ice. The pup is born at 29 kilograms and gains 10-15 kilograms per week. By seven weeks of age, the pups can
remain submerged for five minutes and dive down to 92 meters. The molting of the pup's fur is complete in thirty
days. The pup nurses for 45 days and, when weaned, the pup weighs 113 kilograms. Weddell seals have high
juvenile survival due to a lack of predation in fast sea ice.
16The Weddell seal vocalizes underwater and the diver is very aware of their presence though unseen. Their calls are
an eerie underwater symphony. Weddell seals produce a wide range of calls: lengthy buzzes descending from
higher pitch to lower pitch called "trills", whistles, and chirps. Certain vocalizations are associated with aggressive
displays and have been characterized as a trill, a rapid chi-chi-chi, an eeeyo, and a chirrup. A teeth clacking sound
was observed as seals passed one another entering and leaving breathing holes. A trill is used by mature males to
establish and mark their underwater territory; it is associated with tense situations. When a trill isn't heeded, a fight
may ensue.
17Here's a mother and pup. Weddell seals are highly vocal during the peak of breeding season at the Hutton Cliffs
colony; researchers recorded almost twenty underwater calls per minute [1]. In mid-December when mating is
almost over, the pups are being weaned, and adults dispersing, the underwater calls of Weddell seals at Hutton
Cliffs decreased to two per minute [1]. Why? Their predators, leopard seals and killer whales, showed up at the fast
ice edge about twenty kilometers away [1]. Weddell seals are no longer so isolated from their predators by distance
from the fast ice edge since the edge shifts south as summer progresses [1]. Killer whales prowl the fast ice edge for
prey and leopard seals can swim long distances under ice seeking out Weddell seals and their breathing holes [1].
Leopard seals and killer whales vocalize underwater and Weddell seals hear them [1]. Sounds are important for
Weddell seals to communicate with their species but they also need to avoid detection by predators [1]. Absence of
sound from Weddell seals is an anti-predation strategy when the risk of predation by leopard seals and killer whales
is increased [1].
Taxonomic Note: Species name weddellii can be misspelled in the literature with only one "i" [11].
Reviews: Handbook of Marine Mammals, Volume 2, Seals. SH Ridgway & RJ Harrison, eds. London: Academic Press, 1981, pp.275-296; Antarctic
Research Series 70:287-301, 1996; Sounds & Behavior: Antarctic Journal of the United States 2:105-106, 1967; Biology of the Antarctic Seas III,
Antarctic Research Series 11:227-261, 1967; 1: Antarctic Journal of the United States 30(5):232-234, 1987; 2: Science 288(5463):133-136, April 7 2000
3: Adaptations within Antarctic Ecosystems, Proceedings of the Third SCAR Symposium on Antarctic Biology. GA Llano, ed. Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution, 1977. pp.749- 768; 4: Journal of Mammalogy 46(1):37-43, 1965; 5: American Scientist 85: 530-539, 1997; 6: Peter Brueggeman,
personal communication, 1997; 7: Marine Mammals of the World : Systematics and Distribution. DW Rice. Lawrence, Kansas : Society for Marine
Mammalogy, 1998; 8: Handbook of Marine Mammals, Volume 2, Seals. SH Ridgway & RJ Harrison, eds. London: Academic Press, 1981, pp.275-296; 9:
Antarctic Research Series 70:287-301, 1996; 10: FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes : Southern Ocean (Fishing Areas 48, 58 and 88)
(CCAMLR Convention Area) / W Fischer & JC Hureau, eds. Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985; 11: Marine
Mammals of the World : Systematics and Distribution. DW Rice. Lawrence, Kansas : Society for Marine Mammalogy, 1998; 12: Science 283:993-996,
12 February 1999
18Leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx
Leopard seals Hydrurga leptonyx are found in Antarctic pack ice (areas of concentration of drifting ice), along the
Antarctic continent and the Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands, South Orkney Islands, South Sandwich
Islands, South Georgia Island, Bouvet Island, Heard Island, and Macquarie Island. Wandering leopard seals have
been sighted at Falkland Islands, the cape region of South Africa, Gough Island, South America from Tierra del
Fuego in Chile to Brazil, Tristan da Cunha Island, Prince Edward Island, Crozet Island, Kerguelen Island,
Amsterdam Island, St. Paul Island, New Zealand, southern Australia, Lord Howe Island, Auckland Islands, Snares
Islands, Campbell Island, Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and Juan Fernandez Islands.
Leopard seals are the largest of the Antarctic seals; built for speed, they are slender and can be just over three
meters long. Leopard seals typically haul out on ice floes and breeding and pupping is assumed to occur on pack
ice.
19The diet of the leopard seal varies with season and location and includes benthic and pelagic fish, penguin adults
and chicks, birds (petrels), seals (including crabeater, fur seals, elephant seals, and Weddell seals), cephalopods (squid and
octopus), krill, fish, crustaceans, and seal and whale carcasses.
20In McMurdo Sound, leopard seals are usually spotted on the prowl at the fast ice edge or penguin rookeries. The
leopard seal is the only seal that regularly preys on warm- blooded animals.
21Look at these incisor and canine teeth !
Leopard seals can be dramatic predators of
penguins. Penguin chicks are awkward in the
water and are easily taken; adult penguins are
caught after pursuit or after falling back into the
water after a missed leap out of the water. The
leopard seal peels away the penguin skin by
whipping the penguin back and forth while
holding it between its incisor teeth. At Cape
Crozier, scientists reported that six leopard seals
killed an average of eight adult Adelie penguins
each per day during a 100 day breeding season.
They also reported that four seals killed fifteen
Adelie penguin chicks per day each during two
weeks of chick departure from the rookery.
Penguins are a food resource of seasonal
abundance for the leopard seal since penguins
disperse from their rookeries after
breeding/rearing their young.
Behind the leopard seal's long and sharply
pointed incisor and canine teeth are
interlocking cheek teeth or molars with
three cusps, adapted for straining krill from
the water. Krill is a large portion of the diet
of the leopard seal. Krill might be eaten
more by juvenile leopard seals and older,
more experienced leopard seals might prey
on penguins and seals.
Review: Handbook of Marine Mammals, Volume 2, Seals. SH Ridgway & RJ Harrison, eds. London: Academic Press, 1981, pp.261-274;
FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes : Southern Ocean (Fishing Areas 48, 58 and 88) (CCAMLR Convention Area) / W
Fischer & JC Hureau, eds. Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985. Diet: Adaptations within Antarctic
Ecosystems, Proceedings of the Third SCAR Symposium on Antarctic Biology. GA Llano, ed. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution,
1977. pp.749-768; Polar Biology 27(12):729-734, 2004. Distribution: Marine Mammals of the World : Systematics and Distribution. DW
Rice. Lawrence, Kansas : Society for Marine Mammalogy, 1998; Latin American Journal of Aquatic Mammals 2(1):51-54, 2003; Polar
Biology 29(10):905-908, 2006.
22crabeater seal Lobodon
carcinophaga
The crabeater seal Lobodon carcinophaga is found
throughout Antarctica, usually in the pack ice [1,2].
Wandering crabeater seals have been sighted in the
Falkland Islands, South Georgia Island, Bouvet
Island, Heard Island, New Zealand, Tasmania and
southern Australia, South Africa, Uruguay, Brazil,
and Argentina [1,2,3]. Photographed here on fast ice
near Cape Barne, crabeater seals, particularly
young ones, come south into the Ross Sea and McMurdo Sound during summer months [2,4]. The crabeater seal is
the most abundant seal in the world, with a population between fifteen and forty million (more than all other seals
put together) [1]. The crabeater seal weighs up to 225 kilograms (496 pounds) and their length is up to 260
centimeters (8.5 feet) [1].
The color of the crabeater seal grades from
blond on its ventral bottom side to darker
brown on their dorsal top side [2]. The
crabeater seal has characteristic net-like
chocolate-brown markings and fleckings on
its shoulders, sides and flanks [1]. When
approached, crabeater seals do not roll onto
their backs like Weddell seals; they open
their mouths, bare their teeth, and snort [1,4].
The leopard seal is an important predator of
young crabeater seals [1]. Killer whales have
been observed creating waves to swamp an
ice floe on which a crabeater seal is hauled
out, thus knocking the seal into the water
[5].
The crabeater seal has ornate interlocking
cheek teeth with four or five cusps,
functioning as strainers to separate krill
from seawater [1].
The crabeater seal eats mostly Antarctic
krill Euphausia superba and trivial
amounts of fish, squid, and other
invertebrates [1]. The crabeater seal is the
major consumer of krill in the Southern
Ocean [1].
23Crabeater seals have been found dead and
alive up the Dry Valleys near McMurdo
Sound, where they can wander inland great
distances [2,4]. Young crabeater seals
disperse and spread out; they may become
trapped by the autumn freezing sea ice in
McMurdo Sound [4]. Trapped seals then
have to escape over the ice surface to open
water (if they can find the open water) [4].
Crabeater seals are more agile on land and
ice than other Antarctic seals and thus can
travel far from the open sea [4]. In addition
to the Dry Valleys, dead crabeater seals
have been found on the McMurdo Ice Shelf
eleven kilometers west of Scott Base, 47
kilometers up the Ferrar Glacier at almost 1,100 meters altitude, and one kilometer inland on Cape Evans on the
lower slopes of Mount Erebus [4].
Taxonomic Note: The species is usually improperly spelled with a masculine ending, carcinophagus [3]. The
correct gender ending is carcinophaga since it is a noun in apposition and not an adjective, thus retaining its
original feminine ending even though it is used with a masculine genus [3].
References: 1: FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes : Southern Ocean (Fishing Areas 48, 58 and 88) (CCAMLR
Convention Area) / W Fischer & JC Hureau, eds. Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985; 2: Handbook of
Marine Mammals, Volume 2, Seals. SH Ridgway & RJ Harrison, eds. London: Academic Press, 1981, pp.221-235; 3: Marine Mammals of
the World : Systematics and Distribution. DW Rice. Lawrence, Kansas : Society for Marine Mammalogy, 1998; 4: Journal of Mammalogy
52(1):175-180, 1971; 5: Canadian Journal of Zoology 59(6):1185-1189, 1981
24killer whale or orca Orcinus orca
The killer whale or orca Orcinus orca is found throughout Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula and all parts of
the Southern Ocean down to the Ross Sea [1,2].
25The killer whale can be observed at the pack ice edge and sometimes in dense pack ice and under fast ice [1]. The
killer whale usually travels in pods up to thirty individuals which may constitute a stable social structure [1].
26The killer whale has a bulky
body with a blunt, rounded head,
a prominent triangular dorsal fin,
and a black and white coloration
including a grey saddle patch
behind the dorsal fin, a white
chin/throat, a broad white lobe
reaching up and back beyond its
navel, and a white oval patch
above and behind its eye [1].
Male killer whales can be up to
at least eight meters in length
and females one meter shorter [1].
27Adult killer whale males have the characteristic tall dorsal fin up to 1.8 meters tall as shown here [1]. In females and
juvenile males, it is much smaller and has a concave trailing edge as shown in the top photo above [1].
Female killer whales reach sexual maturity in eight to ten years and males probably over sixteen years [1].
28By mid- summer in McMurdo Sound, the plankton bloom reduces underwater visibility dramatically. A hunting
mother and calf are seen in an opening lead of ice. Killer whale breeding occurs in autumn and the mother carries
the developing baby for 13 to 16 months [1]. Killer whale calves nurse for twelve months and may remain with the
mother for as long as ten years [1]. The killer whale preys on fish, cephalopods, and warm-blooded prey like
penguins and seals; they have been observed dislodging prey from ice floes by tipping floes up and by swimming
past, creating a wave to sweep prey off the floe [1,3]. The killer whale is a fast swimmer and can reach speeds of 46
kilometers/hour (29 miles/hr or 25 knots or 13 meters/sec) or more [1].
Taxonomic note: A supposed new species of dwarf or yellow killer whale was described from the ice edge in
Antarctica's Indian Ocean sector [2]. Selecting fish rather than mammals as prey, further studies are needed to
establish recognition as a separate species or subspecies [2].
References: 1: FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes : Southern Ocean (Fishing Areas 48, 58 and 88) (CCAMLR
Convention Area). W Fischer & JC Hureau, eds. Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985; 2: Marine
Mammals of the World : Systematics and Distribution. DW Rice. Lawrence, Kansas : Society for Marine Mammalogy, 1998; 3: Canadian
Journal of Zoology 59(6):1185-1189, 1981
29Antarctic minke whale Balaenoptera bonaerensis
The Antarctic minke whale Balaenoptera bonaerensis is found throughout Antarctica during summer [1,2]. During
winter, Antarctic minke whales are found north to within seven degrees of the equator and south as far as the 35th
parallel; they have also been sighted in Antarctica as well [1,2,4,5].
30The Antarctic minke whale is usually sighted near the ice edge, either singly or in pairs [1]. The Antarctic minke
whale ranges in length up to ten meters with an average length of eight meters; it is the smallest baleen whale in the
Southern Ocean [1].
31The Antarctic minke whale is dark grey on its back and white on its belly and beneath its flippers [1]. Most Antarctic
minke whales have a white diagonal band on each flipper and there may be a pale chevron on its back behind the
head or pale gray bracket marks above each flipper [1]. When the Antarctic minke whale surfaces, its dorsal fin
appears simultaneously with the blow [1].
32The blow of the Antarctic minke whale is small and low [1]. It breathes five to eight blows at intervals of less than
one minute, and then dives up to twenty minutes [1]. The Antarctic minke whale feeds primarily on the Antarctic
krill Euphausia superba and also on the euphausiid Thysanoessa spp. [1,3].
33This book jacket illustrates harpoon gun whaling in the
Southern Ocean.
Whaling in the Southern Ocean harvested some two
million whales in the first half of the 20th century, with
28,000 blue whales killed in the 1930-1931 season
alone [6].
Though whales in the Southern Ocean are now
protected by the 1994 International Whaling
Commission agreement for a Southern Ocean Whale
Sanctuary, scientific research whaling continues under
IWC rules, with Japan taking over 400 minke whales in
the Southern Ocean each year in recent years [6,7]
Taxonomic Note: Bone features, genetic analysis, and external features confirm that the Antarctic minke whale is a
separate species [2].
1: FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes : Southern Ocean (Fishing Areas 48, 58 and 88) (CCAMLR Convention Area) /
W Fischer & JC Hureau, eds. Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985; 2: Marine Mammals of the World :
Systematics and Distribution. DW Rice. Lawrence, Kansas : Society for Marine Mammalogy, 1998; 3: Polar Biology 11(7):479-487,
1991; 4: Instituto Antartico Chileno. Serie Cientifica 44:91-98, 1994 ; 5: International Whaling Commission Report 39:219-225, 1989; 6:
Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. M Carwardine, ed. New York : Checkmark Books, 1999; 7: Whaling. Whale and Dolphin Conservation
Society. www.wdcs.org
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