VISIONS FOR A SEA CHANGE - Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning
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VISIONS FOR A SEA CHANGE
Report of the First International
Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
and the Man and the Biosphere Programme
UNESCO Headquarters
Paris, France
8-10 November 2006
Intergovernmental Man and ICAM
Oceanographic Biosphere
Commission
The designation employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO in particular concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or the delineation of its frontiers or boundaries. The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this manual and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Designer: Eric Lodde Written by Charles Ehler and Fanny Douvere For bibliographic purposes, this document should be cited as follows: Ehler, Charles, and Fanny Douvere. Visions for a Sea Change. Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning. Intergovern- mental Oceanographic Commission and Man and the Biosphere Programme. IOC Manual and Guides, 46: ICAM Dossier, 3. Paris: UNESCO, 2007 (English). Printed by ??? © UNESCO iOC 2006 2 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning
Table OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 4
Foreword 5
1 Introduction to the Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning 7
2 Introduction to Ecosystem-based, Sea Use Management 15
3 Ecosystem-based, Sea Use Management and Marine Spatial Planning 23
4 Key Scientific Issues for Ecosystem-based, Marine Spatial Planning 29
5 Legislation and Policy Framework for Marine Spatial Planning 35
6 A Process for Marine Spatial Planning 45
7 Defining the Human Dimension of Marine Spatial Planning 53
8 Implementing Marine Spatial Planning 57
9 Monitoring, Evaluating, and Adapting Marine Spatial Planning 65
10 Conclusions and Next Steps 71
References 73
Annexes
Workshop Programme 78
Workshop Participants 80
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 3
Acknowlegment
Several people in UNESCO were invaluable in making the first Interna- Financial support was provided by a broad range of donors and partners.
tional Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning possible, especially Dr. Patricio Fourteen different governmental and non-governmental organizations made
Bernal, Executive Secretary of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Com- financial contributions to the workshop including: the Flemish Government;
mission (IOC), and Dr. Natarajan Ishwaran, Director of the Division of Ecolog- the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada; the National Oceanic and
ical and Earth Sciences and Secretary of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA; the Belgian Science Policy Office;
Programme. In early 2006 they both agreed to support an initiative on eco- the Belgian Federal Public Service (FPS) Health, Food Chain Safety, and Environ-
system-based, marine spatial planning and provided seed money to get it ment; Natural England; the European Commission Maritime Policy Task Force;
launched. They continue to support the initiative today and want to move the European Environment Agency; the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author-
it forward within UNESCO and with other partners. Julian Barbiere, Pro- ity, Australia; the World Conservation Union/World Commission on Protected
gramme Specialist in IOC and manager of its Integrated Coastal Area Man- Areas (Marine); Conservation International; WWF International; The Nature Con-
agement (ICAM) Programme and Salvatore Arico, Programme Specialist in servancy; and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.
the MAB Programme, were particularly helpful in supporting the workshop.
Jan Schlichting, an IOC intern, helped design and implement the workshop We prepared this technical report from expert presentations made at the work-
Website. Virginie Bonnet and Natasha Lazic both provided administrative shop and subsequent discussions during and following the workshop, supple-
support before and during the workshop. mented and updated with new information where appropriate. Marine spatial
planning is a rapidly developing field, and we wanted to keep this report up to
The workshop would not have been possible without the contribution of an date. We take responsibility for any misinterpretation or misrepresentation of
enthusiastic and experienced group of participants that included scientists and ideas in the original presentations or factual errors in the report.
practitioners from 20 countries. Presentations were given by ten experts includ-
ing Frank Maes, Elliott Norse, Larry Crowder, Paul Gilliland, Dan Lafolley, Kevin St.
Martin, Cathy Plasman, Yves Auffret, Jon Day, and Antonio De Leon. Their con- Charles Ehler and Fanny Douvere
tinuing professional accomplishments in researching, developing, and imple- Workshop Co-chairs
menting marine spatial planning in the context of ecosystem-based manage- Paris, France
ment was of major importance to the overall success of the workshop. May 2007
4 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning
Foreword
”...The problems of ocean space are closely interrelated and need
to be considered as a whole…”
Preamble to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
When the authors of the Preamble to the United Nations Convention on the UNESCO is in a unique position through the international perspective of its pro-
Law of the Sea wrote this prescient phrase in 1982, few people recognized how grams, particularly the IOC and the MAB Programme, to evaluate and improve
relevant it would become to the marine world of today. Scientists are calling the effectiveness of marine spatial planning as a tool to secure both marine
increasingly for ecosystem-based management of marine areas and consider- biodiversity and economic development. The workshop was a cooperative ini-
able work has already been done on developing the conceptual aspects. In tiative between the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and
fact, conceptual work has dominated ecosystem-based management and the the Man and the Biosphere Programme of the Ecological and Earth Sciences
debate has often become academic for the lack of practical evidence of what Division. In the longer run, these activities could provide an opportunity to de-
works and what does not. Hopefully, this workshop moved the theoretical work velop broader partnerships both within and outside UNESCO, that could lead
forward by shifting the focus more toward putting marine ecosystem-based to better integration of spatial management of human activities in terrestrial
management into practice. areas, watersheds, coasts and oceans.
Marine spatial planning at the ecosystem level is a first step toward ecosystem-
based management. Patricio Bernal, Executive Secretary
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
and
Natarajan Ishwaran, Director
Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences and
Secretary, Man and the Biosphere Programme
UNESCO
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 5
1Introduction to the Workshop on
MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 7
What Is Marine Spatial Planning?
environment, have led to two types of conflict. First, this multitude of
Marine spatial planning is a way of improving decision making and human activities (mostly uncoordinated among economic sectors) has
delivering an ecosystem-based approach to managing human activi- resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss and damage to the
ties in the marine environment. It is a planning process that enables diversity of life in marine and coastal areas (use-environment conflicts,
integrated, forward looking, and consistent decision making on the e.g., habitat loss). Second, not all uses are compatible with one another
human uses of the sea. Marine spatial planning is analogous to spatial and are competing for ocean space or have adverse effects on each other
or land use planning in terrestrial environments. (use-use conflicts, between, e.g., shipping and offshore wind farms).
Ecosystem-based, marine spatial planning seeks to sustain the ben- Historically, management approaches have focused on single sectors
efits of the ecological goods and services that the oceans provide to with little consideration of the potential conflicts across sectors. During
humans as well as all living organisms on the planet. the past decade, the traditional sectoral approach to natural resource
Why Was an International Workshop on Marine Spatial
Planning Organized? Table 1. Examples of the Human Use of Ocean Space
Rapid population growth and shifting consumer demands have con- Commercial Fishing
siderably increased the need for more food, more energy and more Recreational Fishing
trade from marine areas. Because of limited resources and space on
land, an increasingly larger share of goods and services is coming Aquaculture
from coastal and marine areas. This trend will continue, and more Shipping
likely accelerate, in the next decades. Future outlooks, in particular for Oil & Gas Exploration and Production
offshore aquaculture, offshore energy, maritime transport, and tour-
Renewable Energy Production, e.g., wind, waves
ism, predict increasing uses of marine areas in the coming years. It is
difficult to understate the value of the oceans to present and future Sand and Gravel Mining
1 economic prosperity. Dredging
The Convention of Biological Diver-
sity defines the “ecosystem approach” Dredged Material Disposal
However, other values of the oceans are also critically important, in-
as “…a strategy for integrated
management of land, water, and cluding the benefits of the ecological goods and services that the Recreation and Tourism
living resources that promotes oceans provide to humans as well as all living organisms on the plan- Offshore Housing, Factories, Airports
conservation and sustainable use in
an equitable way. The ecosystem et. In addition to the provisioning services provided by marine areas,
Pipelines, Cables, Transmission Lines
approach is based on the application including food, fiber, and medicine, the oceans provide regulating
of appropriate scientific methodolo-
services (storm protection provided by coral reefs and wetlands), sup- Bio-prospecting
gies focused on levels of biological
organization, which encompass the porting services (carbon capture and nutrient recycling), and cultural Desalinization
essential processes, functions and services (including unique knowledge systems about marine resourc-
interactions among organisms and Military Activities
their environment. It recognizes that es). (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
humans, with their cultural diversity, Scientific Research
are an integral component of ecosys-
tems.” Decision V/6 of the Conference Since marine resources are limited both in space and size, economic Marine Protected Areas
of the Parties to the Convention on development has been devastating to marine biodiversity in many
Biological Diversity. Available at: Cultural and Historic Conservation, e.g., ship wrecks
http://www.biodiv.org.
places. Essentially, increased development pressures on the marine
8 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning
and environmental management has been recognized to be insuf- ularly with marine spatial planning and zoning. A complete list of
ficient to address the cumulative effects of human activities on the participants and their contact information is included as an annex
marine environment and has shifted to a more holistic “ecosystem to this report.
approach” that calls for comprehensive analysis of all dimensions of
environmental problems. How Was the Meeting Organized?
Despite its general acceptance however, so far the ecosystem approach The meeting was organized around some of the basic elements of
has been more a concept, widely discussed at scientific meetings, but management, i.e., authorization, research, planning and analysis, im-
with few examples of actual practice. It is increasingly clear that govern- plementation, monitoring, evaluation, and capacity building. Case
ments lack concrete tools to make an ecosystem approach operational in studies of particular geographic areas were used only to illustrate
the marine environment. A key challenge today is to take the ecosystem the importance and interconnectedness of each of these elements
approach beyond the conceptual level, and one practical way to do this in an overall management framework. The workshop programme is
is through marine spatial planning. included as an annex to this report.
From 8-10 November 2006 the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Com- What Happened at the Workshop?
mission (IOC) and the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNES- After introductory comments by the co-chairs that framed the objec-
CO) held the first international workshop on Marine Spatial Planning. The tives of the workshop, its organization, and basic definitions, Frank
meeting was held at the UNESCO Headquarters in Paris, France. Maes, University of Gent (Belgium) described the international, Euro-
pean and Belgian legal context of marine spatial planning—noting
What Was the Purpose of the Workshop? that legislation was a desirable, but not necessarily, critical prerequi-
site. Elliott Norse of the Marine Conservation Biology Institute (USA)
The purpose of the workshop was to: and Larry Crowder of Duke University pointed out incompatibilities
between some human uses (e.g., bottom trawling) and the mainte-
• Identify good practices that illustrate how marine spatial planning nance of biodiversity and effectively argued the case for using marine
can help implement an ecosystem-based approach to sea use man- spatial planning to protect and recover biodiversity and ecosystem
agement; functions. At the same time, they pointed out the need to keep the
• Develop an international community of scientists and planners that ecosystem in “ecosystem-based management” and marine spatial
wants to put ecosystem-based management into practice; planning. Paul Gilliland and Dan Lafolley of Natural England pre-
• Share information and experience through new partnerships and sented an ecosystem-based process for marine spatial planning, em-
the Internet; and phasizing the importance of clear objectives, meaningful indicators,
• Identify priorities for future action, including developing international effective stakeholder involvement, and mitigating conflicts through
guidelines and building new capacities for marine spatial planning. planning. Kevin St. Martin of Rutgers University made a strong case
for adding the “human dimension” and the “missing layer” to marine
Who Attended the Workshop? spatial planning, particularly by relating offshore activities to onshore
communities, livelihoods, and cultures through community participa-
About 50 policy makers, managers, and scientists from over 20 coun- tion, incorporation of local knowledge, and geographic information
tries attended the workshop. Participants were invited based on their systems. Yves Auffret of the European Commission’s Maritime Policy
practical experience in sea use planning and management, partic- Task Force described the alternative institutional arrangements for
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 9
marine spatial planning considered through the draft Maritime Policy technical report and a special issue of the international journal, Ma-
of the EU. The realties of implementing marine spatial plans, espe- rine Policy, will summarize the themes of the workshop in more detail.
cially the different evaluation criteria, were highlighted by a elected Publication of the special issue is expected by early 2008. Longer-term
public official, Cathy Plasman of the Belgian Ministry of Mobility and activities include preparation of international guidelines on marine
North Sea Affairs. Jon Day of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine spatial management and training for building capacity. These results
Park emphasized the need for monitoring, evaluation, reporting and will be part of UNESCO’s contributions to the implementation of the
adaptive management, based a major re-zoning of the GBRMP after work plan of the Convention on Biological Diversity. In the longer
30 years. Finally, Antonio Diaz de Leon, Director-General of Mexico’s run, these activities could provide an opportunity to develop broader
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, focused on capacity international and regional partnerships that could lead to better inte-
building needed for effective sea use planning in the Gulf of Mexico gration of spatial management of human activities in terrestrial areas,
and Gulf of California. watersheds, coasts—and oceans.
What Were Some of the Principal Findings of the Workshop? Why UNESCO?
Some of the principal findings of the workshop are that: (1) marine spatial UNESCO is in a unique position through the international perspective of
planning is an important element of ecosystem-based sea use manage- its programmes in the IOC and MAB, as well as its World Heritage Center
ment; (2) marine spatial planning is only one part of the tool box of ecosys- and Coastal Areas and Small Islands Programme, to evaluate and improve
tem-based, sea use management—actual applications will include a mix of the effectiveness of ecosystem-based management, especially through
control measures including regulatory and non-regulatory (e.g., economic) marine spatial planning and ocean zoning. For example, for the past 30
incentives; (2) early and continuing engagement of stakeholders in a clear years the MAB Programme has pioneered the concept of spatial plan-
management process is critical to success and engenders trust and owner- ning and zoning for biodiversity conservation through the Biosphere
ship of the process; (3) monitoring and evaluation are critical elements of Reserve Programme2 in almost 100 countries. Of 440 Biosphere Reserves
the MSP process; (4) integrating the human dimension into marine spatial established by 2006,109 are coastal and/or marine.
2 planning requires the same diversity of disciplines/perspectives as does the
The origin of Biosphere Reserves ecosystem approach relative to the biophysical environment; (5) compre-
goes back to the “Biosphere Confer- hensive, spatially-explicit data on ecosystem characteristics, human uses,
ence organized by UNESCO in 1968,
the first intergovernmental confer- and offshore jurisdictions are required—these data are not readily available
ence to seek to reconcile the conser- for most marine areas, and can be expensive and time-consuming to col-
vation and use of natural resources,
foreshadowing the current notion lect; and (6) decision makers are unlikely to accept marine spatial planning
of sustainable development. The until its benefits can be better documented. A more complete list of find-
Man and the Biosphere Programme
was officially launched in 1970.
ings is included in the last chapter of this report.
One of the MAB projects consisted
of establishing a coordinated world
network of new protected areas, to
What Will Happen As a Result of the Workshop?
be designated as Biosphere Reserves.
MAB’s programmatic goal is achiev- A Website (http://ioc3.unesco.org/marinesp) that contains back-
ing a sustainable balance between
the sometimes-conflicting goals ground documents, presentations, and links to other marine spatial
of conserving biological diversity, planning sites, and preliminary conclusions of the workshop has al-
promoting economic development,
and maintaining associated cultural
ready been prepared and will be modified substantially over the next
values. year. The results of the workshop are documented in this UNESCO
10 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial PlanningThe UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Programme (http://www.unesco. the state of conservation of their World Heritage sites. There are 830
org/mab) is one of the first to use “core areas”, “buffer zones,” and “properties” on the World Heritage list. Of these, 162 are natural sites,
“transition zones”—designations that are still relevant to marine and only 18 sites (about 2% of the total) are “marine”. Marine areas
biodiversity conservation today. Generally, each biosphere reserve that are currently listed include the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), the
is comprised of three areas: (1) one or more core areas that are Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), the Belize Barrier-Reef Reserve System
securely protected sites for conserving biological diversity, monitor- (Belize), the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve (Mexico), and Tubbataha
ing minimally disturbed ecosystems, and undertaking non-destruc- Reef Marine Park (Philippines) – all of which have employed a wide
tive research and other low-impact uses, such as education; (2) a variety of zoning approaches in their management strategies.
clearly identified buffer zone that usually surrounds or adjoins the
core areas, and is used for cooperative activities compatible with UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, through
sound ecological practices, including environmental education, its Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM) Programme (http://
recreation, ecotourism and applied and basic research; and (3) a ioc.unesco.org/icam/) is pioneering the use of indicators for evalu-
flexible transition area, or “area of cooperation” that may contain a ating the effectiveness of integrated coastal and ocean manage-
variety of activities, settlements, and other uses, and in which local ment, including zoning as a management measure4. At the same
communities, management agencies, scientists, non-governmental time, IOC’s Coastal-Global Ocean Observing System (C-GOOS) Pro-
organizations, cultural groups, economic interests, and other stake- gramme (http://www.ioc-goos.org/) has developed an operational
holders work together to manage and develop the area’s resources approach for monitoring many of the parameters of coastal areas
sustainably. Although originally envisioned as a series of concentric that would be essential in populating a series of coastal and ocean
rings, the three zones have been implemented in many different indicators. Both the ICAM and C-GOOS programmes are important
ways to meet local needs and conditions. In fact, one of the greatest to an evaluation of spatial planning and zoning for marine biodi-
strengths of the Biosphere Reserve concept has been the flexibility versity conservation.
and creativity with which it has been realized in various situations.
Aren’t There Other International Programmes that Could Be
Some countries have enacted legislation specifically to establish Appropriate Partners for Marine Spatial Planning?
Biosphere Reserves. In many others, the core areas and buffer
zones are designated (in whole or in part) as protected areas under Yes—at least two others are obvious. The United Nations Environ-
national law. A large number of Biosphere Reserves simultaneously ment Programme’s Regional Seas Programme and the International
belong to other national systems of protected areas, such as na- Maritime Organization’s areas that are designated as “Particularly
tional parks or nature reserves, and/or other international networks, Sensitive Sea Areas”. The Regional Seas Programme (www.unep.
such as World Heritage or Ramsar sites3. Despite this wide cover- org/regionalseas/) addresses the accelerating degradation of the
age and depth of experience with spatial planning and zoning in world’s oceans and coastal areas through the sustainable manage-
protected areas, no systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of ment and use of the marine and coastal environment, by engag-
3
marine spatial planning and zoning as management strategies for ing neighboring countries in comprehensive and specific actions
Out of 1651 Ramsar sites, 720
biodiversity conservation has been undertaken. to protect their shared marine environment. Today, more than 140 covering 485,000 km2 globally are
countries participate in 13 Regional Seas Programmes (RSPs): the listed as coastal or marine. Only
about 60% have any management
UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre (http://whc.unesco.org) encourages Mediterranean Sea, the Caribbean Sea, West and Central Africa, planning process.
States Parties to the World Heritage Convention to nominate sites Eastern Africa, East Asian Seas, the North West Pacific, the ROPME
within their national territory for inclusion on the World Heritage List Sea Area, the South East Pacific, the North East Pacific, the Red Sea 4
and to establish management plans and set up reporting systems on and Gulf of Aden, the South Pacific, the Black Sea, and the South See Belfiore et al., 2006
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 11Table 2. Examples of Marine Spatial Planning and Ocean Zoning
Fig 1.
Large, Integrated Sea Use Management Programs/Projects Using MSP
The Regional
Australia Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Seas Programme
Australia Marine Bioregional Planning
(Source: UNEP)
Belgium Belgian Part of the North Sea (GAUFRE Project)
Canada Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated Management Project
China Territorial Sea Functional Zoning
Denmark, Germany Trilateral Wadden Sea Cooperation Area
Asian Seas. While not officially designated as “Regional Seas”, five & The Netherlands
other programs characterize themselves as “partners” of the Re- Germany EEZ and Territorial Sea Spatial Planning
gional Seas Programme: the Baltic Sea, the North East Atlantic, the Mexico Ecological Ocean Use Planning in Gulf of California
Caspian Sea, the Arctic, and the Antarctic. Several of these Regional
New Zealand Ocean Survey 20/20 and National Ocean Policy
Seas Programmes, e.g., the Mediterranean and North East Atlantic, are
developing networks of MPAs that will use spatial planning and zon- The Netherlands Integrated Management Plan for North Sea 2015
ing as a core management strategy. United Kingdom MSP Pilot Project in Irish Sea and the Marine Bill
5 Examples of Marine Protected Areas Known to Use Zoning
In Annexes I, II and V, MARPOL 73/78
The International Maritime Organization’s (www.imo.org/Environ-
Belize Belize Barrier Reef
defines certain sea areas as «special ment/) Marine Environment Protection Committee issues guidelines
areas» in which, for technical reasons for the identification and designation of particularly sensitive seas ar- Ecuador Galápagos Marine Resources Reserve and Galápagos
relating to their oceanographic and
ecological condition and to their eas (PSSAs)5. A PSSA is an area that needs special protection through Whale Sanctuary
sea traffic, the adoption of special action by IMO because of its significance for recognized ecological Italy Miramare Biosphere Reserve and Marine Reserve
mandatory methods for the preven-
tion of sea pollution is required. or socio-economic or scientific reasons and that may be vulnerable Mexico Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve
Under the Convention, these special to damage by international maritime activities. The criteria for the
areas are provided with a higher The Netherlands Bonaire and Saba Marine Parks
level of protection than other areas
identification of particularly sensitive sea areas and the criteria for the
Antilles
of the sea. designation of special areas are not mutually exclusive. In many cases
a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area may be identified within a Special Palau Palau Marine Park
6
The following PSSAs have been Area and vice versa. IMO has approved the designation of 10 PSSAs6. Russian Federation Far East Marine and Commander Islands Biosphere
designated: the Great Barrier Reef, Reserves
Australia (designated in 1990 and
extended in 2005); the Sabana-Ca- The Philippines Tubbataha Marine Park
maguey Archipelago, Cuba (1997);
Malpelo Island, Columbia (2002), Tanzania Mafia Island Marine Park
the sea around the Florida Keys, USA
(2002); the Wadden Sea, Germany United States Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
& The Netherlands (2002); Paracas
United States Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary
National Reserve, Peru (2003); West-
ern European Waters (2004); Canary United States California Marine Life Protection Act Initiative (California
Islands, Spain (2005), the Galapagos
Archipelago, Ecuador (2005), and the
state waters)
Baltic Sea area, Denmark, Estonia, Viet Nam Ha Long Bay World Heritage Site and Hon Mun & Cu Lao
Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland and Sweden (2005). Cham Marine Parks
12 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial PlanningEcosystem-based Management (4) Identifies, safeguards, or where necessary and appropriate, re- Box 1.
(1) Protects ecosystem structure, functioning, and processes; covers or restores important components of marine ecosystems in- Definition of
(2) Recognizes inter-connectedness within and among systems; (3) cluding natural heritage and nature conservation resources; and (5)
Integrates ecological, social, economic, and institutional perspectives; Allocates space in a rational manner that minimizes conflicts of inter- Some Important
and (4) Is place-based or area-based (adapted from COMPASS, 2005). est and, where possible, maximizes synergy among sectors. Sea use Terms
management is an element of ecosystem-based management.
Sea Use Management
(1) Works toward sustainable development, rather than simply con- Marine Spatial Planning
servation or environmental protection, and in doing so contributes A process of analyzing and allocating parts of three-dimensional ma-
to more general social and governmental objectives; (2) Provides a rine spaces to specific uses, to achieve ecological, economic, and so-
strategic, integrated and forward-looking framework for all uses of cial objectives that are usually specified through the political process;
the sea to help achieve sustainable development, taking account of the MSP process usually results in a comprehensive plan or vision for
environmental as well as social and economic goals and objectives; a marine region. MSP is an element of sea use management.
(3) Applies an ecosystem approach to the regulation and manage-
ment of development and activities in the marine environment by Ocean Zoning
safeguarding ecological processes and overall resilience to ensure A regulatory measure to implement MSP usually consisting of a zon-
the environment has the capacity to support social and economic ing map and regulations for some or all areas of a marine region.
benefits (including those benefits derived directly from ecosystems); Ocean zoning is an element of marine spatial planning.
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 132 Introduction to Ecosystem-based
SEA USE MANAGEMENT
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 15Why Do We Need an Integrated Approach?
achieving sustainable use of eco-system goods and services and mainte-
Natural resource managers today, whether working on the land or in the nance of ecosystem integrity” (HELCOM-OSPAR, 2003).
sea, face formidable problems. Demand for natural resources, including
space, is accompanied by differing perceptions of their values, conflicts “Ecosystem approaches” are different things to different people and different
over their use, and concern about the natural and human environments disciplines. Although for some this variety is strength, overall it has probably
affected. These problems are exacerbated by fragmented jurisdiction neither increased the use nor the scientific respectability of ecosystem ap-
over the resource base, ambiguous government policies, lengthy review proaches.
processes and weak regulations.
Some key characteristics of ecosystem approaches would include:
Natural resource planners, developers and managers are responding to
these problems by seeking more integrated approaches that will en- • Describing parts, systems, environments and their interactions, i.e., a “sys-
able their projects and programs to deliver as many benefits as possible, tems” approach;
within acceptable limits of social and environmental impact, and with • Working through a holistic, comprehensive, trans-disciplinary approach;
minimum conflict and cost. • Defining the ecosystem naturally, e.g., bio-regionally, instead of politically;
• Looking at different levels/scales of system structure, process and func-
See Ehler and Douvere workshop presentation (2006) at http://ioc3.unesco. tion;
org/marinesp/. • Describing system dynamics, e.g., with concepts of homeostasis (i.e., the
ability to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting physiological process-
Why is Ecosystem-Based, Sea Use Management and Marine Spatial es), feedbacks, cause-and-effect relationships, self-organization, etc.);
Planning Important? • Including people and their activities in the ecosystem;
• Recognizing goals and taking an active, management orientation;
The evolution of marine spatial planning is an important step toward • Including actor-system dynamics and institutional factors in the analysis;
making “ecosystem-based, sea-use management” a reality. While initially • Using an anticipatory, flexible research and planning process;
the idea was stimulated by international and national interests in devel- • Entailing an implicit or explicit ethics of quality, well-being and integrity;
oping marine protected areas, e.g., the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park7 and
more recent attention has been placed on managing the multiple use • Recognizing systemic limits to action—defining and seeking sustainabil-
7 of marine space, particularly in areas where use conflicts are already clear, ity (Slocombe, 1993).
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park e.g., the North Sea.
was established in 1975. After
13 years its first zoning plan was How Can an Ecosystem Approach Be Implemented?
implemented in 1988, and partially Ocean space is a valuable resource—one that is increasingly over-used in
revised in 1998. A new compre-
hensive zoning approach, based on many places of the world’s oceans (e.g., the North Sea) and often poorly Gill Shepherd, Thematic Leader of the Ecosystem Approach, in IUCN’s Com-
a Representative Areas Programme, managed. mission on Ecosystem Management, has defined (from the Convention on
was approved in 2004 (Day, 2006).
The extent of no-take areas was
Biological Diversity) the “ecosystem approach” as a strategy for the integrated
increased from 5% to 33% of the What is an Ecosystem Approach to Management? management of land, water, and living resources that promotes conserva-
GBRMP, including representative tion and sustainable use in an equitable way. She goes on to identify
examples of each of the park’s 70
bioregions. Information on the RAP An ecosystem approach refers to “…the comprehensive integrated manage- five steps to implementing the 15 principles of the ecosystem approach
is available at: http://www.gbrmpa. ment of human activities based on the best available scientific knowledge (Shepherd, 2004). See Box 2.
gov.au. The area of the GBRMP is
345,200 km2; for comparison, the about the ecosystem and its dynamics, in order to identify and take action
area of the North Sea is 750,000 km2. on influences which are critical to the health of marine ecosystems, thereby
16 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial PlanningStep A. Determining the stakeholders and defining the eco- Step C. Economic Issues Box 2.
system area Principles Implementing
Principles Recognizing potential gains from management, there is usually a need the Ecosystem
1. The objectives of management of land, water, and living resources to understand and manage the ecosystem in an economic context. Approach
are a matter of societal choice Any such ecosystem management program should:
2. The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate 1. Reduce those market distortions that adversely affect biological (Source: IUCN, 2004)
spatial and temporal scales diversity;
3. The ecosystem approach should consider all forms of relevant infor- 2. Align incentives to promote biodiversity conservation and sustain-
mation, including scientific and indigenous and local knowledge, in- able use; and
novations, and practice 3. Internalize costs and benefits in the given ecosystem to the extent
4. The ecosystem approach should involve al relevant sectors of society feasible
and scientific disciplines
Step D. Adaptive management over space
Step B. Ecosystem structure, function, and management Principles
Management should be decentralized to the lowest appro- 1. Ecosystem managers should consider the effects (actual and poten-
priate level tial) of their activities on adjacent and other ecosystems
Principles 2. The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate
1. Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, to maintain spatial and temporal scales
ecosystem services, should be a priority target of the ecosystem
approach Step E. Adaptive management over time
2. Ecosystems should be managed within the limits of their functioning Principles
3. The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance be- 1. The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate
tween, and integration of, conservation and use of biological diversity spatial and temporal scales
2. Recognizing the varying temporal and lag effects that characterize
ecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem management should
be set for the long term
3. Management must recognize that change is inevitable
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 17Why Use “Sea Use Management” Instead of Ecosystem
This situation is made worse by the sector-by-sector responsibilities
Management?
for determining development applications in the marine environ-
Ecosystems and ecosystem components of marine areas cannot be ment. The time has come for a strategic and integrated plan-based
managed in themselves. Only people and their behavior toward approach for sea use management, instead of the piecemeal view,
the use of ocean space and resources can be managed. Sea use not the least so that commitments made in a number of impor-
management refers to the management of human uses of ocean tant international and national marine policy declarations, including
resources, including the use of ocean space, in such a way that eco- commitments to an “ecosystem approach,” can be fulfilled.
logical, social, and economic objectives are achievable. Sea use
8
management is used analogously to land use management in ter- Why Manage Human Activities in the Sea?
Most local jurisdictions in the US and
Western Europe have a “compre- restrial environments.
hensive plan”, a long-range policy Social demands for outputs (goods and services) usually exceed the
document that directs growth for
the next 20-50 years and beyond.
So What’s the Problem? Aren’t Many Uses of the Ocean capacity of the marine area to meet all of the demands simultane-
Especially in the US, these plans are Compatible with One Another? ously. Marine resources are often “common property resources” with
implemented principally through open or free access to users. Free access often, if not typically, leads
zoning and subdivision ordinances
and regulations. “Zoning” is the Many human uses of the sea can be—and are—compatible with to excessive use of the resources, e.g., over fishing, and eventual ex-
process by which a local jurisdiction one another, e.g., fishing and marine protected areas. On the oth- haustion of the resources. Because not all of the outputs from ma-
legally controls the use of property
and the physical configuration of er hand, however, human uses of ocean space often conflict with rine areas can be expressed in monetary terms, free markets cannot
development upon tracts of land one another (use-use conflicts) and some human uses are entirely perform the allocation tasks. Some process must be used to decide
within its jurisdiction. A zoning map
is usually approved when a local ju-
incompatible with maintaining critical ecosystem functions (use- what mix of outputs from the marine area will be produced.
risdiction adopts a zoning ordinance. environment conflicts).
This map divides the community into That process is sea use management—and marine spatial planning
zoning districts (zones). Each district
will carry a designation that refers to Many of these conflicts can be avoided or reduced through marine spa- is one of its important elements.
the zoning code regulations for that tial planning (MSP) by influencing the location of human activities in
district. By referring to this map, it is
possible to identify the use district space and time; other tools are needed to manage the performance of What Is the Purpose of Ecosystem-based, Sea Use
within which any parcel of land is human activities, e.g., to manage the quantity and quality of pollutant Management?
located. Then, by referring to the text
of the zoning code, it is possible to
discharges from these activities
discover the uses that are permitted The overall purpose of sea-use management is to work toward
within that district. Don’t We Already Designate Zones for Many Places in the Ocean? sustainable development9 rather than simply conservation or envi-
9 ronmental protection, and in doing so contribute to more general
Sustainable development does not Yes. Most countries already designate ocean space for marine trans- social and governmental objectives. Specifically, the purpose of sea
focus solely on environmental issues.
More broadly, sustainable develop- portation, oil and gas development, wind farms, aquaculture, waste use management is to:
ment policies encompass three disposal, and so on, but on a case-by-case, sector-by-sector basis. Com-
general policy areas: economic, en-
vironmental and social. In support of
prehensive MSP is rarely practiced today. • Provide a strategic, integrated and forward-looking framework
this, several UN texts, most recently for all uses of the sea to help achieve sustainable development,
the 2005 World Summit Outcome In many respects, ‘planning’ in the marine environment today resem- taking account environmental as well as social and economic
Document, refer to the «interde-
pendent and mutually reinforcing bles terrestrial planning in the 1970s8. With only a few exceptions, objectives;
pillars» of sustainable development no clearly articulated spatial visions exist for the use of marine areas, • Apply an ecosystem approach to the regulation and manage-
as economic development, social
development, and environmental no plan-based approach to management, and consequently, marine ment of development and activities in the marine environment
protection. developers and users face a lack of certainty. by safeguarding ecological processes and overall resilience to en-
18 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planningsure the environment has the capacity to support social and eco- • Maintain or improve marine environmental quality;
nomic benefits (including those benefits derived directly from • Result in sustained increases in human welfare (well being)11.
ecosystems);
• Identify, safeguard, or where necessary and appropriate, recover What Are the Natural or Ecological Goods and Services that
or restore important components of marine ecosystems includ- Come from Marine Ecosystems?
ing natural heritage and nature conservation resources; and
• Allocate space in a rational manner that minimizes conflicts of Ecological goods and services (EG&S) are the benefits arising from the
interest and, where possible, maximizes synergy among sectors ecological functions of healthy ecosystems. These benefits accrue to
[emphasis added]10 . all living organisms, including animals and plants, not only to humans
alone. However, there is a growing recognition of the importance to
Why Should Sea Use Management Be Ecosystem-based? society that the ecological goods and services provide for health, cul-
tural, social, and economic needs.
The marine environment is both an ecosystem and an interlocking
network of ecosystems. All the components of an ecosystem, includ- The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) identified four catego-
ing the human component, function together and interact to form an ries of EG&S’s:
integrated network. Ensuring the integrity of the ecosystems, restor-
ing when practicable and/or maintaining their characteristic structure • “Provisioning services” are products and services harvested or passively
and functioning, productivity and biological diversity, requires long- provided by ecosystems, including wildlife and plant products for food,
term integrated management of human activities, explicitly: fiber, and medicines, water, extracted minerals, and genetic resources;
• “Regulating services” regulate overall environmental conditions on
10
• Managing human activities to respect the capacity of ecosystems the Earth, such as maintenance of air and water quality, erosion con-
Adapted from the UK County Agen-
to fulfill human needs sustainably; trol, and storm protection provided by coral reefs and wetlands; cies Interagency Working Group on
• Recognizing the values of ecosystems, both in their continuing • “Cultural services” are the non-material benefits from ecosystems, MSP, 2005.
unimpaired functioning and specifically in meeting those human including spiritual and cultural benefits, unique knowledge systems, 11
needs; and diversity of cultures, languages, understandings, recreational de- Human well being depends on
• Preserving or increasing their capacity to produce the desired mands; and material welfare, health, good social
relations, security and freedom. All
benefits in the future (OSPAR, 2003). • “Supporting services,” maintain conditions for life on Earth, such as the of these are affected by changes in
production of oxygen and capture of carbon and nutrient cycling. ecosystem services, but also by the
supply and qualify of, for example,
Canada’s first integrated ocean management plan is an example of this social capital and technology. When
type of management approach. See Box 3. Isn’t Ecosystem-based, Sea Use Management Simply Another the supply of ecosystem services
exceeds the demand, an increase in
Term for Marine Protected Area Management? supply tends to enhance human well
What Are the Overall Goals of Sea Use Management? being only marginally. In contrast,
No. Ecosystem-based management is comprehensive and integrates when the service is in short supply,
a small decrease can substantially
Examples of the goals (that will obviously vary from place to place) across all economic sectors, including nature conservation. A protected reduce well being. The degradation
could include the management of human activities in the marine area is “an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection of ecosystem services is harming
many of the world’s poorest people,
environment in ways that: of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and is sometimes the principal factor
and managed through legal and other effective means.” (IUCN, 1994). The causing poverty. For example, the
• Sustain the long-run productivity of marine ecosystems that provide goal of MPAs, as seen by IUCN, is to conserve biological diversity and pro- declining state of capture fisheries is
reducing a cheap source of protein in
natural goods and services; ductivity, including ecological “life support” systems, of the oceans. developing countries.
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 19Box 3. The Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated Management (ESSIM) Initiative is In February 2005, the ESSIM Planning Office, housed in DFO Mari-
Canada’s a collaborative ocean planning process led and facilitated by Fisheries times’ Oceans and Coastal Management Division, presented an
and Oceans Canada (DFO), Maritimes Region, under Canada’s Oceans initial draft Integrated Ocean Management Plan to stakeholders
First
Act. The ESSIM Initiative was announced by the Minister of Fisheries and for review. Based on the generally positive feedback received, the
Integrated Oceans in December 1998 and followed the recommendation from the Planning Office launched a broad public review of the draft Plan
Ocean Sable Gully Conservation Strategy that integrated management ap- over the spring, summer, and fall of 2005. Following the public re-
Management proaches be applied to the offshore area around the Sable Gully Area of view, a group of stakeholders representing all major ocean sectors
Interest (AOI) under DFO’s Marine Protected Areas Program. and government agencies in the planning area was assembled
Plan
to consider the feedback received and to work with the Planning
The 1997 Oceans Act and its supporting policy, Canada’s Oceans Strat- Office to revise the draft Plan. In July 2006, this group, known as
egy, affirm DFO’s mandate as the lead federal authority for oceans and the Stakeholder Advisory Council, completed a final draft Plan
provide the national context for the Initiative. The principles and ap- that was released again for broader stakeholder and government
proaches of the Initiative are rooted in developing international ocean discussion. In November 2006, the Stakeholder Advisory Council
governance processes and Canada’s ocean-related international legal assembled a final set of amendments to the Plan and provided
commitments. DFO’s national Integrated Management Policy and Op- its endorsement of the document. In December 2006, the senior
erational Framework provides further guidance on the development intergovernmental Regional Committee on Ocean Management
of integrated management plans and processes under the Oceans Act. similarly provided its endorsement of the Plan. In February 2007,
Of particular importance is the commitment to establish Large Ocean the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans received letters from both
Management Areas (LOMAs) for all of Canada’s marine regions. groups endorsing the Plan and recommending that it be given
status as an Integrated Management Plan under Section 31 of the
The ESSIM planning process considers the ecosystem and all of its us- Oceans Act. The Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated Ocean Manage-
ers comprehensively. The Initiative brings regulatory authorities from all ment Plan is the product of an extensive collaborative and inclu-
levels of government together with a wide array of ocean stakeholders sive planning process. It has been shaped and accepted by stake-
to work collaboratively. This allows for a more coordinated, comprehen- holders, supported and endorsed by government authorities, and
sive and inclusive management approach and helps to prevent conflict formally recognized as Canada’s first Integrated Ocean Manage-
among different ocean users and between humans and the environ- ment Plan under the Oceans Act.
ment. The primary aim of the Initiative is to develop and implement
an Integrated Ocean Management Plan that will guide the sustainable Modified from DFO Canada’s Website,
use, conservation, and management of this large marine region. http://www.mar.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/e/essim/essim-plan-e.html.
20 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial PlanningBox 4.
1. HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS 2. SUSTAINABLE HUMAN USE Categories
of Goals and
A. Biodiversity A. Social and Cultural Well-being Objectives
• community diversity • sustainable communities
• incidental mortality • sustainable ocean/community relationships
• species at risk • safe, healthy and secure oceans
• invasive species
• genetic integrity B. Economic Well-being
• sustainable wealth generation from renewable ocean resources, non-
B. Productivity renewable ocean resources, ocean infrastructure, and ocean-related
• primary and secondary productivity activities
• tropic structure
• population productivity 3. COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE AND INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT
C. Marine Environmental Quality A. Integrated Management
• physical and chemical characteristics • building collaborative structures and processes
• habitat • appropriate legislation, policies, plans and programs
• noise • fulfillment of legal obligations and commitments
• wastes and debris • compliance and accountability of ocean users and regulators
• overall atmospheric pollution • stewardship and best practices
• reduction of multi-sectoral resource use conflicts
B. Information and Knowledge
• natural and social science research being responsive to knowledge
needs
• effective information management and communication
• timely monitoring and reporting
Adapted from Canada’s ESSIM Project, 2006
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 21Isn’t Ecosystem-based, Sea Use Management the Same as
While MPAs can be managed toward a range of goals, from strict nature
Integrated Coastal Zone Management?
protection (IUCN Category I) to sustainable, multiple use (IUCN Cat-
egory VI), their principal goal will be nature conservation and protection. Yes and no. Both involve a strategic approach; both are concerned
Ecosystem-based sea use management, including marine spatial planning, with the integration of different uses and activities—both aim to
tries to integrate multiple objectives across sectors, including MPAs. avoid conflict. However, the definition of the boundaries of coastal
management has been limited in scope traditionally. In most places
Isn’t Ecosystem-based, Sea Use Management the Same as an of the world, coastal management has focused on a narrow strip of
Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management? coastline, typically within a kilometer or two from the shore and oc-
casionally focusing on a water body such as an estuary. Rarely have
No. The goal of ecosystem-based management is to conserve the struc- the inland boundaries of coastal management included coastal wa-
ture, diversity and functioning of ecosystems through management ac- tersheds or catchments areas, although that is changing in some
tions that focus on the biophysical components of ecosystems. places due to concerns about nonpoint source runoff, e.g., pollu-
tion from agriculture. Even more rarely does coastal management
Fisheries management aims to meet the goals of satisfying societal and extend into the territorial sea and/or beyond to the exclusive eco-
human needs for food and economic benefits through management nomic zone.
actions that focus on the fishing activity and the target resource. The pur-
pose of an ecosystem approach to fisheries is to plan, develop, and man- Ecosystem-based, sea use management focuses on marine places in
age fisheries in a manner that addresses the multiple needs and desires which the boundaries are ecologically meaningful and ensures integra-
of societies, without jeopardizing the options for future generations to tion with coastal and inland areas. Marine spatial planning is a critical
benefit from the full range of goods and services provided by the marine element of sea use management.
ecosystem (FAO 2003).
22 Visions for a SEA CHANGE – Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning3 Ecosystem-based Sea Use Management and
MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING
Report of the First International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning – Visions for a SEA CHANGE 23What is Marine Spatial Planning?
• Guidelines, e.g., best environmental practices/codes of practice or
Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a process for regulating, managing and conduct;
protecting the marine environment that addresses the multiple, cumu- • Surveillance and enforcement sanctions (e.g., fines, cancellation of
lative and potentially conflicting uses of the sea (Defra, 2005). MSP in permits);
its broadest sense is about analyzing and allocating parts of the three- • Technical assistance; and
dimensional marine space to specific uses, to achieve ecological, eco- • Education and outreach.
nomic, and social objectives that are usually specified through the po-
litical process. MSP is place–or area-based and can provide a practical What Can Marine Spatial Planning Do? And What Can’t It Do?
approach to long-term ecosystem-based management. MSP should
be comprehensive and adaptive, and resolve conflicts among multiple Marine spatial planning can be used to analyze and assess the need for
uses and the ecosystem. ocean space by current and future human activities. It can be used to
assess the cumulative impacts in space and time of current and future
The overall aim of MSP is to create and establish a more rational organi- economic developments on ecological processes in ocean areas and
zation of the use of marine space and the interactions between its uses, their resources. It can be used to identify compatibilities and conflicts
to balance demands for development with the need to protect the en- among uses and between uses and the environment. It can be used
vironment, and to achieve social and economic objectives in an open to allocate space to different uses and therefore control the location of
and planned way. A comprehensive plan, developed in consultation and specific human activities in time and space.
agreement with relevant stakeholders, should provide a firm basis for ra-
tional and consistent decisions on permit applications, and allow users of However, it cannot be used to control the performance or behavior
the sea to make future decisions with greater knowledge and confidence of human activities in terms of the production of goods and services.
(Defra, 2005). Other tools or management measures mentioned in the previous sec-
tion must be used in conjunction with marine spatial planning.
Marine spatial planning is only one of the tools with which to establish
ecosystem-based, sea-use management. Other tools include: Does Marine Spatial Planning Always Need Zoning?
• Sea use management plans, including comprehensive marine spa- There are a number of elements to marine spatial planning without pro-
tial plans, as one element; ceeding as far as a comprehensive zoning plan and regulations. It is also
• Zoning maps and regulations; clear that there is no prerequisite for marine spatial planning to proceed as
• Site plans; far as prescribed spatial allocations. It might instead simply indicate prefer-
• Infrastructure investments/capital facilities siting; ences or priorities (such ‘indicative planning’ would not prevent users from
• Special management areas; applying to use other areas including an area indicatively allocated to an-
• Regulations; other use. Equally, zoning may not need to apply across the whole plan
• Standards (ambient water quality standards, sediment quality stan- area in the sense that specific ‘zones’ might be identified, e.g., a conserva-
dards); tion priority zone, among one general ‘zone’ that covers most of the area.
• Permits (construction permits, pollution discharge permits, operat-
ing permits); Don’t We Already Have “Zones” in the Ocean?
• Economic instruments (e.g., development charges, other user charg-
es, license or permit fees, grants, subsidies, taxes, depletion allow- Yes, at a global scale the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
ances, tax credits); (UNCLOS), which went into effect in 1994, provides an over-arching
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