What place should COVID-19 vaccine passports have in society?
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Rapid expert deliberation
17 February 2021
What place should COVID-19
vaccine passports have in society?
Findings from a rapid deliberation with multidisciplinary experts
to consider the risks and benefits of the potential roll-out of digital
vaccine certification schemes.
The views put forward below in these deliberation
Introduction findings reflect a snapshot of our understanding
of the evidence and the development
In recent weeks, vaccine passports of technical tools. The urgency of the issue
or COVID-19 status apps – which might give meant – by necessity – this was a limited
some individuals greater access to travel, exercise. Nevertheless, some clear areas
employment or entertainment – have attracted of concern emerged.
attention as a route to move societies out
of lockdown and open up parts of the economy. • The expert group came to the view that,
at present, vaccination status does not offer
With momentum building, the Ada Lovelace clear or conclusive evidence about any
Institute convened an urgent expert deliberation individual’s risk to others via transmission.
to consider how governments should act, chaired Without that, it cannot be a robust basis for
by Professor Sir Jonathan Montgomery. A group risk-based decision making, and therefore
of 17 experts from the fields of immunology, any roll out of a digital passport is not
epidemiology, sociology, international currently justified.
development, behavioural science, law, medical • However, given that evidence
history, public health, ethics, digital identity and on transmission will emerge, and other
technical system design came together across countries and companies are developing
two weeks to discuss the evidence, deliberate such systems, the UK Government must act
on use cases, explore opportunities and risks, urgently to address the public policy issues
and identify areas of consensus to support that arise, and create clear and specific
government decision makers around the world.1 guidelines and law around any appropriate
uses, mechanisms for enforcement and
methods of legal redress.
1 The deliberation forms part of a wider project, which also consists of an international call for evidence and a series
of public events. The Ada Lovelace Institute will publish a longer report in March taking all of the evidence into
consideration, and answering some of the questions raised by the expert deliberation.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 2
• While vaccine passports will be seen There are broad social benefits that flow from
by some as a way to increase freedom, loosening restrictions on social distancing and
for those without a passport they would many hope that passports might help do this
constitute a denial of liberties that safely. In particular, arguments are made for:
others are being granted. Therefore
the justifications both for the relaxation • Public health – making the community
of current restrictions for some and also safer. The effectiveness of this approach
for their continuation for others should is based on the premise that only those who
be clearly articulated. will not transmit the virus are able to take
• The Government will need to take part in activities that would normally present
a clear position outlining the specific a risk of transmission. But this aim is not
purposes and use cases for which, if any, scientifically advisable at present, as it has
vaccine passports can be legally and not been established that vaccination status
legitimately used. reduces the risk of transmission to others
• In allowing some uses or actively (as opposed to the risk of the vaccinated
facilitating digital vaccine passports, person contracting COVID-19).
governments must address the issues and • Personal liberty – enhancing the freedoms
risks arising from such schemes or the of those who have a passport to do things
creation of related digital infrastructure, that would otherwise be restricted due
and whether and how these risks could to COVID-19 (always noting that granting
be mitigated. permissions for some will, in relative terms,
increase the loss of liberty experienced
A vaccine passport as defined here consists by others). This could have a particularly
of three things: health information (vaccine profound benefit for those facing extreme
status through e.g. a certificate), verification harm and isolation due to the virus, for
of identity (connecting the holder to that example those in care homes unable to see
certificate) and authorisation for the purpose relatives.
of allowing or blocking actions (a pass). • Economic benefits – supporting industries
(and the wider economy) struggling
Most passport models currently focus in lockdown by enabling phased opening,
on displaying a vaccination status (rather than for example in entertainment, leisure and
a more granular or ‘live’ assessment of risk, hospitality.
which might incorporate other information)
so this was the primary focus of our discussions. Technology companies across the world are
However, many of the points below also relate developing tools and standards in expectation
to other passport models, including those that vaccine passports and COVID-19 status
based on negative COVID-19 antigen tests and apps could become instrumental to a move
tests showing antibodies after infection. from national lockdowns to a more open and
mobile society.
There are intuitive attractions to the idea of a
vaccine passport in relation to the hope that IBM has launched Digital Health Pass,
Pass
a better balance could be found between integrated with Salesforce’s employee
economic activity and community safety, management platform Work.com
Work.com.
by allowing a more fine-grained and targeted CommonPass, supported by the World
CommonPass
set of restrictions than sweeping measures Economic Forum, and the International Air
or national lockdowns. Transport Association (IATA)’s Travel Pass are
both being trialled by airlines.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 3
The Linux Foundation Public Health’s In the UK, the Government has yet to take
COVID-19 Credentials Initiative and the a clear position on whether to introduce
Vaccination Credential Initiative,
Initiative which vaccine passports, domestically or for
includes Microsoft and Oracle, are pushing for international travel. The Government has
open interoperable standards. A marketplace said there aren’t current plans to introduce
of smaller
smaller, private actors has also emerged vaccine passports but some ministers have
offering bespoke solutions and infrastructures. left the door open to digital passporting
schemes when circumstances change. The
Since the start of the pandemic, a number Government appears to be keeping its options
of countries have demonstrated interest open by funding a number of startups piloting
in some form of ‘immunity passport’ based similar technology and reportedly instructing
on natural immunity and antibodies after officials to draw up draft options for vaccine
infection with COVID-19 (including Germany certificates for international travel.
and the UK,
UK and a pilot in Estonia
Estonia), but a lack
of evidence about the protection acquired Given its comparatively high vaccination rate
through natural immunity meant few schemes – and high infection rate – the UK may be one
were used in real world scenarios. of the first countries to have vaccinated
a sizeable proportion of the country (currently
The World Health Organisation (WHO) put a fifth of their population has received at least
out a clear statement saying there was ‘not one dose) while remaining in national lockdown
enough evidence about the effectiveness with schools closed, many workers furloughed,
of antibody-mediated immunity to guarantee and international and most domestic travel
the accuracy of an “immunity passport” banned. How the UK manages the challenge
or “risk-free certificate”,’ and that ‘the use of a transition out of lockdown is therefore
of such certificates may therefore increase the likely to be of international interest.
risks of continued transmission’.
The approval and roll out of effective vaccines
have re-energised the idea of restoring
personal freedoms and societal mobility
based on certification of COVID vaccination.
A number of countries have made explicit calls
for the development of such a tool. The WHO
has shifted their stance by announcing plans
to develop a digitally enhanced International
Certificate of Vaccination and established
the Smart Vaccination Certificate consortium
with Estonia.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 4
Deliberation findings
1. Governments must act urgently At present, vaccination status does not
to create clear and specific guidelines offer clear or conclusive evidence about any
and law around any uses, mechanisms individual’s risk to others via transmission.
for enforcement and methods of legal Vaccination status can never offer absolutely
redress of vaccine passports. conclusive evidence of an individual’s risk
to others (or their own risk), since no vaccine
The evidence around transmission will will be 100% effective for 100% of recipients.
develop, and that information must continue
to inform future decision making. It seems 3. Passport systems would need
likely that national requirements put in place to be flexible if they are to address
by some countries will trigger the need for the development of mutations, such
internationally accepted certification, and as the E484K mutation,
mutation found in South
many systems are in development. While African, Brazilian and now UK variants
some experts felt any form of digital vaccine of COVID-19, which is thought likely
passport could not be justified due to the to reduce the efficacy of vaccines.
risks they pose (below), the expectation from
the group is that some form of vaccination These variations make it unlikely that
certification will emerge, and therefore that a single COVID-19 vaccination ‘status’ would
general prohibition is neither desirable nor be relevant to all countries or be of a standard
achievable. Letting practice emerge via and fixed duration.
private users and private markets will heighten
a number of the risks outlined below. These mutations make understanding
of vaccination effects on individual
2. Digital passports should not be rolled transmission a moving target, as vaccines
out while so much is unknown about must be assessed against a changing
COVID-19, particularly the effect background of dominant strains within the
of different vaccines (and vaccination population. While booster vaccinations against
regimes) on transmission, the duration variants may manage the issue of strains
of protection and the generalisability this will raise questions about the degree
of those effects. of vaccination sufficient for passports and
the duration of validity of the passport will
The primary justification for sharing personal remain dynamic in response to developing
information with a third party that would affect scientific understanding rather than a fixed
rights and freedoms at an individual level date of issue.
is that it would allow that third party to protect
themselves from serious harm. In other words,
the vaccine passport is premised on the
assumption that my vaccine status tells you
something about the risk I pose to you, not
simply the risk I face from COVID-19.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 5
4. Governments should identify specific 5. If the Government allows or actively
priority use cases for detailed facilitates the use of digital vaccine
consideration of whether they justify passports, they must address the
selective rights and freedoms based issues and risks arising from such
on vaccination status, and if so, the best schemes or the creation of related digital
mechanisms for those schemes. infrastructure, and whether and how
these risks could be mitigated.
Particularly urgent use cases to consider
are international travel, key frontline workers Some of these issues and risks are near-term
(especially in health and care, and education), concerns. Others are longer-term issues about
and access to employment generally. how such systems might become embedded
Secondary use cases include access and reshape society beyond the pandemic.
to hospitality or leisure venues. Governments
should actively shape their society’s choices Immediate risks
around these use cases.
1. Undermining public health by treating
At least some of these may be satisfactorily a collective problem as an individual one
addressed by updating existing mechanisms,
rather than building a new system of passports Digital vaccine passports could potentially
and digital identity. For example, there are undermine other public health interventions
already mechanisms in place to ensure that and suggest a binary certainty (passport
individuals are properly protected at work. holders are safe; those without are risky) that
One of the most prominent examples in health does not adequately reflect a more nuanced
settings is the Green Book on immunisation
immunisation, and collective understanding of risk posed and
which covers requirements for vaccination faced during the pandemic.
in high-risk environments. Further, existing
safeguarding and ‘fit and proper person’ It may be counterproductive or harmful
requirements allow employers to require to encourage risk scoring at an individual level
employees to demonstrate that they can when risk is more contextual and collective
be safely employed. In a non-health context – it will be national and international herd
this might include confirming that they have immunity that will offer ultimate protection.
not been convicted of relevant offences Passporting might foster a false sense
through the issue of a Disclosure and Barring of security in either the passported person
Service (DBS) certificate;
certificate if deemed legally or others, and increase rather than decrease
permissible, a similar service could provide risky behaviours.
one-off checks for vaccination status.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 6
2. The opportunity cost of focusing 4. Exacerbating inequalities within societies
on vaccine passports
Existing distrust of the state, identity
There will be opportunity costs to focusing infrastructure and vaccines are also
on vaccine passports rather than other expected to put some groups at a particular
interventions. There may be a comparatively disadvantage. Access to digital technology,
narrow window where there is scientific forms of identification, tests and vaccines
confidence about the impact of vaccines is already unequal, and vaccine passports may
on transmission and enough of a vaccinated unintentionally mirror and reinforce existing
population that it is worth segregating rights inequalities without wider programmes for
and freedoms. Once there is population- addressing health inequalities.
level herd immunity it will not make sense
to differentiate and passports would 5. Increasing inequalities between nations
be unnecessary.
International cooperation will be necessary,
Passports may be a tempting distraction. particularly for schemes enabling international
They bring political, financial and human travel. But scientific concerns could quickly
capital costs that must be weighed against become geopolitical ones, with countries
their benefits. They might crowd out more using recognition of (and access to) vaccines
important policies to reopen society more as a form of political power and influence.
quickly for everyone, such as by vaccine There is pressure on governments to acquire
rollout and test, trace and isolate schemes, vaccine supplies, which in turn triggers
and other public health measures. a form of ‘vaccine nationalism’ – where
richer countries are able to buy up supplies
3. Exacerbating distrust by marginalised of vaccines where poorer ones can’t.
groups and increasing vaccine hesitancy
Tying movement to vaccine certification could
It has been argued that one of the benefits supercharge protectionism and entrench
of vaccine passports is to encourage existing global inequalities. International
uptake of COVID-19 vaccines. In the UK, friction is unhelpful when vaccination is,
which has already seen over 90% uptake ultimately, a global public good. Any individual
of first doses in the over 75s and elderly country’s fate is tied to reaching international
care home residents and where nearly herd immunity as we are seeing with emergent
90% of unvaccinated adults say they would new strains.
be vaccinated if available, it is not clear
there is much additional benefit to be gained
by further incentivising vaccination.
However, there is a downside risk that
it could reduce trust and increase vaccine
hesitancy if the scheme is seen as introducing
mandatory vaccination by the back door.
This may be particularly acute amongst
marginalised groups who may already have
greater levels of mistrust, such as Black and
Asian communities, who are already seeing
lower rates of vaccine uptake.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 7
Future risks
7. Scope creep and information flows
6. Normalising health status surveillance
by creating long-term infrastructure There were particular concerns in the expert
in response to a time-bounded crisis group that digital identity systems could
be introduced as part of an emergency
It is likely that SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that infrastructure, but used for different
causes COVID-19) will become endemic, like or expanded purposes. The wider merits
seasonal flu and other infectious disease- of digital identity systems (for example) must
causing pathogens (or even better contained, be disaggregated from the immediate health
like measles, or even eliminated), at which context and considered in their own right.
point it will no longer require the emergency
and intrusive measures justified by its present Concerns were raised about how information
transmissibility and fatality. Accepting this might be used more broadly than was
as a reasonable scientific expectation for intended. Information might flow to third
the near future, raises concerns about the parties, and personal data may be repurposed.
longevity of emergency apparatus, and that Even with the most privacy-preserving
such infrastructure – once built – will not technology, the expectation is that health
be stripped back. data will be viewed by different actors, from
healthcare settings, employers, clients, police
Reference was made by the expert group and pubs to insurance companies, who
to post-9/11 security infrastructure at airports, may have different levels of experience and
and the once-limited but now essentially trustworthiness in handling personal data.
mandatory Aadhaar identity system
in India. There was pessimism about the
likelihood of vaccine-passport technologies
being ‘switched off’ once the crisis has
passed. Building these roads could lead
to path dependency: once an infrastructure
exists, it will make certain future choices
more favourable and block others. ‘Once
a road is built, good luck not using it,’ as one
participant put it. This might be a particular
issue if the status of other health conditions
were to be added.
The current uncertainty, ongoing social
anxiety and economic cost of the pandemic
makes the technical fix of a novel tool and
emergency infrastructure seem attractive, but
the starting point should be identifying specific
problems and looking at whether and how
these could be addressed through existing
practices and laws.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 8
Next steps
Drawing on this expert deliberation, the They should evaluate the adaptation
Ada Lovelace Institute has laid out some of existing mechanisms as well as a new
recommendations for the UK Government. system of passports and digital identity.
This will necessitate engaging Urgent domestic use cases are likely
in wider conversations with other national to include the deployment of frontline workers
governments, and we anticipate that many (particularly in health and care, and education)
of these recommendations will be applicable and access to employment in general.
in other national contexts.
3. Offer urgent clarification on the current
1. Set scientific pre-conditions legal status of the development and use
of vaccine passports, in particular with
To move forward, governments should have regard to data protection, equality and
a better understanding of vaccine efficacy and discrimination, health and safety and
transmission, durability and generalisability, employment law
and evidence that use of vaccine passports
would lead to: Developers of vaccine passports should
not be in the position of also developing
a. Reduced transmission risk the rules for where these systems should
by vaccinated people – this is likely be implemented, nor are they taking
to involve issues of risk appetite, as the responsibility for enforcing local law.
risk of transmission may be reduced
but will probably not be nil Currently, developers are operating under
b. Low ‘side effects’ – that passporting the assumption that governments will provide
won’t foster a false sense of security protections against unlawful or unethical use,
in either the passported person and will enforce such restrictions. This does
or others, which might lead not reflect reality. Governments must develop
to an increase of risky behaviours clear guidelines, which will take time to do
(not following required public health effectively.
measures), with a net harmful effect.
4. Consult a wide group of experts and
2. Identify the urgent use cases so that perspectives
the benefits and risks can be assessed
if these pre-conditions are met As well as the experts from health, social
sciences, law, ethics, technology and other
Governments should consider a cost/ disciplines involved in our deliberation,
benefit analysis of each specific use case. Government will need to understand the
This includes assessing the likely impact perspectives of those involved in the
on transmission risk, economic activity practical implementation of any use case,
and social inequality if selective rights e.g. employers and industry bodies, unions,
and freedoms were to be based public health experts and system leaders,
on vaccination status. those working on vaccination programmes,
software developers, groups working on open
standards, local elected officials etc.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 9
This understanding is a necessary condition 6. Work through the World Health
for both policy development and effective Organisation on international
public engagement. travel use cases
5. Engage publics on any potential uses A key use case of vaccine passports is for
to understand impacts, build trust and international travel. The UK has already played
legitimacy, and understand what trade- an important role in championing global
offs the public is willing to make vaccinations through early and significant
contributions to GAVI and COVAX. It should
The issues raised by vaccine passports should continue to seek international agreement
be subject to proper public deliberation, on international travel passports, engaging
engagement, co-production and evaluation with the World Health Organisation, who
that goes beyond superficial opinion polling. are already coordinating efforts and will
The deliberation should focus on issues have greater access to scientific evidence
broader than passports, such as the public on developments globally.
health response to COVID-19 in general
and how people think vaccination data International standards will be vital for
should be used. interoperability. Different countries leading
different discussions outside the WHO’s
This could be done in partnership with civil efforts will only heighten the difficulties
society groups with relevant expertise. It will of international coordination and frustrate
be essential to engage with those groups who attempts to define standards. The UK should
are likely to face disadvantage, discrimination champion the WHO as the more appropriate
or unique/particular risks through the roll and legitimate venue to make decisions about
out of such technologies, including but not international travel passports and have expert
limited to: input to wrestle with the scientific evidence
(particularly on risk around mutations), and
a. Those in insecure work or currently take a global view.
unemployed
b. Those with insecure or invalid 7. Identify and mitigate risks through
citizenship status policy measures, technical design
c. Those unable or unwilling to have and governance infrastructure prior
the vaccine to proceeding with schemes
d. Those who face historic or continuing
over-surveillance.2 This will include careful consideration of the
practicalities and security of any scheme
and resources required – considering where
responsibility and accountability for collecting,
managing, securing and sharing data resides,
and to what extent data minimisation
is possible.
2 See current Ada Lovelace Institute project with the Health Foundation on public engagement about
COVID-19 technologies and health inequalitiesAda Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 10 Consider the costs and benefits of paper- based versus digital solutions, and novel infrastructure against existing structures that might be developed through existing health and safety procedures in high-risk occupations (see Chapter 12 of the Green Book); such as a one-off consultation akin to the DBS or Electronic System for Travel Authorisation. Explore policy measures at a domestic and global scale that could adequately counteract and mitigate the risks and issues outlined above, for example: employment benefits for those unable to work; international requirements about vaccine coverage; defining clear and limited purposes of any vaccine passport with strong legal protection for data subjects; and socio-technical design principles.
Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 11
About this report
• Sanjoy Bhattacharya is Professor
This report is an interim summary of the in the History of Medicine, Director
findings and recommendations from the Ada of the Centre for Global Health Histories
Lovelace Institute expert deliberation, chaired and Director of the WHO Collaborating
by Professor Sir Jonathan Montgomery. Centre for Global Health Histories at the
A fuller report of the deliberation session will University of York.
be available next month. • Sarah Chan is a Chancellor’s Fellow
and Reader in Bioethics at the Usher
We are indebted to the contributions of the Institute, University of Edinburgh. She
experts who participated in this deliberation. is also Deputy Director of the Mason
This report highlights conclusions from that Institute for Medicine, Life Sciences and
collective conversation, acknowledging that Law, Associate Director of the Centre
the group did not always arrive at a consensus, for Biomedicine, Self and Society and
and the document reflects a majority view. a member of the Genomics England Ethics
Individual findings have not been, and should Advisory Committee.
not be, attributed to any specific individual. • Tracey Chantler is Assistant Professor
of Public Health Evaluation & Medical
Members of the expert group included: Anthropology at the London School
of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. She
• Jonathan Montgomery (chair) is Professor is also a member of the Immunisation
of Health Care Law at University College Health Protection Research Unit,
London and Chair of Oxford University a collaborative research group involving
Hospitals NHSFT. He was previously Chair Public Health England and LSHTM.
of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics and • Robert Dingwall is Professor of Sociology
Chair of the Health Research Authority. at Nottingham Trent University. He is
• Danny Altmann is Professor also a Fellow of the Academy of Social
of Immunology at Imperial College London, Sciences and a member of the Faculty
where he heads a lab at the Hammersmith of Public Health. He sits on several
Hospital Campus. He was previously government advisory committees,
Editor-in-Chief of the British Society for including NERVTAG (New and Emerging
Immunology’s ‘Immunology’ journal and Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory
is an Associate Editor at ‘Vaccine’ and Group) and the JCVI (Joint Committee
at ‘Frontiers in Immunology.’ on Vaccination and Immunisation) sub-
• Dave Archard is Emeritus Professor committee on Covid-19.
of Philosophy at Queen’s University Belfast. • Amy Fairchild is Dean and Professor
He is also Chair of the Nuffield Council at the College of Public Health, Ohio State
on Bioethics, a member of the Clinical University. She is also Co-Director of the
Ethics Committee at Great Ormond Street World Health Organization Collaborating
Hospital and Honorary Vice-President Center for Bioethics at Columbia’s Center
of the Society for Applied Philosophy for the History and Ethics of Public Health.
• Ana Beduschi is an Associate Professor • Matteo Galizzi is Associate Professor
of Law at Exeter University. She currently of Behavioural Science at the London
leads the UKRI ESRC-funded project School of Economics. He is also Co-
on COVID-19: Human Rights Implications Director of LSE Behavioural Lab and
of Digital Certificates for Health Status coordinates the Behavioural Experiments
Verification. in Health Network and the Data Linking
Initiative in Behavioural Science.Ada Lovelace Institute COVID-19 vaccine passports and society 12
About the Ada Lovelace Institute
• Michael Parker is Director of the Wellcome
Centre for Ethics and Humanities and The Ada Lovelace Institute was established
Director of the Ethox Centre at the by the Nuffield Foundation in early 2018,
University of Oxford. He is also a member in collaboration with the Alan Turing Institute,
of the government’s Scientific Advisory the Royal Society, the British Academy, the
Group for Emergencies, the Chair of the Royal Statistical Society, the Wellcome Trust,
Genomics England Ethics Advisory Luminate, techUK and the Nuffield Council
Committee and a non-executive director on Bioethics.
of Genomics England.
• Sobia Raza is a Senior Fellow at the Health The mission of the Ada Lovelace Institute
Foundation within the Data Analytics team. is to ensure that data and AI work for people
She is also an Associate and previous and society. We believe that a world where
Head of Science at the PHG Foundation. data and AI work for people and society is a
• Peter Taylor is Director of Research world in which the opportunities, benefits and
at the Institute of Development Studies. privileges generated by data and AI are justly
He was previously the Director of Strategic and equitably distributed and experienced.
Development at the International
Development Research Centre. We recognise the power asymmetries that
• Carmela Troncoso is Assistant Professor, exist in ethical and legal debates around the
Security and Privacy Engineering Lab development of data-driven technologies, and
at the École Polytechnique Fédérale will represent people in those conversations.
de Lausanne. She was a leading We focus not on the types of technologies
researcher on DP-3T and is also a member we want to build, but on the types of societies
of the Swiss National COVID-19 Science we want to build.
Task Force’s expert group on Digital
Epidemiology. Through research, policy and practice,
• Edgar Whitley is Associate Professor we aim to ensure that the transformative
of Information Systems at the London power of data and AI is used and harnessed
School of Economics. He is co-chair in ways that maximise social wellbeing and put
of the UK Cabinet Office Privacy and technology at the service of humanity.
Consumer Advisory Group and was the
research coordinator of the LSE Identity We are funded by the Nuffield Foundation,
Project on the UK’s proposals to introduce an independent charitable trust with a mission
biometric identity cards. to advance social well-being. The Foundation
• James Wilson is Professor of Philosophy funds research that informs social policy,
and Co-Director of the Health Humanities primarily in education, welfare and justice.
Centre at University College London. He is It also provides opportunities for young
also an Associate editor of Public Health people to develop skills and confidence
Ethics and Member of the National Data in STEM and research. In addition to the Ada
Guardian’s Panel and Steering Group. Lovelace Institute, the Foundation is also the
founder and co-funder of the Nuffield Council
on Bioethics and the Nuffield Family Justice
Observatory.
@AdaLovelaceInst
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