Wild plant seed storage at Neolithic C atalh oy uk East, Turkey
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Veget Hist Archaeobot (2007) 16: 467–479
DOI 10.1007/s00334-006-0069-3
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Andrew Fairbairn · Danièle Martinoli · Ann Butler ·
Gordon Hillman
Wild plant seed storage at Neolithic Çatalhöyük East, Turkey
Received: 4 October 2004 / Accepted: 24 May 2006 / Published online: 5 August 2006
C Springer-Verlag 2006
Abstract Full analysis of eight seed samples collected crops with their origins in the late Pleistocene and early
in the 1960’s excavations at Neolithic Çatalhöyük East, Holocene of southwest Asia, which was developed and ex-
Turkey, is presented. Detailed investigation of the com- panded over subsequent millennia with introductions from
position and context of the samples suggests that the Ne- Europe, Asia, the Americas and Africa (see Zohary and
olithic population collected, processed and stored seeds Hopf 2000). Most of the major Old World crops, such as
from Capsella sp. and Descurainia sp. (wild crucifers) wheat, barley and legume species (among several others),
for food use. In addition seeds of Vicia/Lathyrus sp. are found over wide geographical ranges and the general
(wild vetch), Helianthemum spp. and Taeniatherum caput- chronology of their introduction and/or development is in-
medusae mixed with Eremopyrum type (grasses) were also creasingly well understood as a result of archaeobotanical
found, some of which may have been used for food or other research. Archaeobotany has also provided examples of
purposes. The analysis demonstrates that wild seed ex- now rare seed crops that were formerly common, such as
ploitation was a regular part of subsistence practice along- the domesticated naked six-row barley (Hordeum vulgare
side the economic staple of crop production, and again var. nudum) and others, such as fat hen (Chenopodium al-
demonstrates how diverse plant use practices were at the bum – see Stokes and Rowley-Conwy 2002), which were
site. utilized in particular times and places, but were neither
extensively used nor fully domesticated, if cultivated at all.
Keywords Archaeobotany . Neolithic . Çatal Hüyük . This paper presents an archaeological example of the col-
Storage . Wild plants lection and storage of seed from an unusual range of plants
during the seventh millennium cal b.c. at Çatalhöyük East,
near Konya in central Turkey (Fig. 1, inset). Excavated
by James Mellaart in the 1960’s (Mellaart 1962, 1963,
Introduction 1964, 1966), the plant material presented here (hereafter the
“Mellaart Archive”) was part of a group of samples referred
Cultivation of seed crops is one of the foundations of food to in a preliminary report (Helbæk 1964) and subsequently
production in the Old World. Modern Old World crop seed mentioned in various other publications (e.g. Helbæk 1970;
production is based on a suite of cereal, legume and oil Mellaart 1964, 1967), but never fully studied. In those
accounts, a variety of non-domesticated seed types were
Communicated by S. Jacomet described, including the crucifers Capsella bursa-pastoris
and Erysimum sisymbrioides, the grasses Eremopyrum and
A. Fairbairn ()
School of Social Science, University of Taeniatherum caput-medusae, a wild vetch identified as
Queensland, Vicia noeana and a sample of unidentified seeds (see
Michie Building, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia Fairbairn et al. 2002, Table 1 for a summary). This pa-
e-mail: a.fairbairn@uq.edu.au per details a re-analysis of these seed samples which aimed
D. Martinoli to: a) verify the identity of the species, and; b) determine
Institute for Prehistory and Archaeological Science IPAS, Basel whether the samples really were stores of deliberately col-
University, lected and processed seeds, or were derived from other pro-
Spalenring 145, cesses. Impetus to the project was given by the completion
4055 Basel, Switzerland of the first phase of archaeobotanical research at the ongo-
A. Butler · G. Hillman ing Çatalhöyük excavations (Fairbairn et al. 2002, 2005)
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, and continuing debate about the nature of the site’s plant
31-34 Gordon Square, London, WC1H 0PY, UK economy (see Asouti and Fairbairn 2002; Fairbairn 2005).468
Fig. 2 Plan of buildings in Level III, Area A at Çatalhöyük East with
buildings containing seed samples shaded (based on Hodder 1996,
Fig. 1.10)
sisymbrioides, were recovered from level VI (Fig. 1).
Two came from the same storage bin (bin 3) in building
EVI 17 (samples 24 and 33), a “granary” lying between
Fig. 1 Plan of buildings in Level VIB, Area E at Çatalhöyük East
shrines EVI 7 and EVI 14 (NB this was incorrectly
with buildings containing seed samples shaded, inset shows Turkey labelled as 16 on Hodder’s 1996 re-draft of the original
with site location marked (based on Hodder 1996, Fig. 1.14) level VI plan and has been corrected in Fig. 1). Sample
57 was recovered from the “Leopard Shrine” EVI 44
and is one of the “numerous offerings of grain and
Materials and methods crucifer seeds” found in front of the leopard relief (see
Mellaart 1964, p 45). A fourth crucifer sample (23)
The Mellaart Archive consisted of 100 samples of archae- came from shrine EVI 1, a building containing storage
ological material, including 48 samples of grain from 39 bins and a rich range of artefacts and crop seed finds.
archaeological contexts such as discrete building, storage Two samples of grass seeds were recovered from burnt
structure or burial, 11 samples of large fruits such as Celtis occupation horizons, one in level III (house AIII 4, sample
sp. and Quercus sp. from eight contexts, nine samples of 49) and the other in level VI (house EVI 32, sample
cultivated legumes from eight contexts, eight samples of 55). These are the “mixture of spikes. . .” mentioned by
wild plant seeds from seven contexts and a single sample of Helbæk (1964, 122). Two further seed concentrations
tubers from one of the two local varieties of Bolboschoenus were recovered from level VI: one a concentration of
maritimus (clubrush) – for full details see Fairbairn et al. non-domesticated legumes from house EVI 34 (sample
(forthcoming). All of the samples were collected during 71) and a sample of unidentified seeds from shrine AVI
the 1961, 1962 and 1963 excavation seasons from levels 1 (sample 52 – NB this building was later re-numbered
II to VI (inclusive) in excavation areas A and E, dated to as EVI 61 (Mellaart 1964 and publications after this date)
between approximately 6200 and 6600 cal b.c. (Cessford and is labelled so in Fig. 1). Sample 52 was one of six seed
2001). Widespread house burning had charred plant seeds and fruit samples recovered from shrine EVI 61, a richly
which were held in storage structures, house fills and even adorned building (Mellaart 1963, Pl. VI and VIIb) which
burial fills. So intense were the fires in some areas that plant contained a rich assemblage of artefacts and archaeobotan-
remains were charred in burial fills beneath house floors, ical remains in its “L-shaped storeroom” (Mellaart 1964, p
along with human remains and cloth wrappings (Helbæk 52), including baskets and wooden dishes (Mellaart 1963,
1963; Mellaart 1963). All eight wild plant seed samples Pl. VIIa). It is assumed that sample 52 came from that
described here were recovered from building occupation room, though there is no specific record of its presence.
deposits in level VI, area E (in the following EVI; Fig. 1) All samples had their weights and volumes measured and
and level III, area A (in the following AIII; Fig. 2), including were then sieved free of dust before identification work be-
unadorned “houses” and buildings demonstrating elaborate gan (the mesh sizes used were 4, 2, 1, 0.5 and 0.25 mm). To-
wall art, which Mellaart labelled “shrines.” The archaeo- tal charred weights given in Table 1 do not include the dust
logical context from which the samples were recovered has
been reconstructed entirely on the basis of original sample
Table 1 Seed abundance in samples from the Mellaart Archive,
labels and published information from Mellaart’s excava- Çatalhöyük East. Stated figures represent rounding up of sub-samples
tion reports (Mellaart 1962, 1963, 1964, 1966, 1967), as and estimates based on conversion of sample weights (for details see
other documentation was lacking. text); ∗ whole fruitstone equivalents calculated from weights using
Four samples of Cruciferae seeds, identified by Hel- conversion figures of 0.021 g for Pistacia and 0.9 g for Cerasus.
bæk (1964) as Capsella bursa-pastoris and Erysimum Nomenclature follows Davis 1965–2000469
470
and other non-botanical fragments removed during sorting. species and differences in surface preservation. Scanning
For estimation of sample composition, sub-samples of at Electron Microscopy (SEM) proved more useful. Speci-
least 500 seeds were taken with the aid of a geological mens from each of the four ancient seed samples were in-
sample splitter (riffle-box). In the crucifer and grass seed vestigated along with modern seed specimens from avail-
samples, where the huge number of seeds made counting able representatives of the four genera, namely Capsella
very time consuming, the total number of seeds was cal- bursa-pastoris, Descurainia sophia, Erysimum repandum,
culated by converting a weight into an estimated number Sisymbrium altissimum, S. confertum, S. irio, S. loeselii, S.
of whole seeds using a whole seed equivalent weight (see officinale and S. orientale. The multiple species of Sisym-
below). brium were included to investigate intra-generic variability
Identifications used seed morphology, internal anatomy in one of the target genera.
(Martin 1946) and surface features visible under light mi- Seeds of the four genera were distinguishable using SEM
croscopy in comparison to modern seed reference speci- observable criteria as follows:
mens. Scanning electron microscopy was used to describe
– Capsella sp. – testa covered with a thick-walled retic-
characters of the legume and crucifer seeds. Comparative
ulum of irregular form, overlain by a layer of thinner-
seed collections (Institute of Archaeology, UCL and IPAS,
walled polygonal cells from the centre of which regularly
University of Basel) and published identification notes (Van
spaced papillae projected (Fig. 3.3–4).
Zeist and Bakker-Heeres 1984, 1985) were used to as-
– Descurainia sp. – testa covered with rectangular to
sign taxonomic status. Nomenclature follows the Flora of
polygonal cells forming regular longitudinal files along
Turkey and east Aegean islands (Davis 1967–2000). Note
the edges of the seed and a less regular reticulum towards
that the central Anatolian flora is very diverse, relatively
the centre of the lateral walls (Fig. 3.5–6). Also present in
poorly known and reference collections are inevitably in-
some specimens were patches of regularly spaced papil-
complete. This is reflected in the use of type or genus-level
lae and a thin, irregular upper reticulum (Fig. 3.7).
identifications below.
– Erysimum sp. – distinctive testa covered with longitu-
Sample composition was considered an important indi-
dinal files of closely spaced, broad papillae (Fig. 3.8)
cator of how the assemblages were formed, so both seed
tipped with a wart-like projection and surrounded by a
and non-seed sample components were recovered, classi-
low reticulum (Fig. 4.1).
fied and quantified via weighing or counting where rel-
– Sisymbrium spp. – all six species of Sisymbrium dif-
evant. It was assumed that processed seed stores would
fered slightly in shape and size, but all had similar testa
contain, as with cereal stores (Hillman 1984), mainly the
morphology, here demonstrated with photomicrographs
seeds of one or two taxa mixed with a relatively small quan-
of S. officinale. The seeds were covered with longitudi-
tity of other components such as chaff and seeds of other
nal lines of flattened, broad, oval papillae (Fig. 4.2), each
species.
with a slightly thickened rim and a central broad-rimmed
disc (Fig. 4.3).
Results (Table 1) Low-powered light microscopy showed that two main
seed types were present in the samples. One had a smooth
Cruciferae dominated samples 23, 24, 33 and 57 testa covered in longitudinal files of cells and was present
in all four samples, while the other had visible papillae
Four samples contained almost pure assemblages of small arranged across the surface and was found only in sample
laterally compressed seeds (L: 0.5–0.9, B: 0.3–0.5 mm), 57. SEM work on sub-samples of ancient seeds confirmed
mostly elliptic, but also with occasional ovate and obovate the smooth type to be Descurainia sp., with the papillose
specimens (following shape conventions used by Berggren seeds Capsella sp., consistent with the tentative identifica-
1969, see Fig. 3.1). Where visible, the seeds had a clearly tion made on the basis of seed morphology. Many seeds
bent embryo (following Martin 1946), and in many speci- remained unidentifiable, even with use of the SEM, having
mens the radicle was visible in lateral view running along lost their diagnostic characteristics (Fig. 4.4).
one of the long edges of each seed. The radicle was equal in Sample 23 from building EVI 1 contained a mass of
length to the seed or slightly longer (Fig. 3.1–2), compris- Descurainia sp. seeds (Fig. 4.5). The seeds were preserved
ing about 1/3 of its breadth. The cotyledons were folded with a relatively large quantity of cereal grain, mainly from
back onto the radicle and were clearly visible in lateral sec- emmer wheat, with some hulled barley. Chaff and straw
tion, showing an incumbent or oblique arrangement (Martin
1946). Fig. 3 1 Cruciferae seeds from Mellaart Archive sample 24; scale
The seeds were most similar in shape, size and internal bar = 2 mm; 2 specimens from Mellaart Archive sample 24 below
anatomy to those of a small group of genera in the Cru- modern seeds of Descurainia sophia; scale bar = 1 mm; 3 Scanning
ciferae, including: Erysimum, Sisymbrium, Descurainia electron micrographs of modern Capsella bursa-pastoris seed; scale
bar = 200 µm and 4 testa; scale bar = 50 µm; 5 modern Descurainia
and Capsella, all of which are represented in central Turkey. sophia seed; scale bar = 200 µm, 6 testa, showing reticulate pat-
Of those four genera Descurainia (Fig. 3.2) and Capsella tern (above) and immature, ladder-like pattern (below); scale bar =
were closest in shape and size, but convincing separation 50 µm; 7 testa, showing patch of papillae; scale bar = 50 µm;
of the taxa using light microscopy was not possible as 8 modern Erysimum repandum seed showing longitudinal files of
papillae; scale bar = 500 µm (all photographs by A.Fairbairn)
there was considerable morphological overlap between the471
472
473
components were also preserved along with a few seeds of carried at a shallow angle, almost horizontal to the dorsal
weedy taxa and some fragments of Pistacia sp. (terebinth) surface (Fig. 5.3 B and D), which is usually smooth.
stones. Samples 24 and 33, from bin 3 in Building EVI Accompanying the seeds were large numbers of robust
17, also contained only Descurainia sp. seeds (Fig. 4.6–7) T. caput-medusae spikelet bases (Fig. 5.4 A and B), which
with very few impurities. Using a thousand seed weight were similar to modern reference specimens (Fig. 5.4 C
of 0.0428 g, sample 23 (114.11 g of crucifer seeds) con- and D). Each node supported two spikelets containing a
tained an estimated 2,666,121 seeds, sample 24 (110.49g) single grain. Four robust glumes, which naturally break off
an estimated 2,581,542 seeds and sample 33 (353.25 g) an near the base in modern plant material (Fig. 5.4 C and D,
estimated 8,253,505 seeds. labelled “g”), leave four glume bases (Fig. 5.4 A and B,
Sample 57 from EVI 44, Mellaart’s “Leopard Shrine,” labelled “g”), the surface of which, where preserved well,
contained 95% Capsella sp. seeds (Figs. 4.8 and 5.1), is covered with conspicuous papillae (see especially 5,4
based on a count of a 1.56% sub-sample, mixed with a B). The rachis internode (Fig. 5.4, labelled “r”) is placed
smaller quantity of Descurainia sp. seeds and other cru- centrally and is rectangular to trapezoidal in cross-section
cifers that defied genus-level identification (Fig. 4.4). The (Fig. 5.4 B and D).
ancient charred Capsella sp. seeds showed the same pat- Accompanying the seeds of T. caput-medusae in sam-
tern of small, longitudinally arranged, dispersed papillae ple 55, were a large number of Eremopyrum type seeds
(Fig. 4.8) and a double layer of overlapping cells as ob- (Fig. 5.5), a morphotype defined by Van Zeist and Bakker
served in modern reference specimens (Fig. 5.1, compare Heeres (1985, p 221 and Fig. 25:4). The caryopses (L: 2.5–
with Fig. 3.3), though charring caused some distortion of 3.2 mm) are lanceolate in dorsal view (Fig. 5.5 A) with the
the testa. This sample was more diverse than the other cru- broadest point towards the embryo end of the grain. The
cifer samples, containing a large quantity of cereal grain and embryo is large and at a 20–30 degree angle from the hor-
much indeterminate charred matter (7.38% of the charred izontal (Fig. 5.5 B). The grain tapers towards the rounded
weight), within the mass of crucifer seeds (87.33% of the apex and carries distinctive strong longitudinal compres-
charred weight and an estimated 747,360 specimens). Ce- sion marks, which give the seed a distinctive pentangular
real grain remains were mostly fragmented and unidentifi- cross-section (Fig. 5.5 D). The most distinctive of these
able, though Hordeum vulgare var. nudum (naked barley) runs from the apex of the embryo along the centre of the
was identified, including one embedded in a solid “cake” dorsal surface (Fig. 5.5 A). The ventral furrow groove con-
of crucifer seed (Fig. 5.2). Also identified were grains of sists either only of a ridge along the centre of the ventral
Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat), glume wheat glume- surface or may rest in a ‘V’-shaped depression (Fig. 5.4
bases and seeds of Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch). C and D), depending on preservation. Accompanying the
seeds in sample 25 was a quantity of spikelet fork remains,
identified as cf. Eremopyrum type (Fig. 5.6).
Grass dominated samples 49 and 55 A 25% fraction of each sample was analysed to pro-
vide an accurate estimate of overall sample composition.
Samples 49 and 55, from levels III and VI respectively, In both cases the samples were dominated by T. caput-
were composed mainly of wild grass seeds. The dominant medusae seeds, most of which were highly fragmented.
species in both was Taeniatherum caput-medusae (medusa- Weight of seed fragments was used to provide an esti-
head grass, Fig. 5.3), a species with distinctive caryopses mate of the minimum number of individuals using the seed
and spike nodes commonly found in the steppe, wasteland weight of 0.0011 g established by weighing 15 whole seed
and arable weed flora of central Anatolia (Zohary 1973), specimens. In sample 55 this produced an estimated total
including around Çatalhöyük today. Its large caryopses (L: of 14,353 seeds and in sample 49 a total of 10,624 seeds. In
2–5 mm; B: 0.8–1.1 mm, T: 0.3–0.6 mm) were narrowly sample 55, T. caput-medusae seeds were accompanied by
elliptic (Fig. 5.3 A), with lateral grooves running the length a total of 1896 Eremopyrum type seeds, again calculated
of the grain (Fig. 5.3 B and D). The large embryo was on the basis of weight (1 seed = 0.0004 g on the basis
of 12 whole seeds), as well as 20 seeds of other taxa. In
sample 49, seeds of a much larger range of taxa accompa-
Fig. 4 1 Scanning electron micrographs of papillae with surrounding
reticulum in modern Erysimum repandum testa; scale bar = 50 µm; nied T. caput-medusae, including Bromus sp., small-seeded
2 modern Sisymbrium officinale seed, showing longitudinal files of grasses, Cyperaceae and small-seeded Cruciferae, includ-
flattened papillae; scale bar = 200 µm; 3 testa, showing detail ing Lepidium sp.. Small quantities of cereal grain, cereal
of papillae; scale bar = 50 µm; 4 unidentifiable Cruciferae seed chaff and nutshell were also preserved in both samples. A
from Mellaart Archive sample 57, showing heavily eroded surface,
but survival of some testa morphology towards dorsal and ventral ratio of 6.9 seeds to 1 chaff element was calculated for T.
surfaces; scale bar = 200 µm; 5 Descurainia sp. seed from Mellaart caput-medusae and 9.1 seeds to 1 chaff element for Er-
Archive sample 23, showing survival of testa morphology at seed emopyrum type seeds in sample 55, after converting the
apex; scale bar = 100 µm; 6 Descurainia sp. seed from Mellaart number of spikelet bases and glumes to a grain equivalent
Archive sample 33, showing eroded testa morphology; scale bar = figure. In sample 49, 49.2 seeds were found for every T.
50 µm; 7 Descurainia sp. seed from Mellaart Archive sample 24;
scale bar = 100 µm; 8 Capsella sp. seed, part of a seed clump from caput-medusae chaff element. Neither of the samples con-
Mellaart Archive sample 57; scale bar = 200 µm (all photographs tained the ratio of seeds to chaff expected if spikes had been
by A.Fairbairn) recovered, as described by Helbæk (see above).474
Fig. 5 1 Scanning electron
micrographs of Capsella sp.
seed, part of a seed clump from
Mellaart Archive sample 57;
scale bar = 50 µm; 2 Hordeum
vulgare var. nudum (naked
barley) grain preserved in a
clump of charred Cruciferae
seed, mainly Descurainia type,
from Mellaart Archive sample
57; scale bar = 1 mm; 3
Composite image of
Taeniatherum caput-medusae
seeds from Mellaart Archive
sample 55, showing diagnostic
traits in dorsal A, lateral B,
ventral C and basal D views;
scale bar = 1 mm; 4 T.
caput-medusae spikelet bases
from Mellaart Archive sample
55 A, B and modern reference
specimens C, D: g = glume
insertion; r = rachis; scale
bar = 500 µm; 5 Composite
image of Eremopyrum type
seeds from Mellaart Archive
sample 55, showing diagnostic
traits in dorsal A, lateral B,
ventral C and basal D views;
scale bar = 500 µm; 6 cf.
Eremopyrum type spikelet fork
from Mellaart Archive sample
55; scale bar = 500 µm; 7
Lathyrus/Vicia sp. seed from
Mellaart Archive sample 71
showing typical angular form;
scale bar = 2 mm; 8
Helianthemum spp. seeds from
Mellaart Archive sample 52,
showing H. ledifolium type
(lower left) and H. salicifolium
type (upper left and right); scale
bar = 1 mm (photographs by
A. Fairbairn; 7 by A. Butler)
Lathyrus/Vicia sp. sample 71 of other crop seed throughout level VI. The identification
was based upon comparison with reference specimens of
Helbæk (1964) reported the occurrence of two pure deposits this species, which is common in Anatolia, and was seen
of the broad-podded vetch, Vicia noeana (Leguminosae), a growing near the site at the time of excavation (Helbæk
wild species that he also found as a contaminant in stores 1964, p 122). Sample 71, a small bag of wild vetch seed,475
was the only possible sample fitting the description in the weight (Table 1), the remainder comprising a mixture of
Mellaart Archive. cereal grain and chaff fragments, wood charcoals, nutshell
Identification of legume seeds is difficult, due in part to and unidentifiable charred seed fragments (41.35% of total
incomplete collections of reference material, but equally charred weight). Many of the latter resembled fragmented
to the interspecific and even intergeneric overlapping char- Helianthemum seeds, but secure identification was impos-
acteristics of legume seed morphology and micromorphol- sible because of the poor state of preservation. Though
ogy. In the vetch family, secure identifications to species the level of impurities in this sample was greater than the
level are difficult and it is often impossible to distinguish other seed samples described here (Table 1), Helianthe-
between the seeds of the genera Vicia and Lathyrus. This is mum spp. seeds dominated the sample composition and
made more difficult in charred ancient legume seeds if they the quantity identified probably underestimates the origi-
lose their testa and hilum, like all of the over 100 specimens nal number present in the deposit. Capsule fragments were
in sample 71 (Table 1), and most in the Mellaart Archive. lacking.
In this case, identification criteria were restricted to seed
shape, seed size, the approximate shape and length of the
hilum relative to the seed circumference and the distance Discussion (Table 2)
from the edge of the hilum to the lens relative to the whole
circumference. In this case all of the seeds were distinctly Taphonomy
angular (Fig. 5.7), some sub-rounded to sub-rectangular,
and they varied in size from 2.1 to 2.8 mm, with a mean of We have little doubt that all seed samples arrived at the site
0.6 mm from the lens to the hilum rim. Lacking preserved as a result of human agency, especially samples 24 and 33,
hilums, these characters placed the specimens from sample which were found in a burnt clay storage bin, were large in
71, and many others mixed in crop stores, within the genera size and of great purity, the latter itself suggestive of fully
Lathyrus sp. or Vicia sp. As Helbæk found, the overall mor- processed seed. Other samples had less secure contextual
phology matched well with modern seeds of Vicia noeana. origin and were less pure in composition and some, such as
However, in this species, together with fellow-members of 23 with a large quantity of burnt mudbrick, perhaps include
Vicia Section Hyperchusa, the lens is situated unusually on contaminants from other stores displaced when buildings
the seed circumference opposite the hilum (Kupicha 1976). were burnt and collapsed. Sample 23 was associated with
Amongst the seeds from Çatalhöyük, none have been found numerous grain and acorn samples, plus fire installations
of this form, thus it must be concluded that the undoubt- and artefacts, and 57 was almost certainly from a discrete
edly wild type pulse seed found in sample 71 and elsewhere deposit within an occupation layer, if Mellaart’s descrip-
cannot be Vicia noeana. In the absence of further diagnos- tion is taken literally (see above). It also contained solid
tic traits the identification of the unknown pulse remains seed “cakes” (Fig. 5.2), which could only have formed if
Lathyrus/Vicia sp. the seeds were charred together within a confined space,
perhaps suggesting that the seeds were within a bag or
other container which did not survive charring intact.
Helianthemum spp. dominated sample 52 Other samples were recovered from named contexts and
are almost certainly from occupation horizons within
Sample 52 was the bag of seeds Helbæk left unidentified. buildings.
It contained a large number of Helianthemum spp. (fam- One plausible alternative to a human source is caching
ily Cistaceae) seeds (Fig. 5.8). Helianthemum spp. seeds of seed by granivorous ants or rodents, such as pests liv-
have been described elsewhere (Van Zeist and Bakker- ing in the houses, which seems unlikely for the contexts
Heeres 1985) and those from sample 52 matched closely from which the samples were derived, all in occupation
both this description and modern reference specimens. horizons. In addition, the seed caches contained chaff and
They were drop-shaped (L: 1–1.2 mm; B: ca. 1 mm) other elements, especially the grass seeds, which are un-
with an attenuated apex and a circular hilum scar at the likely in animal hoards, usually composed of seed. An-
base. Both the smooth surfaced H. ledifolium (L.) Miller other source is introduction of seeds into the site strata by
type (Fig. 5.8, lower left) and faceted H. salicifolium (L.) the burrowing creatures, such as the Spermophilus xantho-
Miller type (Fig. 5.8, upper left and right) were present prymnus Beckett (Anatolian ground squirrel), which lives
and these types were defined by Van Zeist and Bakker- at the site today. Introduction by burrowing rodents of
Heeres (1985), though no attempt was made to quan- charred seeds so deep into the stratigraphy of an aban-
tify them separately as they have a similar ecology and doned site seems unlikely. More likely would be incor-
such separation would provide little additional information poration of uncharred seed caches which were then burnt
about ecologies or past human practices. Both Helianthe- during house destruction or by fires in later houses built
mum species are commonly found growing together in low over the deposition site. While charring of the upper
swards in a variety of waste places, roadsides and arable layers of human burials deposited beneath houses floors
fields near Çatalhöyük today. 1754 seeds were identified clearly took place (Mellaart 1967), charring of seeds more
from a 3.125% (1/32nd) sub-sample, making an estimated deeply buried in occupation deposits by later fires seems
total sample size of 56,128 seeds. Identified Helianthemum unlikely.
spp. seed comprised 53.12% of the total charred sample476
Seed source, collection and processing legume remains and the composition of at least two sam-
ples, that all of the seeds derived from crop weeds or plants
Botanical and archaeobotanical observations make it clear of extensive disturbed areas surrounding the site’s buildings
that all identified taxa have been common in the Konya and communications routes. Certainly all are encouraged
plain for millennia. All are commonly found in the arable by human activity and often form dense stands in arable
autumn sown fields and waste places of the Çatalhöyük fields and waste areas without the need for cultivation.
area today (author’s observations) and thrive on the fine- Collection could have been done during crop-processing,
grained, drained alluvial soils that feed the Konya Basin’s as suggested above for one crucifer and grass sample, or
contemporary agricultural production. All are also common during other collection periods. Given the large volume of
elements of the natural steppe flora (Zohary 1973). All of crucifer seed preserved, it is possible that they were cul-
the taxa were also common in crop stores and other samples tivated, perhaps in tandem with cereal crops (for a recent
(30–60% presence) from recent excavations at Çatalhöyük example see Geleta et al. 2002), but proof to confirm this
(Fairbairn et al. 2002, Table 4) and in the Mellaart Archive remains lacking. Small-seeded crucifers were clearly an
crop stores (Fairbairn et al. forthcoming). Clumps of Sisym- important and valued resource at Çatalhöyük, as confirmed
brium type seeds were also present in the lentil store from by recent finds of stored seed in newly excavated burnt
Building 1 (Fairbairn et al. 2005). [It should be noted that buildings (Bogaard et al. 2005).
the Sisymbrium type identified in previous publications
(Fairbairn et al. 2002, 2005) was identified by low pow- Potential uses
ered microscopy and, given the present study, could include
species of Sisymbrium, Descurainia and Erysimum.] There seems little doubt that the wild crucifer seed was a
All eight samples contained an overwhelming abundance deliberately targeted resource at Çatalhöyük, and the most
of seeds from one or two taxa, mixed with a small quan- obvious use is as an oil source, as discussed by Helbæk
tity of other botanical components. Even where purity is (1964, 122), though they may also have been used as a
considered low (see Table 2), the samples contain a great flavouring (Townsend and Guest 1980). While crucifer
abundance of the dominant seed types. Crop processing leaves are commonly collected today for salad in central
sequences produce a range of seed rich products and by- Anatolia (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997), seed gathering is unknown
products (see Hillman 1984; Jones 1984) and the composi- there (Fusun Ertuğ, pers. comm.), but has been reported in
tion of most samples described here is exactly what would western Iran (Richard Hubbard, pers. comm.) and several
be expected if they were derived from gathered, stored and wild plant seeds have been exploited for their oils in both
fully processed seed – namely dominated by one seed type ethnobotanical and archaeological accounts (Yazıcıoğlu
with other components present in small quantities. Only et al. 1978; Rosenberg et al. 1995). Cruciferous taxa
samples 23 and 49 contained large quantities of compo- (Brassica and Sinapis) have provided oil, flavourings and
nents outside the dominant seed types (Table 1). Sample leaves for millennia and are common archaeological finds
23 contained a relatively large quantity of grain and chaff, (Zohary and Hopf 2000). At 10th Millennium b.p. Jerf el
mainly from emmer wheat where identifiable. Many of Ahmar in Syria, cakes of ground Brassica/Sinapis seed
these grains were small, perhaps indicating that the sample were found in a kitchen, providing the earliest certain
came in part from a fine-sieving crop processing by-product evidence for deliberate collection and probable use as food
(Hillman 1984, Table 1), with the crucifer seed contributed of cruciferous plant seeds in the region (Willcox 2002).
by larger fruits that had shattered during processing. An The use of Descurainia itself is known from later contexts
alternative is that the cereal grain was mixed with the cru- in late Neolithic contexts in Hornstaad-Hörnle, Germany
cifer during burning and collapse of the building. Sample (Schlichtherle 1981; Maier 2001) and stored seed of a sim-
49, containing largely grassy weeds mixed with smaller ilar, as yet unidentified, crucifer was reported from Sabir,
weed seeds, may have derived from “hand sortings” of a Yemen dated to ca. 3000 b.p. (D. de Moulins, pers. comm.).
grain crop in the final stages of processing before use or While crucifer seed has an unambiguous archaeobotani-
storage – note that the stored grain at Çatalhöyük con- cal record at Çatalhöyük and ethnographic/ archaeobotani-
tained very few weed seeds and may have been picked free cal parallels for how it was used, the status of the other seed
of weeds before storage. A similar source could explain concentrations is much less certain. At face value, grass
the wild legume seeds. In both cases, perhaps small piles seed sample 55 is a possible processed seed store, though its
of seeds derived from crop processing were burnt as they context does not allow unambiguous interpretation in this
were left as fire swept through the buildings. Grass sample way. As with grass seed sample 49, which has a much more
55 may have also been produced during grain cleaning, diverse composition, the seeds may be derived from crop
though it contained very few contaminants, much like sam- processing and simply charred as they awaited disposal or
ple 52 (Helianthemum), all of which could have derived were in fact being stored for some other use. Ethnography
from mixing during burning. is silent on their use as food or for other reasons. They were
We have little doubt that all of the sample dominants were suggested as possible adornments (Helbæk 1964, p 122),
seeds of wild plants; they were morphologically identical to an interpretation that for T. caput-medusae seems unlikely
those in our reference collections and showed no evidence given its habit of freely shedding spikelets once picked.
for domestication. It is probable, given the plant species in- Dehusking would have been required if used for food,
volved, the constant association of the seeds with cereal and a possibility as both grow in dense swards and provide477
Table 2 Summary of sample context, major components and interpretation by level and building
Sample Level Building Context Main component(s) Seed purity Interpretation
49 AIII 4 Occupation deposit Taeniatherum Low Hand sortings/processed seed?
caput-medusae seed
23 EVI 1∗ Occupation deposit with Descurainia sp. seed Moderate Processed store ? in use or
many other seed finds displaced derived from crop
processing
24 EVI 17∗ Clay bin 3 Descurainia sp. seed Pure Processed store awaiting use
33 EVI 17∗ Clay bin 3 Descurainia sp. seed Pure Processed store awaiting use
55 EVI 32 Occupation deposit 88% T. caput-medusae High Processed seed?
12% Eremopyrum seed
71 EVI 34 Occupation deposit Helbæk’s Vicia noeana High Processed seed?
57 EVI 44∗ Found in front of leopard 95% Capsella sp. and High Processed store used as food
relief with other finds 5% Descurainia sp. or offering?
seed
52 AVI ( = EVI) 1 ( = 61)∗ Found in L-shaped room Helianthemum spp. Moderate Possible displaced store?
with many other plant finds seed
∗
shrine or building associated with shrine
potentially abundant and nutritious food sources, though possible adornment. For example, crucifer sample 57 came
with the widespread presence of cereals it remains difficult from the Leopard Shrine (E VI 44) where Mellaart recorded
to understand why such food would be necessary. Hillman that crucifers were placed as offerings before the Leopard
has given some details of such possible processing proce- wall relief (see Mellaart 1964, pp 42–45). Crucifer seed
dures for similar grasses in Syria (Moore et al. 2000, p finds all came from "shrines," that is heavily decorated
354), and while a use for food is possible at Çatalhöyük, buildings, as did the single occurrence in recent excava-
it cannot be proved with any certainty and confirmation tions (Bogaard et al. 2005), perhaps indicating a sacred or
awaits further finds from ongoing excavations. ritual value for this plant. The Helianthemum seeds may
The composition of the Helianthemum seed sample also also have had a value independent of nutrition or taste.
points to processing of a pure seed assemblage by human
action, and there is little direct compositional evidence that
the sample is derived from crop processing activities. Ana- Conclusions
tolia also has a rich ethnobotany (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997; Sezik
et al. 2001), but, as with the wild grasses, Heliantheumum Wild seed collection and use at Çatalhöyük was recorded
species are absent from it. It may have been a food, oil, in seven different buildings from two occupation levels
flavouring or medicine; the find remains a possible utilized containing at least two taxa (the crucifers), if not six. We
plant, but again one that is difficult to confirm. have no doubt that crucifers were a valued and deliberately
Both the immature pods and seeds of wild legumes are collected crop, processed in some cases during crop
commonly picked and consumed as casual field snacks in processing activities. Seed collection in Level VI, where
southwest Asia (Post 1896, p 293; Fairbairn, personal ob- it is best represented, was undertaken by a community
servations in Turkey and Syria), but collection of mature which had been farming for at least 800 radiocarbon years.
seed for storage is not seen in the ethnobotany of the region. Oil production is the most probable daily use, but the
Seeds of many Vicia and Lathyrus species, both wild and plants may also have been used as a spice and had ritual
domesticated, are toxic when fully ripe, but as a small part connotations. Recent work has shown the presence of
of a generalist diet they may not represent a health hazard. similar crucifer seed deposits in at least one other building
Consumption in large quantities requires detoxification, a (Bogaard et al. 2005). Crucifer use was thus a widespread
process that has not deterred the use of toxic legumes as and long-term practice and the context of finds indicates
food such as Vicia ervilia, sometimes even as staples, as it co-occurred with the use of domesticated crops and
exemplified by the consumption of Lathyrus sativus L. some fruits and nuts. When compared to the other suite of
(grasspea) (Tekle-Hainamot et al.1995). While the seeds utilized crops, the crucifers contribute a rare source of oil,
from sample 71 may have been used as foodstuffs, there along with almonds, stores of which have been found in the
is no evidence that they were cultivated at Çatalhöyük or Mellaart Archive (Fairbairn et al. 2002) and in recent exca-
represent a previously unknown crop. Wild legumes often vations (Bogaard et al. 2005) and which also may have left
make dense stands, particularly in those species that spread processing residues (Fairbairn et al. 2005). The role and use
with tillers, making gathering from the wild a simple task. of other seeds remains open to speculation and while the
This account has largely focused on use and value of collection of grass seed for food or other uses is debatable,
seeds as foodstuffs, but other uses are possible, as recog- the Helianthemum and legume seed assemblages are more
nised by Helbæk when he interpreted the grass seeds as convincing if obscure resources. However they were used,478
the evidence described here shows that the Çatalhöyük vironments modified or created by humans, such as arable
community was open to exploiting the seeds of plants fields or other disturbed places. They may have thus been
outside the usual range of Neolithic domesticated species under indirect human control and, though this remains to be
that formed the backbone of plant-based subsistence at the proved, the crucifers may have even been cultivated. Ethno-
site. This evidence adds further to, and is consistent with, graphic studies in the Near East in general, and Anatolia in
the emerging picture of diversity in subsistence practices at particular (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997), show that even modern farm-
the site (see Fairbairn et al. 2002, 2005; Russell and Martin ing communities tied into regional industrial economies
2005; Russell and McGowan 2005). A relatively small area have a flexible attitude to plant use and routinely use plants
has been excavated below Level VI and it is probable that growing wild among and around their crops for specific pur-
earlier finds will be made if other burnt buildings are found. poses. Çatalhöyük’s farmers show an early example of this
Collection of wild plant seeds for oil and food has archae- behaviour, regularly using not only the more well-attested
ological equivalents in pre-farming sites in Anatolia, with wild resources, such as fruits and nuts, but also seed plants
Gundelia tournefortii and other taxa found in abundance outside the usual domesticated range. It is to be hoped that
at Hallan Çemi (Rosenberg et al. 1995) and suggestions archaeologists come to understand this diversity of practice
of wild legume collection at Çayönü (see discussion and avoid the simplistic categorical approach to resource
by Asouti and Fairbairn 2002). Collection of seeds by use that has in the past erroneously led to identification of
pre-farming populations and those in transition has been the site as a gatherer settlement (Balter 1998).
recorded at several sites in the region (e.g. Kislev et al.
1992; Willcox 1996, 2002; Moore et al. 2000). Among the Acknowledgements The authors thank James Mellaart for provid-
species exploited were legumes, crucifers and grasses such ing the seed archive for analysis. We also gratefully acknowledge the
financial support of the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropologi-
as Taeniatherum caput-medusae, which in some cases cal Research Inc. and the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara,
were exploited alongside wild cereals, as at M’lefaat, Iraq without which this research would have been impossible. Roger
(Savard et al. 2003). Far more common in Anatolia was Heady, Sally Stowe and Frank Brink of the Electron Microscopy
the collection of fruits and nuts in both pre-farming sites Unit, Australian National University, Canberra provided essential
technical support and advice. Figs. 1 and 2 were reproduced with
(Hallan Çemi, Rosenberg et al 1995; Göbekli Tepe, the permission of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Re-
Hauptmann 1999; Pınarbaşı, Fairbairn unpubl. data; search, University of Cambridge, UK. Thanks to the two referees
Öküzini, Martinoli and Jacomet 2004; Çayönü, van Zeist whose comments greatly improved the presentation and strength of
and de Roller 1991) and farming sites (Aşıklı Höyük, van this paper. Mark Nesbitt provided some useful advice and references.
Zeist and de Roller 1995; Çatalhöyük East, Fairbairn et al.
2002; Can Hasan III, French et al. 1972 and Bademagci,
Martinoli unpubl. data) as it was across the region (Van References
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