Avenging the Anthropocene - Green philosophy of heroes and villains in the motion picture tetralogy The Avengers and its applicability in the ...

Master’s Thesis

Avenging the Anthropocene
Green philosophy of heroes and villains in the
motion picture tetralogy The Avengers and its
applicability in the Swedish EFL-classroom

Author: Jens Vang
    Supervisor: Anne Holm
    Examiner: Anna Thyberg
    Date: Spring 2019
    Subject: English
    Level: Advanced
    Course code: 4ENÄ2E

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Abstract
This essay investigates the ecological values present in antagonists and protagonists in

the narrative revolving the Avengers of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The analysis

concludes that biocentric ideals primarily are embodied by the main antagonist of the film

series, whereas the protagonists mainly represent anthropocentric perspectives. Since

there is a continuum between these two ideals some variations were found within the

characters themselves, but philosophical conflicts related to the environment were also

found within the group of the Avengers. Excerpts from the films of the study can thus be

used to discuss and highlight complex ecological issues within the EFL-classroom.

Keywords
Ecocriticism, anthropocentrism, biocentrism, ecology, environmentalism, film, EFL,

upper secondary school, Avengers, Marvel Cinematic Universe

Thanks
Throughout my studies at the Linneaus University of Vaxjo I have become acquainted

with an incalculable number of teachers and peers whom I sincerely wish to thank

gratefully. However, there are three individuals especially vital for me finally concluding

my studies: My dear mother; my highly supportive girlfriend, Jenniefer; and my beloved

daughter, Evie.

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Contents
1 Introduction _________________________________________________________1
   1.1 Synopsis of the Avengers-saga _______________________________________ 3
   1.2 Terminology _____________________________________________________ 6

2 Ecocritical theory _____________________________________________________7
  2.1 Biocentrism versus Anthropocentrism _________________________________ 8
  2.2 Malthusianism __________________________________________________ 10
  2.3 Capitalism, Ecology and Utilitarianism _______________________________ 11
  2.4 “The Shallow and the Deep” _______________________________________ 14
  2.5 Relevance of Ecocriticism and Film in School _________________________ 16

3 Methodological considerations _________________________________________18

4 Ecological conflicts and representations in MCU __________________________19
  4.1 Thanos ________________________________________________________ 19
    4.1.1 Biocentrism _________________________________________________ 20
    4.1.2 Næss vs. Singer ______________________________________________ 21
    4.1.3 Malthusian Equilibrium________________________________________ 23
    4.1.4 Biocentrism on a continuum ____________________________________ 25
  4.2 Iron Man _______________________________________________________ 26
    4.2.1 Materialism _________________________________________________ 27
    4.2.2 Anthropocentrism ____________________________________________ 28
  4.3 Other Protagonists _______________________________________________ 29
    4.3.1 Captain America _____________________________________________ 30
    4.3.2 Dr.Strange and Ant-Man _______________________________________ 30
  4.4 The Films ______________________________________________________ 32
    4.4.1 Commercialism ______________________________________________ 33
    4.4.2 Animals ____________________________________________________ 34
  4.5 Applying Avengers and Ecocriticism in the EFL-classroom _______________ 35

5 Conclusion _________________________________________________________39

Works cited __________________________________________________________41

Appendices __________________________________________________________44
  Appendix A: Chronological order of the Marvel Cinematic Universe narrative ___ 44
  Appendix B: Glossary _______________________________________________ 46
  Appendix C: Jonathan Porritt’s taxonomy (in Brereton 26-28) ________________ 47
  Appendix D: Andrew Heywood’s “Tensions Within Green Ideology” (251) _____ 48
  Appendix E: Character alter egos _______________________________________ 49

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1 Introduction
One’s initial and personal definition of the word ‘text’ may perhaps be restricted to

written fictive or non-fictive texts such as novels or the daily newspaper, although the

definition may also incorporate multimodal expressions of culture. With this broad

definition in mind; pick one fictive text which has made an imperative impact on how

you perceive or interact the world around you. One may reckon that everyone has such a

novel, film or poem even if one is not consciously aware of the existence of such a bond

between fiction and individual ideals. Under these circumstances, any text, regardless of

its nature, origin or initial purpose, has a potential influence on how one as an individual

perceives the world around oneself.

       The potential influence on public opinion that is inherent in popular culture has

historically been considered as an important vessel to shape the political arena –

regardless of the ultimate objective of its accelerators. Some films change the world in

progressive directions, such as Jonathan Demme’s Philadelphia. Released in a context in

which public awareness about HIV/AIDS virtually was non-existent and when polls

suggested that a majority of the Americans desired to quarantine infected individuals, the

film changed the public attitudes and awareness towards those afflicted by the virus (AP).

       D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation from 1915 is another well-known example

of a film changing public opinion towards a conservative, and perhaps a more morally

despicable direction. By depicting the Ku Klux Klan as saviours from black soldiers of

the black Union soldiers during the American Civil War, it caused the public support for

the contemporary KKK to increase (Britannica). However, feature length Hollywood

films have also been used to incite environmental awareness. Documentaries as Blackfish

and The Cove made people question the whaling-industry, including popular attractions

such as Sea World (O’Hara); Day After Tomorrow and Geostorm portrayed the

anthropogenic agency of climate-change and The Lorax and Bambi raised awareness

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regarding the sentience of non-human organisms. The latter even created a phenomenon

called “The Bambi Effect”, which is the instant objection one gets when faced with the

idea of killing sentient creatures (Dicks).

       During the 20th century another phenomenon also emerged in the United States –

the superhero comic strip whose protagonists were fighting for a righteous cause due to

the superhero comics’ nature to mostly create a dichotomy between ‘good vs. evil,’ which

is one reason for why they are interesting to analyse ideologically. Therefore, the four

Avengers-films released between 2010-19 are chosen as the primary source for this thesis.

A reason for why these four motion pictures are of particular interest is the fact that all of

them are listed as three of the top ten highest grossing films of all time, which implies

that they have a tremendous potential impact on society, as well as that they are well-

known among students (Box Office). Thus, this material may serve as a great foundation

to address more or less complex philosophical issues related to an area familiar to pupils

in the EFL-classroom.

       Climate issues and environmentalism are undoubtedly important questions for the

upcoming generations. Greta Thunberg, a Swedish lower secondary pupil, incited

organised climate strikes under the hashtag #fridaysforfuture with the purpose to urge

leading politicians to act against climate-change, eventually inspiring other pupils from

over 2,000 schools all around the globe to partake in this strike (Taylor et al.). Partially

in favour of reducing the carbon footprint, more Swedish schools than ever before serve

vegetarian food in the canteens as an alternative to meat. Coursebooks are nowadays

available online, resulting in that trees are spared. Apart from previous curriculums, such

as Lgy70, the contemporary curriculum explicitly mentions that all subjects ought to

incorporate an environmental perspective (Natl. Ag. For Ed. Curriculum 7).

       This thesis is aimed to investigate the relationship between biocentric and

anthropocentric ideas carried by the protagonists and antagonists in the Hollywood

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blockbuster tetralogy The Avengers produced by Kevin Feige, whereof the two first are

directed by Joss Wheddon and the two last are directed by Joe and Anthony Russo. This

thesis argues that the films promote anthropocentrism over biocentrism chiefly through

their main protagonist Iron Man, whereas the ultimate villain, Thanos, represents

biocentric ideals. Furthermore, this thesis discusses the applicability and relevance of

ecocritically framing the Avengers-films in the EFL-classroom.

1.1 Synopsis of the Avengers-saga
Due to the vast video material, it is necessary for this thesis to deliver an outline for the

combined narrative of the four films for readers unfamiliar with the Avengers-saga.

Hence, a synopsis of the tetralogy follows to guide the reader through the story of the

Avengers.

       The Avengers-films is a collection of four superhero films belonging to a vast

sequence of films frequently known as the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The list

of Marvel-films currently seems ever-expanding and to this date contains 22 feature-

length films (Appendix A), with at least nine secretive productions to be released in the

near future. All the films revolve around various superheroes, although all the films add

up to a long and combined narrative. The current films can be divided into three phases,

which all culminate in an Avengers-film (though the third phase ends with two

consecutive Avengers-films) in which the superheroes combine their forces to battle an

enemy threatening Earth by an impending apocalypse. In the first film, the Avengers

consists of six heroes of which Iron Man, Captain America, Thor and the Hulk get most

amount of time onscreen. However, this cohort expands in Avengers: Age of Ultron and

Avengers: Infinity War to finally compose a considerable army of superheroes in

Avengers: Endgame the main protagonists virtually remain the same.

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       Joss Wheddon’s The Avengers from 2012 initially expositions a spokesperson for

the true alien villain of the MCU-narrative, Thanos, negotiating with Loki regarding

letting him command his army called the Chitauri to conquer Earth in the exchange of a

powerful cubic object known as the Tesseract – an object containing the Power Stone,

which is one of six Infinity Stones that Thanos seeks in order to indiscriminately murder

half of the creatures of the universe in his goal to achieve a sustainable universe. The

Tesseract is located on Earth and S.H.I.E.L.D. (the Americentric “Homeland Security” of

Earth in the MCU) is conducting research on it to unlock its potential power when Loki

steals it. As counter-measure the head of S.H.I.E.L.D., Nick Fury, assembles the

Avengers to contain the emerged issue. The rising action leads up to the crisis in which

Loki uses the Tesseract to open up a portal to Earth for the Chitauri to enter Earth’s

atmosphere. However, Iron Man manages to direct a nuclear missile into the portal

annihilating the Chitauri forces whilst another Avenger, Black Widow, simultaneously

succeeds in closing the portal. The demigod Loki is brought back to Asgard by his brother

Thor to be tried for his crimes and Loki’s mighty sceptre is taken by a Nazi-rooted

organisation called Hydra.

       Avengers: Age of Ultron by Joss Wheddon revolves around another antagonist –

Ultron, an artificial intelligence programme (AI) created by Tony Stark (Iron Man) whose

mission is to establish world peace. A technology which Stark has attained after a raid on

the Hydra headquarters located in Sokovia (a fictional landlocked nation in Central South-

Eastern Europe). However, Ultron is capable of his own thoughts while simultaneously

having access to all the information on the internet, which makes him draw the conclusion

that the Avengers, and Tony Stark in particular, is responsible for the global war effort

due to his arms business – Stark Industries. Ultron then uses his ability to navigate through

the internet to employ any device with an internet connection to dissemble the Avengers

and possesses a powerful robotic body, then he retreats to Sokovia. However, Tony Stark

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uses Loki’s sceptre which contains a powerful gem (later to be known as the Mind Stone)

to create a similar but less homicidal AI and places it within a synthetic body – thus,

creating the ally Vision. The eventual crisis of the film displays Ultron who uses a

substance called “vibranium” which he has bought on the black market to lift the

Sokovian city of Novi Grad skyward to then intend to send the massive piece of land

plummeting towards Earth, creating an artificial asteroid collision with Earth.

Nevertheless, the Avengers stops his scheme and evacuates all the citizens with the help

pf S.H.I.E.L.D. But the film concludes with a twist; in the final scene of the dénouement

Thanos, again, is presented as the instigator of the attempt to annihilate Earth.

       The narration of the Russo-brother’s Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers:

Endgame can be regarded as two episodes of the same storyline since they are currently

the only Avengers-films chronologically overlapping each other in the MCU-saga.

Avengers: Infinity War chronologically begins directly after the film Thor: Ragnarök

when Asgard is destroyed, thus sending the Asgardians searching for a new home planet.

However, their evacuation vessel is boarded by Thanos who kills half of the Asgardians

and takes the Tesseract which contains the Power Stone. He places the stone in his Infinity

Gauntlet to channel its inherent powers – making him mightier than before. The plot then

revolves around Thanos locating and acquiring the rest of the Infinity Stones spread

across the universe while the Avengers unsuccessfully attempt to stop him in two major

battles on Thanos’ home planet Titan and in the fictional Central African nation Wakanda.

When Thanos finally has gathered all the Infinity Stones he reduces the amount of all

living organisms to half.

       Avengers: Endgame then resumes the story by depicting Hawkeye’s family

disappearing in an instant. To avenge humanity, the Avengers locate Thanos living in a

cottage on a planet hoping to obtain the Infinity Stones and reverse the course of history

to bring everyone back. However, Thanos has foreseen this and has therefore used the

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Infinity Stones to destroy themselves. The Avengers then proceed to kill Thanos in his

hut whereupon they return to Earth. Five years later civilisation is left in ruins, but by

chance Ant-Man man is brought back from the quantum dimension (a place beyond

subatomic level where time appears to flow chaotically, in which he got trapped in Ant-

Man and the Wasp as a consequence of that his partner, the Wasp, was planning to retrieve

him from there although she died in Thanos’ scheme before managing to do so). With the

knowledge to arrange organised time-travels developed by Tony Stark as well as the

technology to realise them created by the late Hank Pym, the guru of Ant-Man, the

Avengers decide to utilise this opportunity. With the ability to jump through time and

space the Avengers manage to obtain all Infinity Stones before Thanos attained them

which they use to resurrect all living creatures whereupon the film reaches its crisis and

Thanos attacks their headquarters. After a final battle between the risen Avengers and

Thanos accompanied by his Chitauri army, Iron Man finally sacrifices himself by using

the Infinity Stones to annihilate Thanos and his devotees – an action which ultimately

kills him.

1.2 Terminology
Since the chief concepts of this thesis are biocentrism and anthropocentrism it is vital to

explain these concepts early on. Biocentrism is an ideal which recognises humans as a

mere part of a biotic web of organisms that is more important than human interests (Buell

The Future 134), whereas anthropocentrism is a system of belief which places humankind

as the most important entity in the centre of existence (Garrard 206). Other, more or less

central concepts are defined in Appendix B.

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2 Ecocritical theory
Previous definitions of what encompasses ecocriticism have revolved around nature

writing and romantic poetry (Buell Environmental 6-8). A voice redefining the

boundaries of these previous conceptions of ecocriticism is Richard Kerridge, who argues

that:

        The ecocritic wants to track environmental ideas and representations wherever

        they appear, to see more clearly a debate which seems to be taking place, often

        part-concealed, in a great many cultural spaces. Most of all, ecocriticism seeks to

        evaluate texts and ideas in terms of their coherence and usefulness as response to

        environmental crisis. (5)

Kerridge’s definition thus expands the variety of texts on which ecocriticism is

applicable. This new definition is essential for this thesis since it explores different

perspectives on mankind’s implied position in nature in contemporary Hollywood

blockbuster films.

        Since the tetralogy revolves around the so-called Earth’s Mightiest Heroes one

can assume that Earth is in danger by an impending anthropogenically-induced

apocalypse, without any background knowledge of the actual plot. Therefore, it is

essential to distinguish whether the antagonists’ apocalyptic motives are cultural or

ecological since Greg Garrard claims that secular eschatological narratives and

apocalyptic rhetoric can be divided into two major foci – the end of human culture, and

the end of the environment (97-98). Whereof the former is arguably representing a fear

based on the ideas of anthropocentrism and the latter biocentrism. This is especially

essential since the main antagonist, Thanos, can be interpreted as a eulogy to the Greek

myth of the personification of death – Thanatos (Britannica). Furthermore, previous

occurrences of Thanos in Marvel Comics have in 1977 depicted him as a diabolical

supervillain who eradicates his own kin using nuclear weapons in order to show his

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affection to Death (Starlin). Therefore, one can assume that the contemporary issues such

as the nuclear arms race between NATO and the Warsaw Pact imprinted Thanos’ motives

and actions in 1977. Hence, one can assume that Thanos’ means and measures are

affected by the contemporary discourse of the production.

2.1 Biocentrism versus Anthropocentrism
Garrard defines anthropocentrism as a system of beliefs that deems humans to have a

higher value than other organisms (206). This idea therefore requires a hierarchy of

organisms defining each organism’s value, based on the species’ instrumental value to

mankind – which Garrard points out most frequently is defined by economic interests

(207). Similarly, Pat Brereton, lecturer at the Dublin City University describes

anthropocentrism as the belief that nature is a resource contributing to human value, and

he dichotomises it with what he refers to as “inherentism” – which most other scholars

discuss as eco- or biocentrism (30). The anthropocentric perspective is dominated by

traditional political ideologies whose limitations of nature are restricted to the idea of it

as merely economic resources. The practiced lecturer in politics, Andrew Heywood

argues that the anthropocentric relation to scientism has treated nature as a machine,

implying that “it can be tinkered with, repaired, improved on or even replaced” (251).

This implies that anthropocentrism generally considers climate issues to be managerial

and that humankind is favoured to utilise the nature according to its own desires.

       The prominent ecocritical theorist and Professor Emeritus in American Literature

at Harvard University, Lawrence Buell, argues that anthropocentrism and ecocentrism are

two binary stances discussing environmental issues. He states that the two concepts are

not absolute and that there are many intermediate positions along the continuum between

them. Buell describes the difference between the two ethical models as health of the

physical environment versus interhuman equity and social welfare as primary concern

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(The Future 97-98). In addition, Garrard argues that any given individual applies both

anthropocentric and biocentric ideas depending on the context of the issue (25).

       The Dutch PhD in political science and philosophy, Marcel Wissenburg, describes

the relationship between metaphysical ethics of anthropocentrism and biocentrism as

rather complex, and he distinguishes light and dark ecology by stating that dark ecology

promotes fundamental societal change of mentality, whereas light ecology reckons that

the current societal system is sufficient and that only minor individual alterations in

lifestyle are necessary to change negative environmental trends. He claims that a radical

position at the metaphysical level does not necessarily imply more moderate positions

further down the abstraction levels, although biocentrism seems to promote dark- and

deep ecology to a higher extent than anthropocentrism and vice versa (4). Wissenburg

argues that biocentric ethics does not necessarily imply a deep ecological approach in the

“real world” (4-5). However, Arne Næss, one of the most prominent names in the fields

of intrinsic value theory and ecocriticism was a Norwegian professor in eco-philosophy.

Often perceived as the founding father of deep ecology, Næss, states that anthropocentric

deep ecology would be nothing but hypocritical (95).

       Heywood, states that the cornerstone for all forms of green thought is ecology. He

defines ecology as a growing recognition that living organisms are sustained by self-

regulating ecosystems in which both living and non-living elements subsist. The ultimate

objective is homeostasis – a balance between the organismal entities living within the

complex web of ecosystems. In this endeavour for homeostasis, anthropocentrism

conflicts with the ecological strife towards delicately balancing nature due to the

existence of human societies with exponential population growth, pollution and depletion

of finite resources endangering the very existence of homeostatic ecosystems and

biodiversity (Heywood 248-49).

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       This dichotomy between biocentrism and anthropocentrism will be used in order

to illustrate the relationship between characters and their perception of mankind’s role in

nature. More explicitly, if humans are argued to be in centre of existence, if they are

considered to have a higher intrinsic value than the rest of nature and if speciesism is

promoted through expressing a species’ instrumental value to humans, they ultimately

also promote anthropocentrism.

2.2 Malthusianism
The Anglican parson, Thomas Robert Malthus, is one of the most prominent names

regarding the concern for demographic development from an ecological perspective

(Garrard 102-03). In Malthus’ Principle of Population he argues that there is a conflict

between the human population and the production of the Earth, and that this balance is

necessary for humanity as a whole. He builds his reasoning on two postulates; that human

needs nourishment to survive, and that human desire to reproduce remains unchanged. If

there are no obstacles to these postulates the population will increase geometrically while

the comestible assets increase arithmetically, which then lead to issues regarding human

livelihood (4-6, 9). Malthus also states that a discrepancy between the means of

subsistence and population ultimately and naturally results in famine and misery as well

as the power to control the population is unobtainable without also “producing misery or

vice” (10-13).

       Malthus argues that a future environmental crisis is inevitable due to an

exponentially increasing world population causing decreasing and insufficient finite

resources or epidemics (74-75). Other deep ecologists have taken a radical approach by

advocating a controlled reduction of world population in favour of sustainability. Within

this field one can locate extreme deep ecologists, such as Pentti Linkola, who promotes

totalitarianism and genocides in favour of environmental sustainability and biodiversity.

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To Dana Milbank of the Wall Street Journal Linkola declared that "If there were a button

I could press, I would sacrifice myself without hesitating, if it meant millions of people

would die"(1). In contrast to many other deep ecologists Linkola is not an academic, but

nevertheless, his ideas have made a serious impact on the environmental debate in

Finland.

       This is perhaps also why the major contributor to the ecocritical perspective within

literature studies, Garrard, illuminates deep ecology as one of the most radical and

misanthropic forms of green philosophy – mainly due to the field’s ambition to seek a

reduction in world population to achieve environmental sustainability (23-25).

2.3 Capitalism, Ecology and Utilitarianism
A question worth asking is whether consumerism ever can be implemented within the

expression of environmentalism? Garrard denies that there is a genuine relationship

between consumerism and ecologism as he, among other ecocritical scholars, label the

advocators of this perspective the somewhat pejorative term ‘cornucopian’ in order to

elucidate this ingenuine bond by relating them to the Greek myth of a utopian horn

containing unlimited resources (18-21). The advocators of this perspective often argue

that issues such as the climate-change is exaggerated and illusory by vocalising

scepticism towards anthropogenically expediated global warming (18-20). Brereton uses

the terms light and dark ecology to define the differences between the cornucopian

economists and deep ecologists. To illustrate this dichotomy, he uses Jonathan Porritt’s

taxonomy regarding ecological thinking in which he contrasts the politics of industrialism

and ecology (Appendix C). Nevertheless, Porritt’s taxonomy involves concepts such as

“rationality” versus “intuition” whereof the former is regarded as an industrial value and

the latter an ecological value, and this is of course not axiomatically true and applicable

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on all given contexts since for example “intuition” does not necessarily account for

ecologism.

       The chief reason for not applying the otherwise highly relevant dichotomy of

“environmentalism” versus “ecologism” is that Garrard argues that environmentalism and

the cornucopian economists’ position are two separate perspectives of which the former

denies anthropogenically expediated climate-change, whereas the latter is a broad

spectrum of people concerned with climate issues but who does not promote radical social

change in favour of the climate (18-23). Therefore, the other dichotomies most

distinctively related to the environment will be used in order in the present study to

classify the characters as how much they care for environmental issues (Appendix C).

This taxonomy will be compared with characters’ ambitions and actions in order to

classify their relationship towards the environment and place them into the categories:

cornucopian economists or deep ecologists.

       An imperative aspect to consider is - how could something that is driven by profit,

such as the world’s highest grossing film franchise, denounce consumerism without being

considered hypocritical? Wissenburg believes that ideas, such as capitalism and

socialism, sprung out previously non-green movements and born in times when the

environment was out of fashion, can only be considered at most environmentalist, and

thus they inherit little actual interest for the environment compared with a deep ecologist’s

perspective (4-5). However, Wissenburg presents no other alternative than the deep

ecological approach if one genuinely favours the environment. And one may assume that

if a fundamental societal change of mentality is aimed for, the contemporary system is a

suitable vessel to transfer an idea to the masses. Otherwise, any deep ecological

organisation with a Facebook page would not be considered anything more than

environmentalist as well – which would stir up some emotions among members of

Greenpeace. Nevertheless, Garrard considers Greenpeace as a successful organisation

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balancing between the philosophies of deep ecology and environmentalism by retaining

their radical activist approach while encouraging green consumerism and recycling (23).

However, there are certain aspects which may seem hypocritical to a blockbuster film

such as James Cameron’s Avatar – although it criticises and actualises environmental

issues such as depleting natural resources, it still sparked a multibillion commercial

industry in its wake.

       The Capitalist struggle for perpetual growth and stimulating demand will perhaps

always lie in the background for any major motion picture produced by billion-dollar film

industries. But that is not the sole problem regarding environmental issues in Hollywood

blockbuster cinema: Niklas Salmose, doctor and lecturer in English literature at Linneaus

University has written several articles regarding ecocriticism in film. In his “Behemoth,

Nostalgia and Ecological Agency” he asserts that the generic narrative of Hollywood

motion pictures and their strive to conservatively restore everything to normal often

compromises ecological agency in cli-fi films such as The Day After Tomorrow (239).

       Combined with Heywood’s verdict that industrialism is often perceived as an

issue among green theorists who regard it as the single most imperative aspect enabling

the anthropogenic exploitation of nature, perhaps makes deep ecological blockbusters an

oxymoron? Industrialism according to Heywood is, per se, dedicated to “materialism,

utilitarian values, absolute faith in science and a worship of technology,” which makes

the industrial ideal in contrast to ecologism highly relevant to juxtapose with the

utilitarian character Iron Man (254-55).

       However, utilitarianism has also been implemented in environmental ethics by

well-known authors such as Peter Singer who points out that animals are sentient, and

therefore they desire to evade inflictions of pain. Due to these circumstances Singer also

condemns the fact that animals are defined by their instrumental value to humans since it

evokes speciesism (185-187). Hence, his environmental ethics regarding the value of

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animals is also shared with deep ecologists (Heywood 251). According to Heywood, the

difference between the deep ecological ethics promoted by Næss and the animal rights

ethics of Singer is that the deep ecological ethics also includes non-sentient beings such

as trees, grass and the ecosystems in which organismal entities reside (257).

         Eco-conservatives draw from the nostalgic attachment to rural life and espouse

green capitalism by adopting environmental ideas and applying them to the market

mechanism. Hence, the eco-conservatives rely on climate-change to be a management

issue for humans to control, which conflicts with the ecological perspective that

anthropocentrism is “an offence against the principles of ecology” (Heywood 261, 268).

Thus, environmental ideas reside within the anthropocentric perspective, although the

genuineness of this concern is contested by biocentric intercessors.

2.4 “The Shallow and the Deep”
Næss provides an excellent distinction between deep ecology and environmentalism in

his article; “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement.”

Environmentalism, or shallow ecology according to Næss, is an anthropocentric

ecological movement which primarily focuses on “the health and affluence of people the

developed countries” (95). Garrard describes shallow ecology as a philosophy calling for

preservation of natural resources in favour of social welfare and interhuman equity, and

that the distinction between the two philosophies resides in whether or not to apply

intrinsic value theory (24). The idea of intrinsic value revolves around the datum that all

life possesses an equal value in its own, regardless of its instrumental value to humans

(207).

         The Dutch professor in humanistic and environmental philosophy, Wouter

Achterberg, differentiates the somewhat interchangeable ideas of ecologism and

environmentalism. Ecologism belongs in the biocentric perspective, whereas

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environmentalism      resides     within     anthropocentrism.     Achterberg      defines

environmentalism as the superficial belief that environmental issues are solely

management problems, calling for a continuum of lifestyles (84-85). However, apart from

the cornucopian economists’ position, environmentalists acknowledge the anthropogenic

climate-change and try to make eco-friendly choices throughout life as long as the

consequences of their choices do not affect their living standards significantly (Garrard

21-23). Heywood makes a distinction between shallow- and deep ecology and reckons

that shallow ecologists use the ecological ideas for human necessities through embracing

values such as sustainability and conservation, whereas deep ecologists seek to maintain

nature by focusing on biodiversity, bio-egalitarianism and decentralisation (249). Hence,

shallow ecology and environmentalism consist of anthropocentric values while deep

ecology is associated with bio- and ecocentrism. This concept of deep ecology has also

been mentioned in the pejorative term of “ecofascism” due to its prioritised concern of

functioning ecosystems over human poverty and disease (Buell The Future 137-38).

       Timothy Clark claims there is a major dispute between the ethics of Næss and

Singer, which mainly revolves around how they perceive invasive species (180-81).

While Singer calls for liberty, equality and fraternity for all animals, including invasive

species (185-87), Næss may be perceived as the warden of the ecosystem due to his major

concern lies within a functioning ecosystem (96). The difference can be illustrated with

Clark’s example of when humans have attempted to restore ecosystems to equilibrium,

such as invasive feral goats on the Galápagos being slaughtered on an industrial scale to

prevent them from harming the ecosystem and its domestic species (179-81). Hence, the

idea of biodiversity can contradict the idea of bio-egalitarianism since the biodiverse

perspective may be inhibited by each individual’s right to live and vice versa. Even

though the idea of fully functioning ecosystems might seem appealing, the deep

ecological ideas of biodiversity pave way for ecofascist and even racist agendas when the

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lesser value of “invasive species” is applied on humanity itself (Clark 59, 181).

Nevertheless, Heywood asserts that a radical form of Singer’s bio-egalitarianism may

also result in mass-slaughter since it is only applicable on sentient organisms, which

according to him leaves out for example disabled people unable of sentience (257).

2.5 Relevance of Ecocriticism and Film in School

One of the benefits of using film in the classroom, instead of audio alone, is that the

students get to perceive paralinguistic behaviour and that the video communication also

includes cross-cultural clues which help the students to comprehend the narrative

(Harmer 343).

       Bo Lundahl claims that reading images requires the same logic as reading literary

texts and that in order to comprehend an image one has to thoroughly examine it and he

emphasises the ability to read the images critically (456). Lundahl additionally states that

when engaging with images one can do so by analysing images and motion pictures

focusing on four different aspects: Either for example by examining perspectives, choice

of motives; by placing the image in its social, historical and/or cultural background;

relating the images to own experiences; or studying the images through a critical lens to

deepen one’s knowledge regarding them (458).

       Lundahl also asserts that youths acquire more culture from motion pictures than

from magazines or books (465). However, apart from the students’ presumed high ability

to engage with film, this could also develop into a disadvantage since they might associate

the activity with relaxation (Harmer 344). Hence, it is imperative to begin the teaching

sequence by giving the students an assignment related to the video material to actively

engage them with the films. Yet another advantage of using film is that it is an excellent

medium due to it is a relatively economical choice in comparison with buying novels for

an entire class (Lundahl 465). One suggestion appropriate for this thesis is to examine

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characterisation whilst focusing on the role of protagonists and antagonists and/or

representation of ideas (469-71). However, since the combined length video material of

this study exceeds ten hours it is unthinkable to use the full length of the films in the

classroom since merely watching the films would consume a tenth of the entire time frame

of an upper secondary English course (Natl. Ag. f. Ed. Curriculum 5-8). Therefore, it is

either preferable to use a selection of scenes for the students to analyse (Lundahl 465), or

to let the students consume the material outside effective lesson time.

       The Swedish curriculum also urges the schools to incorporate the environmental

perspective in teaching to help the student better understand and counter anthropogenic

agency as well as develop a personal approach to global environmental issues (Natl. Ag.

f. Ed. Curriculum 6). A failure to include ecological thinking and literacy in the classroom

already from the start creates students unaware of their agency on issues such as global

warming and pollution, which is comparable with “trying to balance a checkbook without

knowing arithmetic” according to the distinguished Professor of Environmental Studies

and Politics, David W. Orr (85-86). However, in order to highlight complex multifaceted

environmental issues within the classroom Orr suggests that the teaching ought to be

interdisciplinary in order for it to be fruitful (90). Surely, having the students analyse the

environmental issues addressed in the Avengers-series can constitute one part of an

interdisciplinary teaching sequence, but it can also be complemented with demographical

issues presented in History- or Geography classes, through discussing the advantages and

disadvantages of different energy sources in Physics or by addressing the issues of

anthropogenic agency of global warming in Biology. This premise is also underlined in

the curriculum which obliges all teachers to let their students study interdisciplinary (Natl.

Ag. f. Ed. Curriculum 10). Hence, it is highly favourable to conduct interdisciplinary

teaching sequences regarding ecocriticism. Nevertheless, the interdisciplinary complexity

of ecocriticism is not the sole issue when applying ecocriticism in the classroom.

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According to Sieglinde Grimm and Berbeli Wanning ecocriticism is often perceived to

be sprung from left-wing ideas, which can polarise the classroom dialogue and sacrifice

teacher neutrality (514-515).

       However, the syllabus for English 7 states the following on “content of

communication” which arguably legitimise discussing the more complex issues entailing

ecocritical theory:

   •       Theoretical and complex subject areas, also of a more scientific nature, related

           to students' education, chosen specialisation area, societal issues and working

           life; thoughts, opinions, ideas, experiences and feelings; cultural expressions

           in modern times and historically, such as literary periods.

   •       Societal issues, cultural, historical, political and social conditions, and also

           ethical and existential issues in different contexts and parts of the world where

           English is used. (Natl. Ag. For Ed. English 11)

This opens up for deep philosophical ideas to be shared, discussed and contested within

the classroom, even those of political character.

3 Methodological considerations
The method for acquiring the data supporting the thesis is qualitative since the foundation

of the study is a close-reading of The Avengers, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Avengers:

Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame. The films are then analysed through an audio-

visual text analysis primarily focusing on the ideas and actions of the protagonists and

antagonists. These sifted ideas and actions are the ones interpreted to wholly or partially

concern environmental issues.

       For the thesis to be operational the focus will be directed towards the protagonists

and the antagonists of each film since heroes and villains serve as excellent tools in order

to channel ideas. If other, more neutral characters, were used as foundation for analysis it

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would be more difficult to argue for any underlying environmental inclination of the

films. Also, the average viewer or pupil tends to focus on the relationship between the

main characters simply by the natural fact that they receive the longest screen time,

making it more interesting to focus on them for this study. Therefore, the relationship

between protagonists and antagonists is seen to create a dichotomy in which it is easier

to justify that the films are inclined to feature a certain message.

       The only yet legal method for acquiring Avengers: Endgame is to analyse it at the

cinema. The implications of this are that the film cannot be paused and reflected on, no

electronic devices are allowed which means that when taking notes, a functioning system

for this is required. Therefore, a notebook and a white shirt is brought to better reflect the

light of the screen onto the notebook in the otherwise dark cinema. To arrange time

references an analogue watch is used, which implies that the time references for

Avengers: Endgame are approximate, give or take thirty seconds.

4 Ecological conflicts and representations in MCU
This analysis aims to distinguish biocentric and anthropocentric ideas primarily

represented by the main antagonist Thanos, and the main protagonist Iron Man.

Succeeding these analyses three brief investigations revolving other protagonists such as

Captain America, Ant-Man and Dr.Strange follow. The fourth section then targets a broad

discussion regarding the Avengers-series as a whole.

4.1 Thanos
The initial section regarding Thanos is divided into four subsections: The first subsection

contrasts Thanos and his biocentric incentives; the second revolves around the inner

conflicts within his biocentric ideal; the third focuses on the Malthusian ideas behind

Thanos’ plan regarding controlled reduction of humankind; and the final subsection

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discusses some of the inconsistencies in Thanos’ rationale throughout the Avengers-

series.

4.1.1 Biocentrism
After Thanos has achieved his ultimate aim he retires to his home planet where the flora

now is flourishing, he withdraws to cultivate the earth while living in a pastoral chalet.

His utopia can also be compared with the ecological ideal of the garden of Eden (Endgame

00:13:00)

          Given that Porritt argues that the “politics of ecology” advocates discrimination

of technology, local production, self-reliance, production for use and harmony with nature

one can draw the conclusion that Thanos’ motives were indeed ecological from the start

(Appendix C), since this garden of Eden and revitalising his dead home planet seems to

be the ultimate target of his ambition. Combined with Wissenburg’s heuristic device for

defining green thought, this philosophical perspective can be argued to promote dark

ecology (4), which also would imply that Thanos’ ideas derive from a biocentric

perception of the world.

          Nevertheless, the Avengers localise Thanos and capture him in the belief that all

Infinity Stones are intact and that the cataclysm is reversible. When they hesitantly

question why he destroyed the stones he states that the stones were only a tool for

achieving sustainability and that “beyond that it [the omnipotent power] was only

temptation” (Endgame 00:16:00). Considering the fact that he in Avengers: Infinity War

sacrifices his own daughter to achieve his ultimate goal of a sustainable world, these

aspects constitute an idealistic antagonist rather than a homicidal and irrational

megalomaniac.

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4.1.2 Næss vs. Singer
Avengers: Endgame proceeds the narrative of Avengers: Infinity War and begins with the

cataclysmic event occasioned by Thanos. The initial scene portrays Clint Barton, also

known as the hero Hawkeye, and how he sees his family vanishing in an instant after

Thanos has reduced all living organisms in the universe to half. Except for delivering the

audience an indication regarding the synopsis, this scene also presents the personal,

immediate and tragic loss that an abrupt and unbiased reduction of the population will

lead to. This indiscriminate selection speaks for Thanos advocating biospherical

egalitarianism since he is omnipotent after acquiring all Infinity Stones, yet he decides to

let chance select whose life to end – regardless of the fact that he has a powerful

opposition which he potentially could eliminate. This coincides with Næss’ definition of

the concept; that all life has an equal and intrinsic value (96). Therefore, Thanos chooses

not to interfere with chance, due to that he subsequently would have to rank life based on

the instrumental value to him – which according to Garrard would imply an application

of anthropocentric ethics (206-207).

        Although Thanos arguably advocates biocentrism due to his idea that a controlled

decrease of population is necessary to combat climate-issues derives from the deep

ecological idea which was initially addressed by Malthus and later adopted ecological

extremists such as Linkola, there are some inherent conflicts in his biocentric ethics.

        Thanos does not favour bio-egalitarianism in terms of Peter Singer’s definition

since when he applies his idea of “life” on the biosphere he refers merely to sentient

creatures (Singer 185). As far as the biodiverse aspect of biocentrism is concerned, he

does not prioritise any life over the other since the selection of lives to perish are “random,

dispassionate and fair to rich and poor alike” (Infinity War 01:47:00). This selection

contradicts the idea of biodiversity due to Næss’ statement regarding anthropogenic

modifications, such as domesticated animals or invasive species (96). Although, in

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Avengers: Endgame he inconsequentially changes his mind due to the resistance of

terrestrial survivors by claiming that life remembering what was once lost can impossibly

be grateful for its existence and therefore needs to be eradicated in order for new life to

flourish (02:08:00).

       However, there is a green value in the depiction of Thanos’ absence of bias.

Suppose that Thanos applied Næss’ idea of biodiversity, although extended it to

incorporate humans. That would make him an archetype of the malevolent villain by

following ethics promoted by history’s most disreputable instigators of genocide. Hence,

his ecological agenda would be deemed unrelatable to the viewers and the films would

thus be considered anti-environmentalist. It is in this idealistically static, yet morally

ambiguous characterisation of Thanos that he becomes a potentially compelling idealist,

instead of a genuinely abhorrent fiend.

       However, Thanos’ lack of concern of the idea of biodiversity also makes him seem

misinformed or deceptive since his aim is a cosmic ecological equilibrium. Any rational

and well-read being comprehends that certain creatures are more important for a

sustainable ecosystem than others which is expressed by Næss (96-97), and by

unprejudicially reducing all life to half implies that there already would be a balance

between creatures in the ecosystems. Furthermore, if Thanos’ major concern is the flora,

he must acknowledge the fact that pollinators are essential for the procreation of seed

plants which also makes his unbiased rationalisation illogic. A possible explanation for

this is that Thanos symbolises the inconsistencies and tensions present in the ecological

movement that revolve around whether to prioritise the health of the ecosystems or each

creature’s right to its own life (Clark 180-81).

       In the midpoint of Avengers: Endgame, the Avengers manage to restore time and

space to before the outcome of Thanos’ plans, through the discovery of time travels.

Instantly after the restoration Ant-Man looks outside a window and sees sparrows in a

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tree chirping in harmony. He perceives them in solitude whilst gently touching the glass,

but the tranquillity is abruptly ruined by Thanos’ missiles devastating the Avengers’

headquarters and the area around it.

       When scrutinising Thanos’ actions in this short scene, he is for the first time in

the storyline portrayed ideologically irrational and purely evil since the scene implies that

he has detachedly eliminated fifty percent of all domesticised cattle as well half of all

nearly extinct species (Endgame 00:10:00). This contradicts the biocentric strive for

biodiversity which according to Buell is a central aspect of biocentrism (The Future 135),

and Næss’ claim that pursuit for retaining biodiversity is fundamental to the deep

ecological approach (96).

4.1.3 Malthusian Equilibrium
In the same manner Malthus endorses balance between Earth’s production and its

population, Thanos claims that this equilibrium is displaced and needs alteration (74-75).

In a dialogue with Gamora he proclaims that the surviving part of the population on her

home planet Zan-Whoberi has thrived after Thanos’ massacre by assuring her that the

babies contemporarily born there “know nothing but full bellies and clear skies.” After

Gamora then distances herself from the idea of mass-murder by questioning Thanos’

aberrant procedures, he attempts to rationalise the murdering by comparing it to simple

calculus and geography. Thanos then proceeds to affirm that: “This universe is finite, its

resources finite. If life is left unchecked, life will cease to exist. It needs correction”

(Infinity War 01:06:45). In this scene Thanos demonstrates a concern for depletion of

natural resources as well as assures Gamora that his solution has been proven to be

successful.

       Another scene that addresses Thanos’ necessity of balance is when Gamora recalls

the invasion of her home and when her mother was taken from her by Thanos’ Chitauri

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forces. In this scene Thanos notices a young Gamora devastated by the immense trauma

she goes through and tries to divert her attention from the slaughter by taking her away

from the turmoil. Thereafter he gives Gamora a double-edged bejewelled knife as he tells

her that it is “Perfectly balanced, as all things should be. Too much to one side or the

other. . . [the knife falls from his hand]” (Infinity War 00:43:50). Even though this scene

does not explicitly refer to Thanos’ concern for the environment one can draw such a

conclusion based on his previous statements regarding sustainable balance between the

population and the planet’s production.

       Ebony Maw, the right hand of Thanos, also asserts his superior’s motives in

several scenes when Thanos and the Chitauri forces invade a planet. The first scene in

which Ebony Maw is introduced is in the exposition of Avengers: Infinity War when he

claims pre-eminence over the Asgardian vessel they have boarded by implying that their

lives contribute to a greater cause – to tip the universal scale towards balance (00:01:25).

When Thanos’ forces later invade Earth to locate two of the Infinity Stones, Ebony Maw

yet again declares his perceived superiority and his motives by blazoning: “Hear me and

rejoice. You are about to die at the hands of the Children of Thanos. Be thankful that your

meaningless lives are now contributing to the balance. . . [interrupted by Iron Man].”

(Infinity War 00:19:33). However, not only the contemporary and former accomplices of

Thanos seem to acknowledge his incentives but also Bruce Banner who in explaining

who Thanos is to Tony Stark asserts that Thanos’ goal is to reduce fifty percent of the

human population and assures him that Thanos was the mastermind behind the Chitauri

attack on New York led by Loki (Infinity War 00:14:10).

       In relation to Buell’s description of the relationship between biocentrism and

anthropocentrism, Thanos shows little concern for interhuman equity and social welfare,

instead he focuses on the health of the physical environment since his actions clearly

affect the health of the wilderness in a positive manner, whereas human welfare contrarily

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is affected in a negative way (The Future 98). However, the historical example of the

Black Death affected the social welfare of its survivors positively since they inherited the

assets left by its victims, but a similar aspect is not addressed in Avengers: Endgame;

instead the Earth is left in ruins and despair which is shown by empty rusting cars standing

in the middle of the streets five years after the reduction of mankind. These empty rusty

cars thus become a symbol for nature inevitably conquering culture.

       Inevitability is also an interesting aspect of Thanos in the MCU-saga. Right before

Thanos clenches his fist to snap his fingers and reduce the population of the universe to

half in both Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame, he states that: “I [Thanos]

am inevitable” (Endgame 02:30:00). This statement can be perceived as he either is

alluding to the Greek myth of Thanatos by implying that death is inevitable, or he refers

to himself as the carrier of biocentric ideals implying that nature will in time always

prevail over culture. An interesting aspect of the utterance of this one-liner in Avengers:

Endgame is that during this moment Iron Man has seized the Infinity Stones whereupon

he responds: “And I [momentary pause] am [momentary pause] Iron Man,” then he

eradicates Thanos and his Chitauri army by harnessing the power of the Infinity Stones.

Hence, he symbolically conquers the inevitability of nature’s impending triumph over

humanity.

4.1.4 Biocentrism on a continuum
There are some inconsistencies in Thanos’ motives throughout the film series. In The

Avengers, Thanos’ ambition is to acquire the Tesseract which in Avengers: Infinity War

becomes known to contain the Power Stone. However, at this point Loki’s sceptre is

unknowingly embodying the Mind Stone which makes one question why Thanos did not

deprive Loki of the sceptre already from the start and invade Earth himself to attain the

Power Stone. Furthermore, this is not the only scene which diverts Thanos from the

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ecological motive. In last scene of Avengers: Age of Ultron Thanos appears and claims

that he has to exterminate the humans himself after Ultron’s failure in Sokovia. In this

scene it appears as if Thanos’ aim is to eradicate life on Earth. The origin of these

inconsistencies is presumably rooted in the fact that the two first films and the two last

films have different directors and screenwriters with possibly divergent visions.

Furthermore, the actualisation of melting polar ice caps, the declining biomass of

undomesticated animals, plastic pollution in the oceans and the American climate-change

debate might have had an impact in the creation of a contemporary Thanos. Since the

previous appearances of him in Marvel Comics have revolved around him using nuclear

weapons to mass-murder his own kin in Avengers Annual 7 from 1977 (Starlin), one can

conclude that his motives then were a contemporary creation due to the nuclear arms race

between NATO and the Warsaw Pact and the public fear of Mutually Assured Destruction

(MAD).

4.2 Iron Man
The second section concerning Iron Man analyses his materialist ambitions as well as his

anthropocentric ethics and is aimed to deduce whether he has any environmentalist ideas.

This section is contrasted with Jonathan Porritt’s taxonomy regarding the politics of

industrialism and ecology (Wissenburg 28-29), which will motivate if his ethics belongs

in Garrard’s definition of the cornucopian economists’ position or if he is positioned

within the concept of environmentalism (18-23). To locate Iron Man within the field of

the anthropocentric field of environmentalism, Heywood’s “Conflicts Within Green

Ideology” is used to refute that his ethics resides within the biocentric position (Appendix

D).

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