C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group - Background Guide B CAHSMUN XVIII - Canadian High Schools ...
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
C40 Cities Climate
Leadership Group
Background Guide B
CAHSMUN XVIIILetter from the Director Dear Delegates, My name is Yirui Tao, and it is my utmost pleasure to serve as your Director for the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group at CAHSMUN 2022. Joining me on your dais team are your Chairs, Claire Li and Hugo Lam. Model UN has truly been a cardinal part of my growth, shaping me into the person I am today. I recall first entering the committee room, daunted by the nuanced topics. Since then, through riveting debates and frantic resolution drafting sessions, my affinity towards international affairs had been incited and perpetually bolstered. Model UN has conferred to me valuable experiences, indispensable opportunities, and cherished memories. I hope that you also witness the transformative nature of the committee room, where friendships are forged and comfort zones confronted, challenged, and conquered. The topics on the table this iteration are Waste Management and Preserving Blue Carbon Ecosystems Through Sustainable Cities. The former considers the generation and disposal of waste and its various environmental ramifications, while the latter concerns the degradation of coastal and marine ecosystems that sequester carbon. Both topics present consequential issues and require swift action to mitigate the impacts of climate change ravaging the global community. I look forward to a weekend brimming with vivid debate. Should you have any questions or concerns, please do not hesitate to contact me at c40@cahsmun.org. I wish you the best of luck with your preparation; on behalf of your dais team, welcome to the C40. Sincerely, Yirui Tao Director of C40 — CAHSMUN 2022 CAHSMUN 2022 1 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
Committee Description Established in October 2005, the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group unites cities across the globe by establishing the common goal of addressing climate change; this international organization facilitates the development and implementation of various programs and policies that generate measurable reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate ramifications.1 Since the committee’s inception when the former Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, assembled representation from 18 megacities to discuss the cooperative reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, C40 has extended multiple partnerships with organizations and funders, such as the Climate Leadership Initiative (CLI) as well as the World Bank (WB).2 The C40 engages mayoral leadership, provides support to cities, and circumvents barriers to climate change, empowering cities to fulfill the goal outlined by the Paris Agreement, an international treaty on climate change signed in 2015—of global heating to 1.5 degrees Celsius, with an emphasis on sustainability.3 Member cities are divided into four distinct categories: the Steering Committee, Megacities, Innovator Cities, and Observer Cities. The Steering Committee serves in rotation and encompasses the diverse global network; these cities collaborate with the Chair—the elected leader of the C40—to guide its work.4 Requirements for membership depend heavily on the city’s population, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), or Purchasing-Power Parity (PPP) currently or projected for 2025.5 Furthermore, access to C40 leadership or governance opportunities (C40 Chair, Board, or Steering Committee) is limited to this group. Innovator Cities are cities that fail to qualify as Megacities but demonstrate clear leadership in addressing climate change and climate sustainability. Observer Cities are either new cities needing to meet the C40’s year-one participation requirements for up to a year in order to qualify for Megacity or Innovator City membership, or cities that meet Megacity or Innovator City guidelines but are unable to approve such membership.6 The C40 operates with three main methods: direct assistance, peer-to-peer exchange, and research and communications. Under direct assistance, the C40 provides expertise to member cities in implementing policies, programs, and designs, while groups of C40 cities with similar interests and challenges network, share practices, and identify resource needs under peer-to-peer 1 https://www.c40.org/history 2 https://www.c40.org/partners 3 https://www.c40.org/about 4 https://www.c40.org/leadership/the-chair/ 5 Ibid. 6 https://www.humphreyfellowship.org/system/files/Fact_Sheet_C40_Cities_Climate_Leadership_Group_07.26.13.pd f CAHSMUN 2022 2 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
exchange. Research and communications methods deliver research and knowledge to cities, measure progress, and use data to identify successes and challenges.7 Topic B: Preserving Blue Carbon Ecosystems through Sustainable Cities Overview Blue carbon ecosystems are a structure of plants and vegetation that mitigate the effects of climate change by acting as net carbon sinks—where a greater amount of carbon dioxide is absorbed from the environment than released.8 These ecosystems consist of various ocean ecosystems that sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, including mangroves—trees and shrubs with visibly lengthy roots growing along tropical and subtropical coastlines, tidal marshes, and seagrass meadows.9 These systems contribute towards the maintenance of coastlines — specifically in their capacity to regulate water quality and protect coastal communities against storms, and sea-level rise. In addition, the systems elevate food security and recreational opportunities for local communities by providing habitat for marine life and support for the food web.10 Plants such as algae, mangroves, and macroalgae capture significant carbon from the atmosphere through plant growth and accumulation of organic matter, exceeding forests in both efficiency and effectiveness.11 Additionally, blue carbon ecosystems accomplish such objectives by trapping sediments to prevent beach erosion and filtering pollutants in bodies of water.12 These qualities render blue carbon ecosystems a crucial factor in the fight against climate change and greenhouse gas effects. Despite the value blue carbon ecosystems bring in adhering to the emissions reduction targets outlined in the Paris Climate Accords, an international treaty on climate change, such ecosystems are still threatened and are diminishing in size due to urban development and overfishing, among other human activities.13 Collectively, coastal wetlands occupy less than 5% of global land area and 2% of the ocean; however, they store around 50% of all carbon within ocean sediments.14 7 https://www.c40.org/what_we_do_for_cities 8 https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/blue-carbon 9 Ibid. 10 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/about-blue-carbon 11 https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/blue-carbon 12 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/about-blue-carbon 13 https://www.nrdc.org/stories/paris-climate-agreement-everything-you-need-know 14 https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2021/09/coastal-blue-carbon-an-important-tool- for-combating-climate-change CAHSMUN 2022 3 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
The degradation of these environments and the conversion of blue carbon habitats to alternate land usages release large quantities of carbon back into the atmosphere, propelling climate change.15 Contingent upon the specific type of blue carbon ecosystem, the rate of area coverage degrades at up to 2% a year and historical global coverage has been reduced by up to above 50%.16 Annually, an estimated 450 million metric tons of carbon are released worldwide from the demolition of blue carbon ecosystems.17 Furthermore, municipal initiatives often encompass unpropitious decisions around blue carbon ecosystems; tourism, pollution, and exploitation center around the conversion or deterioration of these areas. Thus, as the mitigation of climate change is deeply intertwined with the preservation of blue carbon ecosystems, cities must adapt policies that address these issues to mend relations with the habitats and balance urban development with conservation. Timeline February 20, 1981 — Marine macrophytes are found to sequester over one billion tons of carbon annually in the ocean through “biomass production, burial, oxidation, calcium carbonate dissolution, and metabolically accelerated diffusion of carbon dioxide across the air-sea interface.”18 November 2009 — The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports on the management of blue carbon ecosystems, the importance they hold in mitigating climate change, as well as the decline of these ecosystems due to human impacts and lack of policy addressing these threats.19 Henceforth, these coastal ecosystems are collectively referred to as “blue carbon.”20 February 2011 — The Blue Carbon Scientific Working Group is established. This division of the Blue Carbon Initiative (BCI) works to produce scientific backing and research into the global conservation, management, and assessment of blue carbon ecosystems.21 15 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/about-blue-carbon 16 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/ 17 https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2021/09/coastal-blue-carbon-an-important-tool- for-combating-climate-change 18 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.211.4484.838 19 https://www.iucn.org/theme/marine-and-polar/our-work/climate-change-and-ocean/blue-carbon 20 Ibid. 21 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/scientific-working-group CAHSMUN 2022 4 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
September 4, 2012 — A report titled “Estimating Global “Blue Carbon” Emissions from Conversion and Degradation of Vegetated Coastal Ecosystems” explores the decimation of blue carbon ecosystem size, and the consequences of this decrease.22 Specifically, the study states that cumulative area loss within the past 50-100 years may be up to 50% of the global coverage, and further emphasizes the subsequent carbon release from this decline in area.23 Moreover, the study estimates losses in the next century should current conversion rate trends continue.24 2015 — The Restore America’s Estuaries (RAE), an organization advocating for the restoration of blue carbon ecosystem restoration, hosts the first meeting of the Blue Carbon National Working Group (BCN), consequently publishing a series of recommendations for specific plans in restoration in the U.S.25 2015 — The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission—a partner of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (IOC-UNESCO) leading many blue carbon restoration projects such as co-directing the BCI—becomes a partner of the International Partnership for Blue Carbon (IPBC), providing open forums of discussion for “government agencies, non-governmental organizations, intergovernmental organizations, and research institutions.”26 January 2020 — The government of Jamaica launches a restoration project on blue carbon ecosystems in southern Clarendon.27 August 2020 — The Chinese Ministry of Natural Resources and the National Forestry and Grassland Administration drafts a development plan to restore 18,800 hectares of mangrove forests and plant an additional 9,050 hectares within the coming five years.28 March 4, 2021 — A research article called “Historical Analysis Exposes Catastrophic Seagrass Loss for the United Kingdom” concludes that since 1936, at least 44% of seagrasses in the United Kingdom have been degraded; over a longer period of time, this number could reach 92%.29 The study further explores the ramifications of this decrease on the environment, carbon sequestration, and marine biodiversity.30 22 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0043542 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 https://estuaries.org/initiatives/timeline/ 26 https://ioc.unesco.org/our-work/blue-carbon 27 https://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=EZSHARE-2056220512-8085 28 https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202008/29/WS5f499f9ba310675eafc5637c.html 29 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.629962/full 30 Ibid. CAHSMUN 2022 5 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
August 2021 — The Nature Conservancy (TNC) announces a partnership with the South Australian Government and COmON Foundation (a European environmental organization) in a $1.2 million USD blue carbon project to restore over 4,900 acres of mangroves, salt marshes, and sea grasses in the St Vincents Gulf and Spencer Gulf of South Australia.31 Historical Analysis Research and Development Studies on the effects of the marine carbon cycle began in 1841, with French chemist J.B.A Dumas.32 His research focused on oceanic phytoplankton, with an emphasis on its contributions to carbon sequestration.33 As interest accumulated, further scientific studies and papers concluded the cruciality and contributions of seagrasses, mangroves, and tidal marshes. For example, an 1981 study ascertained that macrophytes hold a pivotal role in serving as global carbon sinks.34 In 2009, Christian Nellemann et al. released the publication “Blue Carbon - The Role of Healthy Oceans in Binding Carbon: a Rapid Response Assessment,” in partnership with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), among other research centers and UN agencies.35 This pivotal study, constructed by forthleading environmental agencies of the world, opened with: “Out of all the biological carbon (or green carbon) captured in the world, over half (55%) is captured by marine living organisms—not on land—hence it is called Blue Carbon,” introducing the concept of blue carbon to the general public.36 Additionally, it highlighted specifics in the functionality and quantified data on blue carbon ecosystems’s effectiveness, and emphasized its crucial role in combating the rising concerns of climate change and other environmental concerns such as erosion.37 The same year, the IUCN, in conjunction with the UNEP, published “The Management of Natural Coastal Carbon Sinks,” accentuating the significance of effective management of blue 31 https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-08-13/blue-carbon-creating-value-from-magnificent-mud/100371238 32 https://www.jstor.org/stable/27826018?casa_token=su8l2Wh7HqcAAAAA%3A- aFS4Td4Ux9u07jvVaE2OFWlQW8SueO1IE-sybjP5rO9phz83A75JuocAib560gpUWrOnUu3fthBu5m- ggCwSW1cQDl5nR0I2JJSsp3OYFxbPu1cazh4Vg&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.205.1087&rep=rep1&type=pdfhttps://books.google.ca/b ooks?hl=en&lr=&id=onCVCHQl4RoC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&ots=ZTrgeWE9oS&sig=rHbCI2Uzrp2-Liq- 1Lf2PrIKYls&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false 36 Ibid. 37 https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0781 CAHSMUN 2022 6 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
carbon ecosystems and approaches to protect such ecosystems.38 Importantly, this report further
addresses the problematic existing policy that enables and facilitates threats and exploitation of
these ecosystems. Combined with extensive research regarding human impacts—such as nutrient
run-off, displacement, and aquaculture—and the losses occurring in blue carbon ecosystems
worldwide, IUCN’s report garnered attention from climate policy experts and a wider scope of
audience. Collectively, these two publications are viewed as landmark reports that reinforced and
propagated the importance of blue carbon. Ultimately, by spotlighting the importance of
preserving such ecosystems, their potential in reducing emissions and mitigating climate change,
and the substantial losses already occurring globally, this research propelled contributions to the
study and restoration of blue carbon.
The Establishment of Blue Carbon Programmes
The foundational research published in 2009 further highlighted the discrepancy between
knowledge of the blue carbon ecosystems and tangible action supported by governments to
mitigate their decimation globally.39 Increased research and the aggregate of scientific studies
and quantitative data on carbon storage contributed and inspired the establishment of various
intergovernmental organizations and transnational environmental agencies that operate from
regional to international scales, targeting activities detrimental to blue carbon ecosystems,
publishing policy recommendations, and continuing restoration initiatives. For instance, the
IUCN—alongside Conservation International, IOC-UNESCO, and the BCI—continually
develops guidance frameworks to support the financing, management, and implementation of
blue carbon projects and policy making, both nationally and internationally.40
However, even with extensive research and initiative in preserving blue carbon ecosystems, there
have been high rates of loss, degradation, and conversion.41 The BCI estimates that globally, blue
carbon ecosystems have decreased up to 50 percent compared to their historical global area.
Leading contributors include aquaculture, terrestrial and marine sources of pollution, and
industrial and urban coastal developments.42 These causes remained unchanged through the last
decades; as the effects of climate change become more apparent, the impacts of such human
activities have become more visible. As global connectivity prospered, tourism industries and
trade routes became increasingly prevalent. Major blue carbon ecosystems were repurposed for
coastal recreational areas and parks, or ports and docks for incoming vessel shipments.43
38
https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2009-038.pdf
39
https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.205.1087&rep=rep1&type=pdfhttps://books.google.ca/b
ooks?hl=en&lr=&id=onCVCHQl4RoC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&ots=ZTrgeWE9oS&sig=rHbCI2Uzrp2-Liq-
1Lf2PrIKYls&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
40
https://www.iucn.org/theme/marine-and-polar/our-work/climate-change-and-ocean/blue-carbon
41
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/about-blue-carbon
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid.
CAHSMUN 2022 7 C40 BACKGROUNDER BCase Study: United Kingdom A study conducted by researchers at King’s College London concluded that since 1936, at least 44% of seagrasses in the United Kingdom's coastal regions have been lost.44 Since the 1980s, over 39% of seagrasses have been lost, and that number becomes approximately 92% when analyzing longer periods of time.45 Historical collections of seagrasses could have stored an extra 11.5 megatonnes of carbon in their seabed.46 Globally, it has been estimated that over the last 50 to 100 years, cumulative losses of blue carbon ecosystems and its resulting sequestration of carbon have decreased up to 50% in area.47 Annually, there have been losses of up to 3% or 8000 square kilometers of such ecosystems, and as these trends continue, nearly 100% of mangroves and 30-40% of tidal marshes and seagrasses could be lost in the next century.48 Current Situation Present on an estimated 490,000 square kilometres of land, blue carbon ecosystems thrive on every continent, with the exception of Antarctica.49 Specifically, according to the Blue Carbon Initiative in 2019, mangroves are found across between 138,000 and 152,000 square kilometres, salt marshes consume 22,000-400,000 square kilometres of this space, and seagrasses occupy from 177,000 to 600,000 square kilometres.50 Cumulatively, coastal habitats cover under 2% of total ocean area and less than five percent of total land area.51 Despite this seemingly insignificant percentage, these habitats sequester around half of the total carbon captured in ocean sediments, demonstrating their efficiency, effectiveness, and productivity at combating climate change and decreasing the prevalence of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.52 Compared to terrestrial forests, coastal habitats capture and store carbon to a greater extent. Mangroves are estimated to sequester ten times more carbon per acre than standard rainforests, and they store it between three to five times as much.53 The sustainable utilization of blue carbon 44 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.629962/full 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0043542 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 https://e360.yale.edu/features/african_mangroves_blue_carbon_win_for_climate_and_for_people CAHSMUN 2022 8 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
ecosystems is imperative to limiting climate change while fostering biodiversity. Due to the
variation in demographics and active sectors in each city, however, the situation regarding each
specific coastal habitat is different, depending on its municipality.
Figure 1: Global Distribution of Blue Carbon Ecosystems 54
Mangroves
Spanning across over 100 distinct species, mangroves thrive in seemingly inhospitable
conditions.55 The mangroves’ roots help keep them stable under the water, especially when tides
flood the area. As the plants filter out salt from the saltwater entering its roots, the portions of the
shrub above water provides oxygen, permitting oxygen-poor soils to house mangroves. Climate
change has perpetrated a net rise in global temperatures; the scope of mangrove coverage may
expand as these shrubs proliferate in warmer climates. The unique features and characteristics of
mangrove plants allow them to shield coastlines from storms, tides, waves, and currents. They
equally stand as a nursery ground for aquatic species, such as some sharks and groupers.
However, as the advantages of mangroves continue to be neglected and overlooked, the area
54
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/
55
https://sustainabletravel.org/what-is-blue-carbon/
CAHSMUN 2022 9 C40 BACKGROUNDER Binhabited by mangroves shrink, with an estimated rate of diminishing of 2% per year.56 Correspondingly, mangrove deforestation contributes to 10% of deforestation emissions on a global scale.57 Seagrass Despite having around 72 known species within seagrass coastal ecosystems, seagrass typically have similar features, such as leaves bearing a resemblance to grass that grow underwater.58 As an aquatic flowering plant, seagrass is complete with roots, leaves, flowers, and seeds; seagrass sequesters around 10% of the carbon stored in oceans per year and can be found in virtually all coastlines.59 Likewise to other coastal ecosystems, seagrass’ benefits extend past the scope of solely mitigating climate change.60 These habitats are utilized as nursing, feeding, and habitat grounds for fish species — such as cod, pollock, and herring — while also improving water quality by reducing erosion and the ramifications of extreme weather conditions and phenomena. Since sunlight is necessary to perform photosynthesis, seagrass are present in shallow bodies of water that permit light to reach the plants effectively. The degradation of seagrass occurs at an estimated rate of 1.5% annually, with approximately 30% of historical coverage globally having decayed and been lost.61 Tidal Marshes Most commonly located in temperate climates, tidal marshes—equally referred to as salt marshes—are coastal wetlands that absorb up to 1.5 million gallons of floodwater per acre.62 These areas are usually superseded by mangroves in tropical climates. The mud and peat soils of tidal marshes act as a host for a variety of salt-tolerant vegetation—for instance, grasses, sedges, and reeds. Furthermore, tidal marshes serve as nursery habitats, food, refuge for species of shrimp, crab, and fish. Thus, tidal marshes are typically acclaimed as substantial and vital ecosystems in local economies reliant on fishing. Furthermore, since tidal marshes absorb seawater and rainwater, flooding in many circumstances is minimized. This also allows tidal marshes to act as infrastructure, which renders communities more resilient to the environment and surrounding bodies of water. As this water flows in, tidal marshes filter pollutants, reducing the amount of pollution entering coastal waterways and thus reducing need for municipal wastewater treatment processes and projects. Extirpated at a rate of between one to two percent each year, tidal marshes only encompass around half of their historical global coverage; this 56 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/ 57 Ibid. 58 https://sustainabletravel.org/what-is-blue-carbon/ 59 https://www.wwf.org.uk/what-we-do/planting-hope-how-seagrass-can-tackle-climate-change 60 Ibid. 61 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/ 62 https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2021/09/coastal-blue-carbon-an-important-tool- for-combating-climate-change CAHSMUN 2022 10 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
degradation continues to ravage through salt marshes and exacerbate greenhouse gas release into
the atmosphere.63
Figure 2: Carbon Storage in the biomass and soils of differing coastal ecosystems.64
Degradation
Despite the value blue carbon ecosystems bring in sequestering carbon, coastal wetlands degrade
at substantial rates due to municipal activities regarding the regions.65 Coastal development and
conversion for aquaculture, agriculture, pollution, overharvesting, and exploitation are among
significant contributors to blue carbon ecosystem destruction.66 Mangroves are often cut for
timber, and land occupied by blue carbon ecosystems is converted from coastal habitats to
resorts, farming ponds, and plantations. Since the late nineteenth century, around 30% of global
seagrass area has been degraded, and an estimated 50% of mangrove and tidal marsh coverage
has been lost.67 As degradation occurs, centuries' worth of carbon initially stored in blue carbon
ecosystems are emitted into oceans and the atmosphere; an estimated 1.02 billion tons of carbon
dioxide are released annually from such degradation.68
63
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/
64
https://sustainabletravel.org/what-is-blue-carbon/
65
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/
66
https://bluecarbonpartnership.org/
67
https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/protecting-restoring-blue-carbon-ecosystems/why-
protecting
68
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org
CAHSMUN 2022 11 C40 BACKGROUNDER BHowever, the ramifications of this degradation extend past the scope of solely reduced carbon- storing capacities. Coastal habitats also serve as natural barriers that counter various detriments to marine life and improve community resilience, biodiversity, and protection. Mangroves, for example, have been associated with flooding protection. Its roots are sturdy enough to diminish the height of waves significantly; with the power to effectuate a 66% decrease in wave height, mangroves defend an estimated 15 million people annually.69 Likewise, salt marshes and seagrasses reduce the potency of smaller waves, and their soils absorb excess water. Beach erosion is equally minimized, as these coastal habitats trap stray sediments while filtering out any pollutants before water is released into the ocean.70 In the absence of these plants, cities would often spend hefty amounts addressing the impacts of flooding. Moreover, approximately 95% of commercial fisheries rely on coastal ecosystems to thrive.71 They provide nursery grounds and habitat for various shellfish, fish, and bird species; for instance, oysters and barnacles are found on mangrove roots for support and habitation, while pelicans utilize mangrove trees to hold their nests. Furthermore, seagrass supplies food to creatures such as sea turtles and dugongs, while birds forage for insects and crabs in tidal marshes. The decimation of coastal habitats presents ramifications for the fishing community, pushing burdens onto communities dependent on marine life for their income and food security.72 Without blue carbon ecosystems, fish stocks for municipal populations are decreased, destabilizing fisheries while simultaneously disrupting marine food chains due to population decline. The continued degradation of blue carbon ecosystems harms not only carbon storage, but also the livelihoods of both wildlife and surrounding communities. Chinese National Mangrove Forest Conservation Program China hosted the 12th annual World Ocean Day, themed “Protect the mangroves, Protect the ocean,” on June 8, 2020.73 Under the guidance of the Wetland Management Department of the National Forestry and Grassland Administration (NFGA), among other organizations, the report of ‘China Mangrove Conservation and Restoration Strategy Research Project was jointly issued.74 This has been China’s first report since its focus on mangrove preservation began in 2000, detailing the adverse effects of degradation and the importance of adequate management, restoration, and conservation.75 The conference was broadcasted to over 200,000 industry professionals, including mangrove researchers and government and NGO officials.76 69 https://sustainabletravel.org/what-is-blue-carbon/ 70 Ibid. 71 Ibid. 72 Ibid. 73 https://www.mangrovealliance.org/news/mangrove-conservation-in-china-first-report/ 74 Ibid. 75 Ibid. 76 Ibid. CAHSMUN 2022 12 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
Subsequently, China announced its framework to restore over 18,800 hectares of existing mangrove forests, and plant an additional 9,050 hectares within the next five years. 77 These expansion efforts come in addition to the 7,000 hectares of mangrove the nation has recovered in the past 20 years, as well as the over 50% protection rate of natural mangrove forests.78 Although the country’s mangrove preservation efforts far exceed the global average of preservation, aquaculture pollutants, invasive plant species, and seawalls separating mangroves from inland ecosystems have severely degraded mangrove forests. Efforts in artificially planting have yielded miniscule success rates due to undesirable growing conditions along with its exorbitant expenses, rendering such projects as highly inefficient and unfeasible.79 The newly established Conservation Program and national mangrove movement backed by government officials including President Xi, place China in a favourable position for mangrove preservation and restoration, and sets the stage for other developed nations to follow suit. Such initiatives not only nourish existing vegetation and beget new plants to further the sequestering of carbon but extend their scope of impact to benefiting coastal activity. Organizations and NGOs specifically addressing blue carbon ecosystems have garnered increasing interest among governments, experts, and policymakers. Such groups seek partnerships with the aforementioned programs to implement restoration processes and conservation strategies within their local coastlines and blue carbon ecosystems. UN/International Involvement Blue Carbon Initiative (BCI) Established to consolidate efforts in preserving blue carbon ecosystems, the Blue Carbon Initiative (BCI) is a global program co-organized by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), among other organizations.80 Recognizing the value of blue carbon ecosystems in sequestering carbon and mitigating climate change, the BCI emphasizes mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses due to their ubiquitous appearance and widespread presence.81 By ascertaining data, conducting research, organizing project implementation, identifying policy priorities, and supplying guidance, the BCI seeks to both protect and restore coastal ecosystems. Continuous research into sequestration, storage, and loss of carbon from blue carbon systems has generated a variety of reports and papers on this topic, and projects are 77 https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202008/29/WS5f499f9ba310675eafc5637c.html 78 https://www.paulsoninstitute.org/conservation/conservation-blog/turning-a-harmful-tide/ 79 Ibid. 80 https://ioc.unesco.org/our-work/blue-carbon 81 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/ CAHSMUN 2022 13 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
actively developed globally to accomplish the BCI’s goals. Specifically, two working groups operate with the BCI—the Blue Carbon Scientific Working Group and the Blue Carbon Policy Working Group, focusing on research or policy development, respectively. Restore America’s Estuaries (RAE) A non-profit organization founded in 1995, Restore America’s Estuaries (RAE) connects 10 coastal conservation groups to compound efforts in restoring and preserving estuaries around the United States.82 RAE operates in 11 estuaries—areas that rivers and streams flow in—and 16 states spanning across the country, propelling local initiatives to contribute towards restoration processes in coastal wetlands and shorelines.83 The scope of this organization sprawls across the removal of invasive species, transplanting seagrasses, and replanting salt marshes. In particular, RAE’s program targeting blue carbon ecosystems—the Coastal Blue Carbon Program—provides information about the function and consequences of blue carbon ecosystem preservation and advances knowledge and understanding on the activities within such ecosystems.84 The Snohomish Estuary Blue Carbon Assessment, prepared in February 2014, was released to report upon the findings and methods utilized as well as potential next steps to consider.85 The RAE also develops tools and resources regarding blue carbon, as well as coordinates and organizes various group initiatives for collaboration on research and projects within this area of discussion.86 International Partnership for Blue Carbon (IPBC) At the twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties (COP21) in 2015, Australia launched the International Partnership for Blue Carbon (IPBC).87 With an array of founding members, this global network is formed by upwards of 40 governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and research institutions globally.88 The IPBC emphasizes the role coastal ecosystems play in mitigating climate change and works to preserve their conservation. Actors in this organization are given occasions to collaborate in construction solutions and tangible action in their communities, while continuing the flow of information and knowledge with each other.89 As such, the collection of both expertise and experience permits IPBC Partners the ability to engage international commitments in protecting blue carbon ecosystems and coastlines, 82 https://estuaries.org/bluecarbon/ 83 Ibid. 84 Ibid. 85 Ibid. 86 Ibid. 87 https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/conferences/past-conferences/paris-climate-change-conference- november-2015/cop-21 88 https://en.unesco.org/news/australia-acts-create-international-partnership-blue-carbon-fight-climate-change-0 89 https://bluecarbonpartnership.org/ CAHSMUN 2022 14 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
reinforcing national policy, and expediting initiatives and the implementation of activities targeting blue carbon ecosystem restoration, conservation, and protection worldwide. Possible Solutions Ecosystem Restoration With the ability to store over 49 billion metric tons of carbon per year, the global mangrove population is not only quintessential to the mitigation of climate change and its adverse ramifications, but an important component of blue carbon ecosystems.90 Unsustainable practices have led to the degradation and repurposing of mangrove forests. With a collective global decline in mangrove population, it is imperative for cities to adapt municipal policy to focus on preserving this vital organ within blue carbon ecosystems. Indonesia has shown progress in protecting mangrove forests with the help of the World Bank, and global leaders such as China, too, have begun initiatives in restoring and expanding mangrove abundance.91 Cooperation with intergovernmental environmental organizations such as the UNEP, BCI, IOC, IUCN, and RAE, could be extended to expand and control the sustainability of mangroves in the long term. Such restoration processes extend to other components of blue carbon ecosystems such as salt marshes. Although parties of the Paris Climate Accords have begun to include the preservation of blue carbon ecosystems in their nationally determined contributions (NDCs)—such as Seychelles’ aims to protect 100% of its seagrass and mangrove habitats by 2030, and the U.S’s aims to newly developed blue carbon strategies in conjunction with its Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), restoration efforts have been relatively minimal and have seen smaller scopes of interest.92 As more leading cities contribute to the restoration of blue carbon ecosystems, the path can be set for others to follow. Policy Reform Due to a lack of policies and enforcement surrounding the exploitation of coastal regions housing blue carbon ecosystems, large corporations tend to clear our large regions of mangroves, seagrass meadows, and salt marshes to create space for aquaculture, tourism infrastructure, and urban and coastal development. As such, structure policies should be introduced regarding quotas for cutting down vegetation, or even to the extent of rendering the destruction of blue 90 https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/07/26/mangrove-conservation-and-restoration-protecting- indonesia-climate-guardians 91 Ibid. 92 Ibid. CAHSMUN 2022 15 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
carbon ecosystems illegal. Corporations whose actions or resulting industrial runoff threatens the sustainability of blue carbon environments must be held accountable in their actions, and policy reform in addition to strict enforcement could prevent and deter further regression of these ecosystems. Furthermore, companies should be given responsibility to restore habitats that they have impacted negatively, supervised by government and intergovernmental agency surveillance and accountability programs. However, solutions including policy reform may face backlash and significant pressure from corporations to withdraw such laws, as it may hinder economic profit and expansion. For instance, in August of 2016, Maharashtra—a state in India—rendered constructions within a 50 meter radius around mangrove belts illegal in an effort to maintain their coastal habitats in the state.93 Cuba, one of regions hosting high levels of mangroves in Central America, has also created consistent legislation over coastal management that has preserved mangroves since 2000.94 Along with restoration and reforestation initiatives, coastlines have seen improvements and have recuperated from the losses sustained from deforestation and conversion from coastal development projects.95 Citizenry Awareness and Communal Initiatives As it stands, the concept of blue carbon and its comprised ecosystems remains nebulous to citizenries, and therefore, has received little attention in media and education curricula. Although blue carbon’s ability to sequester carbon outweighs its terrestrial counterparts, the latter has been aided in community supported programs immensely more. City wide programs and initiatives in protecting and replanting blue carbon ecosystems could be encouraged and promoted through social media campaigns, community seminars, educating youth, and extensive media coverage. Increasing awareness could prove valuable in preventing large corporations from freely clearing out blue carbon ecosystems, denouncing the exploitation of such environments, and garnering support in restoring such ecosystems. These initiatives have been implemented globally: in Gasi Bay, Kenya, the community led “Mikoko Pamoja” project empowered over 3000 residents to replant mangroves, where international clients fund the restoration process and locals receive carbon credits as compensation for their conservation efforts.96 In Pakistan, the IUCN branch has partnered with the private sector to augment sustainability regarding coastal ecosystem; initiatives include improving understanding of mangrove ecosystems with the government, increasing mangrove coverage through restoration efforts, as well as organizing field visits to 93 https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/mangroves-destruction-violates-fundamental-rights-of- citizens-bombay-hc-61674 94 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000219248. 95 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000219248&file=/in/rest/annot ationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_9db71539-61fd-4b89-9e0a- acc40453d3fc%3F_%3D219248eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000219248/PDF/219248eng.p df#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A110%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D% 2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D 96 https://www.oneearth.org/six-projects-restoring-vital-mangrove-forests-around-the-world/ CAHSMUN 2022 16 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
mangrove sites and launching awareness campaigns with the media, academic institutions, and
associated governmental agencies and departners.97 The Hagonoy municipality in the Philippines
has also implemented the One Child, One Tree (OCOT) program, which spreads environmental
awareness, promotes coastal clean-ups, and mangrove planting. Since the area often experiences
heavy rains and flooding, mangroves could reduce the ramifications of these storms to nearby
communities and cities.98
Scheduled Assessments
Surveillance practices should also be enhanced in order to better gauge the location and degree
of deteriorating mangrove forests. Data gathering and research should be conducted by
intergovernmental environmental organization-led teams, such as the BCI, to optimize
enforcement and surveillance practices. Large-scale city-wide assessments on the condition of
blue carbon ecosystems should be implemented, especially in coastal cities, periodically and
interpreted. Identified high-risk areas should be isolated and protected for improvement and to
prevent further degradation. Further, countries should advocate for the situational assessment,
expert analysis, and inventory accounts of coastal and marine ecosystems to be incorporated into
the Paris Agreement, specifically under each nation’s NDCs.99 Media coverage as well as
government and corporation accountability should be ensured to maintain the legitimate
upholding of any implemented blue carbon preservation policies. For instance, information and
data relating to mangroves on a global scale can be found on the Global Mangrove Information
and Database System (GLOMIS), an online database developed in 1997 and completed in
2004.100 Initial data points were collected in India, Malaysia, Fiji, Ghana, and Brazil, and a wide
audience uses GLOMIS, from researchers, students, and decision makers.101 Ranong, a province
in Thailand, has also established the Ranong Mangrove Research Center, which provides studies
on reforestation, sanitation, and preservation efforts in order to develop effective management
that addresses threats to blue carbon ecosystems while taking into account traditions of the local
communities to promote policy change.102
97
https://www.iucn.org/asia/restoration-and-rehabilitation-mangrove-ecosystem-along-coasts-pakistan
98
https://www.oneearth.org/six-projects-restoring-vital-mangrove-forests-around-the-world/
99
https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/blue-forests-finding-coastal-and-marine-solutions-meet-paris-
agreement
100
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000219248&file=/in/rest/annot
ationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_9db71539-61fd-4b89-9e0a-
acc40453d3fc%3F_%3D219248eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000219248/PDF/219248eng.p
df#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A110%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%
2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D
101
Ibid.
102
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000219248&file=/in/rest/annot
ationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_9db71539-61fd-4b89-9e0a-
acc40453d3fc%3F_%3D219248eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000219248/PDF/219248eng.p
CAHSMUN 2022 17 C40 BACKGROUNDER BCarbon Credits
In 2019, the UNEP, Kenya Forest Service, Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, and
other partners joined together in initiating the Vanga Blue Forests Project, a mangrove
preservation initiative on the Kenyan coast.103 The Vanga Forest Project entails the investment of
funds into restoring such mangrove forests, and in turn, selling carbon credits—a permit
representing one ton of removed carbon dioxide, purchasable by individuals and businesses
seeking to release an equivalent amount of carbon— to generate profit to reinvest into local
communities.104 Such programs can be mirrored in less developed cities with less funding to
construct a win-win scenario for funders and local communities and restore masses of
mangroves. Each established volume of carbon dioxide reductions allows a city or organization
pioneering this initiative to gain more credits; companies in the fund can subsequently utilize
these credits to offset their carbon emissions or trade them in voluntary carbon markets—in the
latter option, prices vary significantly. Carbon credits present an incentive for corporations and
cities alike to actively reduce their emissions, allowing them to experience the full benefits of
blue carbon ecosystems. Often, this could allow cities to flourish, as blue carbon ecosystems
foster biodiversity, render cities increasingly resilient, and expedite their marine industries’
activity and success. Should this solution be instituted, cities should seek to establish strict
criteria in terms of isolating and identifying amounts of carbon reduced and methods to ensure
the system is not exploited, such as by false reports or discrepancies in implementation.
Furthermore, collaboration with NGOs and other organizations with expertise in this field could
further propel municipal commitments to preserving blue carbon ecosystems.
Bloc Positions
Coastal Cities
As major stakeholders in this issue, coastal cities are heavily involved with the preservation of
blue carbon ecosystems. Members include Bangkok, Vancouver, and Quezon City, among others
that border bodies of water. Their geographic location renders them highly relevant not only due
to the control they have over the systems, but also as they are impacted by the shrinking of the
ecosystems. The blue carbon ecosystems play vital roles in maintaining the marine food web,
which supports the economy of many cities and tourism through recreational activities. These
cities would be affected by the increased floods and polluted oceans, should degradation of these
df#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A110%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%
2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D
103
https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/mangrove-conservation-more-valuable-ever-thanks-carbon-trading
104
https://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/articles/press-release-voluntary-carbon-markets-rocket-in-2021-on-
track-to-break-1b-for-first-time/
CAHSMUN 2022 18 C40 BACKGROUNDER Becosystems persist. Thus, it is of utmost importance that coastal cities address the problem due to the direct effects they exert over the ecosystems. Various initiatives have been supported and implemented in countries; for example, blue carbon credits in Colombia, and mangrove conservation in Sabah, Malaysia have been launched to counter climate change and coastal ecosystem destruction.105 Correspondingly, cities that have access to these coastlines may be amenable to solutions centered around restoration, scheduled assessments to optimize their policy adaptation to preserve their coastlines, and potentially carbon credits to harness economic benefits along with the plethora of climate change mitigation aspects associated with blue carbon ecosystems. Landlocked Cities Landlocked cities—such as Amsterdam, Heidelberg, and Warsaw—have minimal contact with blue carbon ecosystems. As such, members of this bloc would experience the effects of coastal habitats to a lesser extent compared to their coastal counterparts.. Yet,the consequences of neglect regarding the preservation of blue carbon ecosystems remain present and palpable in landlocked cities. Carbon credit programs are applicable in regions with high levels of blue carbon but do not function optimally in areas with little vegetation sequestering carbon; landlocked cities would be reluctant to support solutions that include such programs. However, cities within this bloc would tend toward initiating various programs aiming to raise awareness on the importance of maintaining blue carbon ecosystems and the need for policy reform. Select countries have been experimenting with carbon credits—such as Canada and Germany—for green carbon, which can be extrapolated and applied to blue carbon ecosystems, or supported to reduce carbon emissions overall. Depending on the demographics and geographical features of landlocked cities and the extent to which they have contact with blue carbon ecosystems, nuances in policy reforms could be explored; most cities would provide support to quotas and limitations to pollution and other unsustainable ventures transpiring in their city. Environmentally-Forward Cities Leaders in sustainable energy systems emit less carbon, which contributes to the preservation of blue carbon ecosystems and bolsters their capabilities to sequester vast quantities of carbon. Typically, members of this bloc—such as Stockholm, Amsterdam, and Berlin—have seen fruitful impacts stemming from previous initiatives and regulations that foster environments conducive to sustainability. Depending on these cities’ proximity to coastal ecosystems, the particular needs in each city would fluctuate slightly regarding the methods necessary to 105 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000219248&file=/in/rest/annot ationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_9db71539-61fd-4b89-9e0a- acc40453d3fc%3F_%3D219248eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000219248/PDF/219248eng.p df#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A110%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D% 2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D CAHSMUN 2022 19 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
continue preserving their blue carbon ecosystems. For instance, countries in close contact with
coastal ecosystems would aim to prevent coastal erosion from pollution, sedimentation, and
overharvesting. Tourism-based economies could invest in ecotourism; on Iriomote Island in
Japan, boat tours limited by the hour provide tourists the opportunity to observe coastal
ecosystems and their biodiversity.106 As with all tourism, nonetheless, tour companies must
educate the tourists to minimize the potential ramifications to the blue carbon ecosystems serving
as tourist venues. Cities of this bloc would also support longer-term solutions. Scheduled
assessments could prove beneficial to tracking and furthering their progress, various policy
reforms, and potential carbon tax, and continuing partnerships to maintain their support for their
blue carbon ecosystems.
Prominent Emissions Cities
Major polluters consist of cities that generate high amounts of emission and pollution while
holding a broad disregard to sustainability—member cities include Curitiba, Rio de Janeiro, and
Johannesburg, among other cities with large emissions and carbon footprints. As such, blue
carbon ecosystems could assist in offsetting their emissions. Due to the unsustainable practices
perpetrated in such cities, coastal ecosystems are often neglected, and experience degradation at
rapid rates. In high emission cities, often many of the industries imperative to the economy
generate large amounts of pollution and emissions, rendering them unwilling to alter existing
practices due to profit. As such, cities in this bloc are required to find a balance between
economic gains and sustainable practices. Moreover, policy reform outlining regulations in terms
of the purposeful destruction or conservation of such ecosystems, pollution and debris disposal in
their waters, and carbon credits to incentivize a reduction in carbon emissions could aid such
cities. Coastal development efforts, for example, contribute greatly to the degradation of coastal
ecosystems. In certain countries, such as the Philippines, the cutting of blue carbon ecosystems is
prohibited; however, lack of accountability allows corporations to continue to exploit these areas.
Large areas of mangrove forests have been decimated due to conversion: this is generally due to
urban and tourism development, along with infrastructure needs in Central America, the
Caribbean, and the Middle East. In South East Asia, aquaculture—in particular, shrimp farms—
cause significant losses in mangrove populations. Therefore, to mitigate these consequences,
increased protection, restoration, and surveillance could be implemented within members of this
bloc. Aquaculture needs could be met by working with the coastal ecosystems, where countries
utilize the natural resources, nutrients, and habitats that the blue carbon organisms provide for
fish and oysters. As such, members of this bloc would support regulations promoting
sustainability of fishing practices, limitations in regards to coastal conservation, and other
assessments and awareness campaigns to maintain and restore their blue carbon ecosystems.
106
Ibid.
CAHSMUN 2022 20 C40 BACKGROUNDER BDiscussion Questions
1. What are the benefits of preserving blue carbon ecosystems? In what ways does it affect
your city?
2. Which sectors have affected blue carbon ecosystems the most? How can municipal policy
be adapted to address these issues?
3. Is your city directly impacted by blue carbon ecosystems? How is your city’s blue carbon
ecosystem impacted by your city’s activities?
4. How should a balance between protecting blue carbon ecosystems and activity in certain
sectors, such as tourism, be achieved?
5. What are short term blue carbon ecosystem preservation solutions and goals for your city to
aim at?
6. What are long term solutions and goals for your city to strive to fulfill in restoring and
protecting blue carbon ecosystems?
7. How can industries be held accountable for damages done to blue carbon ecosystems?
8. In what aspects have past initiatives functioned well in terms of protecting blue carbon
ecosystems? Which areas can be improved upon?
9. Has your city partnered with or participated in initiatives led by NGOs or other
organizations specializing in blue carbon ecosystems? What was the outcome?
CAHSMUN 2022 21 C40 BACKGROUNDER BAdditional Sources Are ‘Blue Carbon’ Projects a Win for the Climate and the People: https://e360.yale.edu/features/african_mangroves_blue_carbon_win_for_climate_and_for_people Blue Carbon | IUCN: https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/blue-carbon The Blue Carbon Initiative: https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/ What is Blue Carbon and Why Does It Matter: https://sustainabletravel.org/what-is-blue-carbon/ Why Protecting & Restoring Blue Carbon Ecosystems Matters: https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/protecting-restoring-blue-carbon- ecosystems/why-protecting CAHSMUN 2022 22 C40 BACKGROUNDER B
Bibliography
BCI. “Blue Carbon Policy Working Group.” The Blue Carbon Initiative, n.d.,
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/policy-working-group.
BCI. “The Blue Carbon Initiative.” The Blue Carbon Initiative, n.d.,
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/.
BCI. “What is Blue Carbon?.” The Blue Carbon Initiative, n.d.,
https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/about-blue-carbon.
BCP. “Blue Carbon Partnership | Blue Carbon Ecosystems.” Blue Carbon Partnership, n.d.,
https://bluecarbonpartnership.org/.
Bird, Winifred. “Are ‘Blue Carbon’ Projects a Win for the Climate and the People?.” Yale
Environment 360, November 3, 2016,
https://e360.yale.edu/features/african_mangroves_blue_carbon_win_for_climate_and_for
_people.
C40. “Fact Sheet: C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group.” C40 Cities, July 26, 2013,
https://www.humphreyfellowship.org/system/files/Fact_Sheet_C40_Cities_Climate_Lead
ership_Group_07.26.13.pdf.
C40. “History of the C40.” C40 Cities, n.d., https://www.c40.org/history.
C40. “Our Partners & Funders.” C40 Cities, n.d., https://www.c40.org/partners.
C40. “Steering Committee.” C40 Cities, n.d., https://www.c40.org/steering_committees.
C40. “The Power of C40 Cities.” C40 Cities, n.d., https://www.c40.org/cities.
C40. “What we do for Cities.” C40 Cities, n.d., https://www.c40.org/what_we_do_for_cities.
DTE. “Mangroves destruction violates fundamental rights of citizens: Bombay HC.”
DownToEarth, September 19, 2018.
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/mangroves-destruction-violates-
fundamental-rights-of-citizens-bombay-hc-61674.
Forrester, Terrence, “Special Conditions for Non Reimbursable Technical Cooperation
Agreements.” Inter-American Development Bank, n.d.,
CAHSMUN 2022 23 C40 BACKGROUNDER BYou can also read
