Yiddish language and culture and its post-Holocaust fate in Europe
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BRIEFING
Yiddish language and culture and its
post-Holocaust fate in Europe
SUMMARY
Yiddish is a language once spoken by Jews in an area spreading from Alsace to the Urals, influenced
by and influencing local languages and cultures. It neared extinction in the 20th century when it lost
the majority of its speakers, mostly – but not only – through the Holocaust. Yiddish is part of
European folk culture, contributing to the works of great writers and musicians and broadening
European culture more generally. Successive waves of Jewish migration provoked by poverty,
persecution, pogroms, Stalinism and Nazism, war and all forms of antisemitism, have drastically
reduced the Jewish population across Europe and, with it, the number of Yiddish speakers.
The Holocaust – referred to in Yiddish as Khurbn (destruction) – was an ethnic and cultural cleansing
process designed to erase any trace of Jewish life from European culture, including Yiddish, a
language perceived as 'bad German'. Some Holocaust survivors tried to recreate their pre-war lives
and cultivated their language and culture. Others, however, traumatised by the war, wanted a new
beginning, often far from home and their children wanted to fit in and speak the local language. As
the use of Yiddish continues to diminish, its speakers are growing older, and its transmission among
generations was interrupted, Unesco has put Yiddish on the definitely endangered languages list.
However, the fate of Yiddish as a dead or stifled language is not yet sealed. Traditional religious
Jewish communities, mostly in Israel, and North and South America, but also in Europe, still use
Yiddish and contribute to Yiddish culture. Moreover, Yiddish is enjoying a revival as a language and
culture among both young secular Jews and the non-Jewish population, and Yiddish language and
culture courses, studies, and traditional Jewish Klezmer music festivals abound in Europe and
beyond. Whether this will be enough to keep this European heritage alive and what might be the
EU's role in bringing this once vibrant European culture back to life remains to be seen.
IN THIS BRIEFING
Historical background
Holocaust and post-war years
Is Yiddish endangered?
Interest in Yiddish after the fall of the Iron
Curtain
EU support for Yiddish language and culture
Hebrew letter Alef.
EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service
Author: Magdalena Pasikowska-Schnass; Graphic Samy Chahri
Members' Research Service
PE 698.881 – January 2022 ENEPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service Historical background Figure 1 – Migration of Yiddish speakers across Europe Yiddish is a language traditionally spoken by the Ashkenazic Jewish diaspora across eastern and central Europe. Sephardic Jews, speaking Ladino, settled mostly on the Iberian peninsula and North Africa. Yiddish originated in southern France and northern Italy where Jews spoke a Romance language. Persecution forced Jewish populations to migrate across the continent, and the languages spoken in the regions where they settled influenced their language. Data source: Basic Facts about Yiddish, YIVO Institute, 1946. When Jews settled in the central Rhine valley, they adopted vocabulary and linguistic structures of the German (Mittelhochdeutsch) spoken there. Since 2021, three towns in the region (Speyer, Worms and Mainz – Jerusalem on the Rhine) have featured on the Unesco World Cultural Heritage list as recognised centres of Jewish life in Germany. Cologne plans to follow suit with its recent discovery in archaeological excavations of traces of Jewish existence in the city, referred to as the 'Kahal Kolonia'. The Crusades pushed the Jews further east and south to central areas of Germany, Bavaria and Austria, rooting the language in the southern German dialect, and then to Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary and northern Italy. The 13th century marked the move further east to the current territories of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine, and south to Romania. This pattern of migration resulted in a language that accumulated vocabulary from across the regions Jews lived in: most words come from 13th century German, with Slavonic additions and some residual Romance vocabulary. Yiddish also contains a rich rabbinical Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary relating to religious rituals and ceremonies and it uses Hebrew characters. In the 19th century, few western Yiddish speakers remained in Alsace and Switzerland, while eastern Yiddish became dominant. At the same time, the migration began of eastern European Jews overseas to North and South America and Palestine, as a result mainly of poverty, persecution and pogroms. Although Jews tended to live within their communities, their professional activities involved contacts with local populations and their languages. Therefore, successive migrations enriched the Yiddish vocabulary with elements from Polish, Ukrainian and Latvian, and most recently English. The process has always been two-directional. Yiddish has left its lexical traces in German, Polish, English and the languages of areas where Jews settled and were active. Controversy and assimilation tendencies Spreading across Europe, Yiddish became a non-territorial language, i.e. not belonging to a single country, but spoken in various areas across the continent. Thus, it developed its own dialects spoken by Jews living in territories of present-day Latvia, Ukraine or Poland, with specific local vocabulary and different vowel pronunciation. Despite these differences, Yiddish became a kind of global vernacular for Ashkenazic Jews, who could use it around the world. Yiddish is also referred to as Taytsh (German), Yidish-taytsh (Yiddish German), Loshn-Ashkenaz (language of Ashkenaz), Mame Loshe (mother tongue) and Zhargon (jargon). The latter term reflects controversies about the language. Its ancient German roots, almost unchanged, led Germans and educated Jews to qualify Yiddish as a jargon, a dialect, a language of uneducated people, a sort of faulty German. From the 19th century onwards, Jews tried to assimilate with local populations, 2
Yiddish language and culture and its post-Holocaust fate in Europe
taking on their habits and language in order to secure an education, climb the social ladder and win
recognition, abandoning their own language.
Nevertheless, the second half of the 19th century saw the flourishing of Yiddish theatres and press,
and linguistic research into the formalisation of the language's grammar and vocabulary. A number
of acclaimed writers, such as Mendele Mokher Seforim (pen name of Sholem Yankev Abramovitsh),
Y.L. Peretz, Sholem Aleichem and Sholem Asch, published excellent literature in Yiddish. The highest
recognition of Yiddish literary achievements came with the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1978 for
Isaac Bashevis Singer, a prominent representative of literature in Yiddish, translated by another
Nobel Prize winner of Jewish origin, Saul Bellow.
In the Soviet Union, the Stalinist era put an end to a period of freedom following the revolution that
saw an initial flourishing of literary works, also in Yiddish. This took its toll on Yiddish writers, with
the forced acculturation and assimilation of Jews.
Until the outbreak of the Second World War (WWII), the centre of the Yiddish language and culture
was Vilnius (then within Polish borders), also known as the 'Jerusalem of the North'. YIVO, the first
academic institute for Yiddish research, had its headquarters there and in Berlin. In 1940, it decided
to move to New York where it has been operating ever since.
Since 2014, the World Jewish Congress International Yiddish Centre has worked tirelessly to
promote Yiddish language and culture, Klezmer music and Yiddish songs. It chose to locate its
premises also in Vilnius, as 'there are few places in the world more suitable for the revival and study
of Yiddish culture and language than Vilnius'.
Holocaust and post-war years
According to YIVO, before WWII there were almost 11 million Yiddish speakers across the world. The
majority of them lived in eastern and central Europe. This region was the focal point of WWII in
Europe and the majority of European Jews perished in the Holocaust. The end of WWII was not what
Jews had expected. On their return to their home towns and villages, the Holocaust survivors often
felt unwelcome, and in some cases even fell victims to pogroms. Some did not approve of the
political shift in Soviet-dominated territories. More or less willingly, many survivors left for western
Europe, often France, or became stuck in Germany, the country of their persecutors. Many managed
to move to the US, South America or Palestine, and later to Israel. Many had hoped to do this when
trying to flee Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1939 or even when the Holocaust started, but had
usually been refused and returned back directly into the hands of their Nazi persecutors.
Jewish settlers in Palestine wanted Yiddish to become the official language of Israel. However, the
authorities of the new state decided against Yiddish and chose to introduce a modern version of
Hebrew they needed to develop. The decision was a blow to the language and the population of
Yiddish speakers decimated during the Holocaust, referred to in Yiddish as the Khurbn – destruction.
Yiddish did not enjoy positive attitudes in Israel, and tensions between pro-Yiddish religious
communities and secular pro-Hebrew communities were high. Nevertheless, in 1952, the Hebrew
University in Jerusalem opened a chair of Yiddish, and Yiddish speakers could enjoy reading many
Yiddish newspapers, listen to the radio and attend cultural activities in Yiddish.
In the years following the end of WWII, Yiddish thrived in the US given the number of Yiddish
speaking immigrants. In 1947, the College of the City of New York (CCNY) introduced the teaching
of Yiddish with full academic credits. In 1952, Columbia University established a Chair of Yiddish
Language, Literature and Culture at both graduate and undergraduate levels. However, young
generations of Jews in the US and western Europe at that time wanted to integrate and climb the
social ladder, thus choosing the local language at the expense of Yiddish.
Recent years have seen renewed interest in Yiddish as young Jews of Ashkenazic origin seek to trace
their roots. Yiddish language and cultural centres abound in North America, the United Kingdom,
France, Belgium, Germany, Poland, the former Soviet Union, Israel, Argentina and Australia. A
3EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service
number of Yiddish textbooks and teaching methods have appeared. Yiddish continues to be taught
and is an instruction language in many religious schools around the world.
According to YIVO's estimates there are between half a million and a million Yiddish speakers in the
world, mostly Hasidic and Haredic (strictly Orthodox) Jews, mainly in the United States, Canada,
Europe, and Israel. However, the Unesco Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger reports 3 million
Yiddish speakers in the world, while considering the language definitely in danger, without
distinguishing between geographical areas.
Is Yiddish endangered?
The difference between the YIVO and Table 1 – Yiddish speakers around the world
Unesco Atlas data is threefold. Unesco
brings together data mainly from 1986 Before 1939 Most recent data
World region
(Israel) to 2010 (Russia). During this (YIVO data) (Unesco Atlas)
period, the Soviet Union ceased to exist
and many Jews left the country. Neither 23 874
the data on Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and (Moldova - 1989,
Eastern and
Moldova nor that on Israel include Jews 6 767 000 Belarus – 1999,
central Europe
who emigrated from the area to Israel Ukraine - 2001,
Russia -2010)
after 1989. Similarly, in 2017 Germany
counted 100 000 Jews, mostly from the
178 000 US
former Soviet Union, certainly including North America 2 987 000 +17 255 Canada
a number of Yiddish speakers. Where do 2006
they belong in the Unesco data?
Unesco considers Yiddish a definitely Western Europe 317 000
endangered language, defined as cases
Palestine/Israel 285 000 215 000 in 1986
where 'children no longer learn the
language as mother tongue in the South and Central
home'. It estimates its speakers at three 255 000
America
million scattered all over the world,
mostly outside of Europe, in Israel and Africa 56 000
North America, which account for
slightly over 400 000, far below the Asia (minus
14 000
three million. Palestine)
The situation of Yiddish varies Australia 9 000
drastically between countries and it is
difficult to establish its status as an Total 10 690 000 3 000 000
endangered language at global level. Data sources: YIVO and Unesco Atlas.
Poland is a prime example: in the pre-
war period it was host to the largest
Jewish population in Europe, if not in the world, but the language is currently almost extinct. Poland
and Jews have a thousand-year-old common history. A 1931 national census established that almost
80 % of the 3.250 million Jews in Poland spoke Yiddish, which gives almost 2.5 million Yiddish
speakers before the war. According to the 2002 National Census, there were just 37 Yiddish speakers
in Poland out of 7 000 Jews there, qualifying it rather as critically endangered.
Meanwhile, South America, and in particular Argentina, was one of main destinations of the pre-war
Jewish emigration from eastern and central Europe. Yiddish was vibrant in Argentina, with Yiddish
schools, theatres, publication houses and press. While Argentina remains a centre of thriving Jewish
culture, no data is available on the percentage of Yiddish speakers among its 250 000 Jews.
The fact that Yiddish is a global language for Ashkenazi Jews scattered all over the world helps keep
it alive. Nevertheless, according to the Unesco classification, a language is safe when spoken by all
4Yiddish language and culture and its post-Holocaust fate in Europe
generations in various domains of life and its transmission from generation to generation is
uninterrupted. This precise criterion makes a language's status at least vulnerable, while still other
criteria need to be met to keep a language alive, the number of speakers being just one of them.
In 2014, Jennifer Young (former Director of Education of the YIVO Institute) was clear: 'Yiddish is not
a dying language. While UNESCO officially classifies Yiddish as an "endangered" language in Europe,
its status in New York is hardly in doubt. According to some estimates, Yiddish is the fifth most
commonly spoken language in Brooklyn, behind English, Spanish, Russian and Chinese. In the
Brooklyn neighbourhoods of Williamsburg and Boro Park alone, the number of Hasidic Jews, for
whom Yiddish is the primary language, is well over 150 000'.
The existence of vibrant Yiddish communities in the US – mainly in New York (Brooklyn) – and Israel,
not limited to Orthodox Hasidic and ultra-Orthodox Haredi religious communities, who speak
Yiddish, challenges this claim. Institutions like YIVO actively promote the language among the
Jewish population and bear witness to the continuity of Yiddish culture.
Interest in Yiddish after the fall of the Iron Curtain
The fall of the Iron Curtain opened a new era for Yiddish language and culture in post-communist
countries. Many Poles discovered their ancestors were Jews and decided to reintegrate into or
recreate the Jewish community in Poland. Polish interest in Jewish folklore, in particular Klezmer
music, has grown in recent years and music ensembles perform traditional songs in Yiddish.
At the same time, post-communist countries have witnessed a revival in Jewish studies in higher
education institutions. Even before 1989, universities offered Hebrew studies in communist
countries and usually recognised Jewish religious organisations and Jewish/Yiddish theatres.
Yiddish cultural centres have flourished since 1989. They offer a rich programme of cultural events
as well as language courses. Currently, given the limited number of Jews remaining in central and
eastern Europe, Jewish and Yiddish studies depend on non-Jewish scholars interested in the subject
as well as scholars from universities in Israel, the UK and the US. According to Zvi Gitelman
(University of Michigan): 'the Jewish communities [in eastern Europe] are too small, not wealthy
enough, and probably not sufficiently interested to sustain academic Jewish studies, as they do in
much of North American and Western Europe. The primary responsibility for this [provision of Jewish
studies in higher education], as the essays in this issue make clear, lies with governments and states,
as well as with foreign Jewish bodies, primarily the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee,
the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture and various Israeli government and academic
institutions'.
Yiddish revival in the Western world
Even though Yiddish could qualify as an 'assassinated language', and be classified as an endangered
one, the issue is more complex. The Stalinist regime assassinated Yiddish artists and forced Yiddish
speakers to assimilate linguistically. The Holocaust assassinated the majority of Yiddish speakers
across Europe. Israel decided against Yiddish as its official language. For various reasons, Holocaust
survivors did not transmit the language and their descendants often chose linguistic assimilation.
Nevertheless, curiosity for and interest in the language and its culture have not died. While the
number of speakers of Yiddish as a mother tongue (Mame Loshe) or a vernacular (language of a
specific community, or certain areas) diminished drastically over the 50 years following the end of
the WWII, it won the hearts of many non-Jews interested in a lost world and a rich culture, and
inspired many artists. Yiddish theatres in Warsaw, New York and Melbourne continue to perform in
Yiddish even if their public does not speak Yiddish, which is the case in Warsaw. Yiddish literature is
translated into many languages, and a lot of world literature, including books for children such as
Winnie the Pooh and Harry Potter are available in Yiddish.
Established in 2002, la Maison de la culture Yiddish in Paris, together with the Medem Library, is the
most important centre of Yiddish studies and culture in Europe, providing language and translation
5EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service courses, theatre performances in Yiddish and Klezmer music. Twice a month it produces broadcasts devoted to contemporary Yiddish culture 'Yiddish haynt'. In 2012, it hosted a symposium 'The Permanence of Yiddish' organised by Jewish charity B'nai B'rith International, under Unesco patronage. In 2002, Sweden recognised Yiddish as an official minority language. It considers Yiddish to be part of its culture and has a 20-year programme designed to preserve the language. This ambition materialises in radio programmes and amateur theatre in Yiddish, a Yiddish association, courses and university studies in Yiddish. In 2021, Sweden's National Theatre staged Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett in a Yiddish translation. Yiddish in higher education: German, Slavonic or oriental studies? The history of Yiddish, a Germanic language, and Yiddish culture in central and eastern Europe, points to the difficulty in attributing Yiddish studies to a precise university faculty. Various Jewish cultural institutions, from Paris to Warsaw, teach Yiddish as a language in its own right, and various university faculties provide courses in Yiddish language and culture. For example, in Paris Yiddish is studied at Inalco (Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales) at the Faculty of the Hebrew and Jewish studies, which offers studies in Yiddish, Judeo-Spanish and Judeo- Arabic as well as eastern European languages (Russian, Polish, etc.). At the same time, the Paris-IV University offers a Yiddish curriculum at the department of German studies (together with the study of Dutch, and of Nordic languages) and approaches it from the perspective of comparative studies, in cooperation with the faculty of Slavic languages. Likewise, Lille University places Yiddish within Germanic, Dutch and Scandinavian studies, including comparative studies of German/Yiddish literature). In London, UCL provides Yiddish studies at its Department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies. It is also taught there as joint Polish and Yiddish studies. In April 2021, UCL hosted the Foundation for Endangered Languages 2021 Conference, which was devoted to Yiddish, among other languages. The University of Oxford offers Yiddish studies together with other languages at the Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages. Amsterdam University offers courses in Yiddish at the Department of Hebrew, Aramaic and Jewish Studies, as does the Institut d'études du judaïsme of the Université Libre de Bruxelles. Warsaw University offers Jewish studies with Yiddish at the History Institute. Its Jewish studies courses include a programme on Jewish history and culture. Krakow's Jagiellonian University offers similar courses. These differing approaches to the academic treatment of Yiddish and its culture can be subject to criticism and even perceived in the context of antisemitism. In 2019, an article in the New Eastern Europe magazine presented a strong stance on the subject. Its author notes that Yiddish studies are confined to academic ghettos and taught at Oriental studies institutes, or as Jewish studies. Yiddish is rarely taught in academic departments of German studies, where it belongs linguistically. The University of Heidelberg is one of the exceptions. Placing Yiddish within Slavic language departments only reinforces its lower status, as some countries value Slavic languages and cultures less than German studies. Positioning Jewish studies within Oriental studies could tacitly mean 'not belonging to Europe and its culture'. The issue seems important, as it can be argued that without some knowledge of Yiddish, Hebrew script and Jewish traditions, Europe, and the EU in particular, cannot lay proper claim to its Judeo-Christian roots. Yiddish in Europe: A minority language missing a culture This raises the question of Yiddish language and culture in Europe, particularly across the EU. In 1992, the Council of Europe adopted the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) as a tool to protect and promote regional and minority languages across Europe. It enables 6
Yiddish language and culture and its post-Holocaust fate in Europe
their speakers to use them in private and public life, encouraging their use in speech and writing.
The ECRML sets out specific measures to promote the languages it covers in public life, i.e.
education, justice, public administration and services, media, and cultural, economic and social
activities. The charter is published also in Yiddish in an unofficial translation.
Not all EU Member States have signed the charter, and still fewer have ratified it. Belgium, Bulgaria,
Estonia, Greece, Ireland, Latvia and Lithuania have not yet signed the charter, while France, Italy,
Malta and Portugal have not ratified the document. Austria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovak
Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden have completed the whole procedure and have a formal
obligation to implement the charter.
Yiddish is a non-territorial language, defined by the charter as one 'used by nationals of the state
which differ from the language(s) used by the rest of the state's population but which, although
traditionally used within the state's territory, cannot be identified with a particular area thereof'. The
Council of Europe publishes the list of minority and regional languages recognised by states parties
to the charter. Yiddish features as a minority language recognised in just six EU Member States:
Finland, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Sweden. With a population of 20 000 Jews
living within its borders, Sweden is home to up to three thousand Yiddish speakers. The country
allows government business to be conducted in Yiddish, provides Yiddish courses and supports
Yiddish TV and radio programmes with special focus on children. Beyond the EU, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, as well as Ukraine, hosting the fourth largest Jewish community in Europe, include
Yiddish on their list of minority and regional languages protected by the charter.
In 1996, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted its recommendations on
Yiddish culture and regretted that the main centres for Yiddish culture were no longer in Europe but
in Israel and the United States. It recognised the contribution made by this cross-national language
and culture to cultural and artistic life and advancement in Europe and envisaged a role for the EU
in establishing 'a mechanism for co-ordinating the activities of Yiddish academic centres throughout
Europe and to convene in the near future a conference on this subject, if possible involving the
European Union (Commission and Parliament)'. The recommendations included one 'to
commemorate the virtual annihilation of the Yiddish civilisation in Europe' by setting up 'a suitable
monument to Yiddish culture in the Palais de l'Europe in Strasbourg'. This has never materialised,
despite the engagement of prominent artists from Strasbourg, such as Tomi Ungerer. There is now
however a summer Yiddish university held in Strasbourg every three years.
EU support for Yiddish language and culture
The EU can provide funds and other forms of support for various cultural, heritage, educational,
linguistic and infrastructural projects relating to minority and regional languages and cultures.
Between 2014 and 2020, the European structural and investment funds co-funded the Vilna Gaon
Jewish State Museum (VGJSM) in Vilnius. This includes the Museum of Litvak Culture and Identity,
devoted to the contribution of Litvak Jewish/Yiddish culture (including YIVO) to world culture and
science. It includes YIVO resources that have been digitally reunited with archival resources based
in New York, after negotiations to gather the Vilnius and New York archives physically in one place
failed.
Kaunas, 2022 European Capital of Culture, will feature the Memory Festival, involving artists
representing the five languages used in the city: Lithuanian, Polish, German, Yiddish and Russian.
The winner of the Best Foreign Language Film award at the 2015 Academy Awards and the 2015
Golden Globes, the Hungarian film 'Son of Saul' benefited from the EU financial support for audio-
visual production via the Media strand of the 'creative Europe' programme. The story of a father
looking for his son in Auschwitz features dialogues in Yiddish, among other languages. In 2020, a
French film production company received similar support for two TV series, in French and Yiddish.
7EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service In October 2021, the University of Haifa launched a project entitled 'Yiddish Popular Theatre, 1880- 1920: Performance as Knowledge'. Horizon 2020 research funding will support its DYBBUK project, focusing on popular Yiddish 'lowbrow' culture and exploring the works of two of the most prolific playwrights of the genre. The research will deepen understanding of popular theatre, its ethnographic and historical dimensions, and the exchange between minorities and mainstream cultures. Creative Europe funding has supported various projects devoted to Jewish culture, to films and literature on the Holocaust and the post-war fate of Holocaust survivors. The European cultural heritage platform Europeana, co-funded by the EU through its 'Connecting Europe Facility' for digital infrastructure, features Europeana Judaica, devoted to Jewish heritage. This platform documents vibrant Jewish life in Europe and Jewish migration. Europeana Music presents a treasure trove of popular Yiddish songs from archival recordings from the 1920s and 1930s Poland. These were found in Finland, where the original owner of the collection had immigrated. The Maison de la culture yiddish in Paris and the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research have also contributed their archival resources to the platform. The EU has adopted a cultural heritage attitude to Yiddish language and culture. It remains to be seen if Yiddish as a language and culture was assassinated and will share the fate of Latin, a past treasure of European culture, or if there is still hope for a Yiddish revival. The growing interest in Yiddish among the non-Jewish population will not guarantee the language's survival as a vernacular but rather points to its Latin-like future. Before WWII, Yiddish was used both by secular and religious Jews, while its daily use and cultural vivacity currently depend heavily on religious communities mostly in Israel and the US. Currently, Europe is not playing a leading role in the process of reviving and preserving the culture of the language, which is perhaps the most European of all. The Commission strategy on combatting antisemitism and fostering Jewish life (2021-2030) opens a new perspective. As seven out of ten EU citizens have no information on Jewish life, there is an urgent need for education on this subject; Yiddish language and culture offer a rich seam that can be mined to that end. FURTHER READING J. Shandler, Adventures in Yiddishland. Postvernacular language and culture, University of California Press, 2006. R. Ertel and S. Bou, Mémoire du yiddish. Transmettre une langue assassinée, Albin Michel, 2019. DISCLAIMER AND COPYRIGHT This document is prepared for, and addressed to, the Members and staff of the European Parliament as background material to assist them in their parliamentary work. The content of the document is the sole responsibility of its author(s) and any opinions expressed herein should not be taken to represent an official position of the Parliament. Reproduction and translation for non-commercial purposes are authorised, provided the source is acknowledged and the European Parliament is given prior notice and sent a copy. © European Union, 2022. Photo credit: © kattidirenko / Adobe Stock eprs@ep.europa.eu (contact) www.eprs.ep.parl.union.eu (intranet) www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank (internet) http://epthinktank.eu (blog) 8
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